INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

DEFINITION OF TERMS

i) Computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts and processes data into information and under the control
of instructions stored in its own memory and output or store the results for future use.

NB: An electronic device is a device that depends on the principles of electronics and uses the manipulation
of electron flow for its operation.

ii) Data
Data are raw, unprocessed and unorganized (unstructured) facts and figures that are relatively
meaningless to the user. E.g. number of hours worked by an employee.

iii) Information
Information is derived from data. This is data that is processed, organized/structured and
presented in a given context so as to make it useful. e.g., multiplying the hours worked by the
hourly rate to get each employee’s gross earning. Information is an important component in
decision making.

For example from a students test scores, the following information can be derived:
a) Class' average score
b) Most improved student
c) Median Score etc.
 USES OF INFORMATION
(a) Decision-making
When managers are ready to make choices (decisions) they need good, accurate and up-to-date
information. If they act without relevant information it could lead to disaster, and failure.
(b) Monitoring and control
Businesses will compare actual performance against its predicted (budgeted) performance. Then they
will act upon it.

iv) Information Communication Technology/Technologies (ICT)

ICT is an umbrella term that covers any software or hardware product that can store, retrieve,
manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form. Examples include
personal computers, digital television, email, robots, radio, cellular phones and networking
hardware.
For our study, we are concerned with computer (hardware and software) and telecommunications
technology (data, image, and voice networks).

v) Information System (IS)

An Information System (IS) is a combination of hardware, software, personnel, data and
procedures that interact to support and improve day-to-day operations in an organization. These
elements of an Information System are also known as the components of an Information System.
Characteristics of High Quality Data

The Audit Commission has identified six key characteristics of good quality data.
a) Accuracy
Data should be sufficiently accurate for the intended use and should be captured only once, although it
may have multiple uses. Data should be captured at the point of activity.

b) Validity
Data should be recorded and used in compliance with relevant requirements, including the correct
application of any rules or definitions. This will ensure consistency between periods and with similar
organizations, measuring what is intended to be measured.
 c) Timeliness
Data should be captured as quickly as possible after the event or activity and must be available for the
intended use within a reasonable time period. Data must be available quickly and frequently enough to
support information needs and to influence service or management decisions.

d) Relevance
Data captured should be relevant to the purposes for which it is to be used. This will require a periodic
review of requirements to reflect changing needs.

e) Completeness
Data requirements should be clearly specified based on the information needs of the organization and
data collection processes matched to these requirements.

f) Uniqueness
In order to add value to an organization, information must be unique and distinctive.

A BRIEF COMPUTER HISTORY

The abacus, which emerged about 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in use today, may be
considered the first computer. This device allows users to make computations using a system of
sliding beads arranged on a rack; it was simply a counting device.

The Abacus

It took long for the next significant advance in computing devices to emerge. In 1642, Blaise
Pascal (1623-1662), the 18-year-old son of a French tax collector, invented what he called a
numerical wheel calculator to help his father with his duties but which used eight movable dials
to add sums up. It was not until the 1940s that the electronic computers emerged.
In the 1820s, Charles Babbage designed the ‘Difference Engine’, a machine which could
perform mathematical calculations. A six-wheeled model was initially constructed and
demonstrated to a number of audiences. He also worked on another invention, the more complex
Analytical Engine, a revolutionary device which was intended to be able to perform any
arithmetical calculation using punched cards that would deliver the instructions, as well as a
memory unit to store numbers and many other fundamental components of today's computers.
Lady Ada produced programs to be used by the analytical machine. She is claimed to be
possibly the first programmer.

Five Generations of Modern Computers

Modern computers can be classified into five generations.

First generation: 1946-1959.

First generation of computers started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components for
memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric bulbs
produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were
very expensive and could be afforded only by very large organizations. The Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was announced in 1946. It cost almost
$500,000 (approximately $6,000,000 today). The computer contained 17,468 vacuum tubes and
consumed 150 kW of electricity.

Another example of computers in this generation was the UNIVersal Automatic Computer I
(UNIVAC) which used 5200 vacuum tubes and weighed 13 metric tons. It consumed 125 kW,
and could perform about 1,905 operations per second.

Vacuum Tubes

In this generation mainly batch processing of data was done. In this generation Punched cards,
Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used. It is said that this computer
weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which were used for processing. When this
computer was turned on for the first time lights dimmed in sections of Philadelphia. Computers
of this generation could only perform a single task at a time, and they had no operating system.
NB: Batch processing- Executing a series of non-interactive jobs all at one time.

Second generation: 1959-1965.

Computers in this generation using the transistor were cheaper, consumed less power, more
compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum
tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and
magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.

A Transistor

In this generation assembly languages and high level programming languages like FORTRAN
and COBOL were used. Examples of computers in this generation include IBM 300 series and
the ATLAS.
NB: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical
power.
The difference between a transistor and a vacuum tube is that a transistor uses a sandwich of silicon instead
of tube filled with gas to do the switching. Silicon falls into a family of elements that are neither conductor
nor insulator; they’re called semiconductors. This type of element will be either a conductor or an insulator
depending on some condition. In the case of transistors, an electrical current will cause the silicon to be a
conductor.

Third Generation: 1965-1971.

The third generation of computers is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of
transistors. A single I.C has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated
circuitry. The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in
size, reliable and efficient.

In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming

Operating System were used. High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL
PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation

NB:
o A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element.

o A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used

to store energy electrostatically in an electric field.
Fourth Generation: 1971-1980.
The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated
(VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their
associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation.
Fourth Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a
result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.

In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were used.
All the High level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation

Fifth Generation: 1980-todate.

In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
components or more.

This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)

software.

AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making
computers think like human beings. All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net
etc. are used in this generation
THE TREND IN THE COMPUTER’S TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION

 Continual decrease in computer size

 Improved speed and power of processing
 Decrease in computer’s power consumption and its related facilities cost
 Number of components per circuit (IC) greatly increased.

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

 Processing capability/Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of
processing, measured as number of instructions executed per second.
 Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they will always
give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the inaccuracies, which
could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected and their consequences avoided
in a way, which is completely transparent to the user.
 Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce exactly the
same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
 Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure of one of
the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.
 Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data.
 Computer can operate in risky environments e.g. volcanic sites, lethal chemical plants, where it ’s
risky for humans to operate.
 Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
 Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired.
  Helps to cut on wage bills by reducing manpower.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

 Initial cost of installation is high
 Can result to retrenchment of staff
 Computerization projects are not always cost-effective
 In case the computers break down or malfunction, it might be extremely difficult to revert back to the
old manual system. For this reason, stand by procedures are necessary, but expensive.
 Can compromise security of data stored or being transmitted.
 Computerization leads to cyber-crime e.g. pornography etc
 They present a health hazard for example eye strain, trigger-finger syndrome and addiction
 Due to the rapid change in the computer technology, the computer and related facilities can become
outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss and cost of upgrading.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:

Classification by size and capability

a) Supercomputers. The largest and most powerful. Used to process large amounts of data very
quickly. They use extremely fast processors that are built for speed and are used for processor-
intensive calculations such as nuclear reaction simulations and global weather pattern modeling.
Useful for meteorological or astronomical applications. Examples include Cray and Fujitsu.

b) Mainframe computers. Large computers in terms of price, power and size. Require a carefully
controlled environment and specialist staff to operate and used for centralized processing for large
commercial organizations. They are designed to provide maximum throughput for a simultaneous
variety of workloads. They can also support a large number of terminals and have large on-line
secondary storage capacities. Manufacturers include International Business Machine (IBM).

c) Minicomputers. Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere between mainframes and
microcomputers. Used as departmental computers in large organizations or as the main computer in
medium-sized organizations. Manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM and International
Computer Limited (ICL).

d) Microcomputers. These are the personal computers commonly used for office and leisure activities
i.e. they are designed for an individual. Examples include Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell.
They include desktops, laptops, palmtops and notebooks.
Examples of computers in this category include:

OTHERS
I. LAPTOPS
 Are among the smallest in modern world and have very large-scale circuit integration. They
have low memory and are portable.
 The main difference between the microcomputer and the laptop is the size. They are portable.
 Expandability and the number of devices supported by the laptops are also limited
 They run on battery power, but can also be plugged into a wall outlet.
 They typically have a built-in LCD display that folds down to protect the display when the
computer is carried around.
  They also feature a built-in keyboard and some kind of built-in pointing device (such as a
touch pad).

II. PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANT (PDA)

 It is a handheld microcomputer that trades off power for small size and greater portability.
 They typically use a touch-sensitive LCD screen for both output and input (the user draws
characters and presses icons on the screen with a stylus).
 PDAs communicate with desktop computers and with each other either by cable connection,
infrared (IR) beam, or radio waves.
 PDAs are normally used to keep track of appointment calendars, to-do lists, address books,
and for taking notes.

III. PALMTOP OR HANDHELD PC

 It is a very small microcomputer that also sacrifices power for small size and portability.
These devices typically look more like a tiny laptop than a PDA, with a flip-up screen and
small keyboard.
 They may use Windows CE or similar operating system for handheld devices.
 Some PDAs and palmtops contain wireless networking or cell phone devices so that users can
check e-mail or surf the web on the move.

Classification by way of processing data (Type of data handled)

This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.

a) Digital computers
Digital computers process data represented in binary format using the numbers 0 and 1. They are used
for both business data processing and scientific purposes since digital computation results in greater
accuracy than analog computers. They also can perform complex computations. They are the most
commonly used type of computers.

b) Analog computers
These are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled purposes. Outputs are represented in
the form of graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by physical variables and output
physical magnitudes in the form of smooth graphs. These physical changes include changes in
electronic voltages, pressure changes, temperature changes etc. Analog values, unlike digital values,
are typically many values in a range. Examples of analogue devices include car speedometer and the
slide rule.

c) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of digital and analog computers;
hybrid computing offers both speed and precision. They offer an efficient and economical method
of working out special problems in science and various areas of engineering.

Consider the difference between two common types of light switches: a standard light switch and a
dimmer switch. The standard light switch has only two values: on and off. As a rule, at any one time
the switch will be in either one position or the other. This is similar to digital electrical signals, which
have discrete values (like on and off). By way of comparison, the dimmer switch starts at off , but can
be changed gradually to stronger and stronger intensities, up to the full on setting. At any one instant,
a dimmer switch can have a setting almost anywhere between on and off. This is similar to an analog
electrical signal, which may be on or off or somewhere in between.
 NB/ The main feature that distinguishes digital from analog computers is the nature of the signals.
Digital signals have two discrete states, on or off. Analog signals are continuous. An analog signal’s
voltage may be constant or vary with time.

Classification by purpose
This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.

a) Special purpose/ Dedicated computers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in medicine,
engineering, manufacturing. Embedded systems are examples of special purpose computers.

b) General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks e.g. accounting, word processing
etc.

ROLE OF ICT IN A BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

The use of ICT and technology has affected every aspect of business, transforming not only the way that
business is conducted but also creating new business sectors and jobs. Examples are companies like Google,
Amazon, Safaricom M-Pesa and e-Bay.
Some examples of the nature of this change include:

Marketing and eCommerce: The use of websites has allowed companies to develop new and
cheaper ways of reaching new markets, offering customers the opportunity of buying goods and
services whenever they want and often at reduced cost, while also enhancing the level of customer
service.

Finance: Practically all companies now use software programmes e.g. Sage, QuickBooks and Excel
to manage their accounts. This has allowed them to look at financial information when required,
monitor and respond to their customers purchasing patterns. The result of this has been for many
companies a reduction in their accountancy fees.

Out of office working: For many businesses the need for staff to be away from the office attending
meetings or to be based in another geographical location has grown alongside employee demands for
more flexible working patterns. However effective communication and ability to access information
remains critical to the productivity of these staff members. Therefore through the use of technology
many companies now use a range of technologies to enable this. These include mobile phones, e-
mail, broadband, laptops, etc, thus ensuring that companies are able to be flexible and adaptive
depending on their business needs.

Networks: Virtually all businesses now have or have access to a computer. The existence of two or
more computers in an office almost always leads to the creation of a network. The main advantage of
doing so is that resources can be shared e.g. printers, internet access, files/information can be
managed and shared amongst workstations and the security of information can be better managed
through a network. Increasingly, networks are not just confined to the office but are being adopted so
that they allow home/remote working that supports changing business needs.

Inventory management
Inventory management systems track the quantity of each item a company maintains, triggering an
order of additional stock when the quantities fall below a predetermined amount
 Customer Relationship Management
Customer Relationship Management systems store every interaction a company has with a customer
for future reference. The customer has a better, more focused experience and the company benefits
from improved productivity.

Payroll Systems
A payroll system is used to maintain pay accounts of employees, easily and quickly.

Human Resource Management

HRIS help in recruitment, Human Resource Planning, wage and salary planning, personnel record
keeping and training and development.

ROLE OF ICT IN THE SOCIETY

1. Industry and commerce
 It has made the industry and commerce more efficient, productive and reliable
 Leading companies use computer technology as a competitive tool to develop new products and
services
 They are used in manufacturing to schedule operations and process control

2. Health care
 Used in medical automation in the areas of automatic diagnosis, electro-cardiogram screening and
monitoring
 Storage of medical records on patients
 Used in inter-country aided surgeon operations

3. Government Institutions
  Used heavily in government ministries such as finance, planning & education to store records and
improve work efficiency
4. Education and research
 Used in education as training aid, and in research institutions. Long distance learning (e-learning) has
replaced the old international correspondence courses offered by postage.
 It is used in aviation to train pilots using flight simulators.
 Engineers and architects use computers to design, test and re-design.

5. Communication Industry
 In telecommunication industry, it is used in control of exchange switch
 Railway corporations rely heavily on computers to co-ordinate the movement of their wagons and
goods
 Air traffic controllers use it for airspace surveillance using radar equipment

6. Police and defense

 Computers are currently used in fighting crime
 Police are capable of keeping database of finger prints which are automatically analysed by computers
 Integration of computer technology and defense has produced modern military

7. Home and leisure (entertainment)

 Computer can be used for home shopping
 There are also entertainment information for those looking for leisure as well as a host of games
 They have also been used to help handicapped e.g. instant speech are turned into text on the screen to
help deaf, while text are turned into simulated speech for the blind.
8. Employment
 Employment in the computer industry world wide has increased by 20% during 1980s to higher
percentages
 In South East Asia countries, 60% of employment opportunities are today in the computing industry.

Internet addiction disorder (IAD) is now more commonly called problematic internet use (PIU) or
compulsive internet use (CIU). Other overlapping terms include internet overuse, problematic computer use
or pathological computer use – and even iDisorder. These terms refer to excessive computer use that
interferes with daily life.

Internet addiction includes:

a) Cybersexual addiction: compulsive use of adult websites for cybersex and cyber porn.
b) Cyber-relationship addiction: Over-involvement in online relationships.
c) Net compulsions: Obsessive online gambling, shopping or day-trading.
d) Information overload: Compulsive web surfing or database searches.
e) Computer addiction: Obsessive computer game playing.
THE FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Computer System

System Unit

Arithmetic & Logic

Unit

Control Unit

Input Main Memory Output

Devices (Primary storage) Devices

Secondary Communication
Storage Devices Devices

Key
Flow of Information

Flow of Instructions
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) – This is the part of the computer that processes data. Consists of
the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit.
o Control Unit – Controls execution of programs. The control unit does not execute
program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system to do so.
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs actual processing of data using program
instructions.
o Registers – Temporary and very fast storage areas for instructions and data
 Main Memory – Temporary storage to hold programs and data during execution/ processing.
 Output devices – Displays information processed by the computer system.
 Storage devices – Permanent storage of data and programs before and after it is processed by the
computer system.
 Communication devices – Enable communication with other computers.
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hard ware refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide
support for major functions such as input, processing (internal storage, computation and
control), output, secondary storage (for data and programs), and communication.

Basic Computer Parts

System Unit

The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or
underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process data. The
most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor,
which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random access memory
(RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The
information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.

Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables
plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not
part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device. Peripheral devices can be
external such as a mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor, external Zip drive or scanner or internal,
such as a CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive or internal modem. Internal peripheral devices are often
referred to as integrated peripherals. There are two types according to shape: tower and
desktop.

A motherboard (mainboard, system board, planar board or logic board) is the main printed
circuit board found in computers and other expandable systems. It holds many of the crucial
electronic components of the system, such as the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and
provides connectors for other peripherals.

The Power Supply

Power supplies, often referred to as "switching power supplies", use switcher technology to
convert the AC input to lower DC voltages, a form that is usable by the Personal computer. The
typical voltages supplied are:

 3.3 volts
 5 volts
 12 volts

The 3.3- and 5-volts are typically used by digital circuits, while the 12-volt is used to run motors
in disk drives and fans. The main specification of a power supply is in watts.

Uninterruptible Power Supply

An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or

battery/flywheel backup is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load
when the input power source, typically mains power, fails. The device allows the computer to
keep running for at least a short time when the primary power source is lost. It also provides
protection from power surges. A UPS contains a battery that "kicks in" when the device senses a
loss of power from the primary source.