(Atuyanmed ea” CAPACITOR: A_clevice_which is _usea!_fon Stoning electrical charge __is fas capactbr. a PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR: A_parallel_phte capacilon consists 2 two parallel metal plates _ separealed by small clistance. A medium between plates is_air. on some_offier medium called_ dielectric. ati i ke : . ‘ilon_is_charged_by connecting ie pots tgp tal lb. + Some_electvons_are_transferred — -ftome_one_plale_to_oThier_plate_ trrough_baitery- -Posilive_and_negalive_change_ twill_appean._on—plales. + L4utial abtraction between charges Keep them bound _on_imner_suapce of wo plates amd charge storect- [CAPACITOR -a =e iv | ff] i] 4 i H Hl v is th e_sloned_on -plale_of capacilon_amd Vv" 1s_potential_clifferonce. between_plales of capacilah . Ao Vi eT. Q=CV__4¢ C's constant of proporiionali cH tte cigecke —_Ca0__,if capacitance: ¥_ Katio_of change Stored b the potential difference belween_ plates_is called capacitance. of ca-paci'lon- DE ISE Yo SSSST RSS -Area_of plate. - Separation belween. plates. SSeS SessEsDO Jo produce "4" potential difference between plates of -capacibon, the amount. of charge stored will be equal to capacitance. 2A potentiaD diference fs 4 volt. Gear aK S16 GeTGE Weg ¢ ~h.2F »C=4822F ,¢ 24 oF SLunit of Capacitance "Fayad” CAPACITANCE DEPENDS _ON_ »Medium_loelween_plates.Aeiyamed RRL xh Enegy Mored tua Fopactlod. Fe_work_ done ia_ changin _ ee— a =? VaEd the_capacklar appear as “electuic. tential 4 Ul as aL (AEG a ee ae Dest sy Mire dye : U= cyy U =LE*EsEy Ad oe ¥eV Vv IZ]A ! U= cg 2: : ot! | { FE 7 / & Energy Densily silt Aa * Ve S Us Enea Vv hp ecg) VoLume PESUEW Us s{z] Ux LE Eby Wa). yew V=W, =@© yet aq * 2 taal 3 “(yy = Wr Le \ -Le etre WwW ne ae ekg UW Leety 5 Va = ory y Using 4D us ye 2X (Emre Ube v po\@ Atianmed Official = C= INDUCED EMF: dt_can_be defined as generation's § of potential difference in a c due to change in magnetic flux through it is called induced EMF. "EME ‘is said to be induced when inking wilh a. conductor or Flux coil_is_ changed. STATICALLY INDUCED EMF: EMF induced in a conductor by moving a magnet across a stationary conductoy. DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF: -EMF induced in a conductor_by moving it across a_stationavy -amogmet is called dynamicall “rdoced emf. 7 -MOTIONAL EMF -When a conductor moves acyoss ‘mogmetic field, potential differeme appears acyoss its ends which is called motioned emf. ‘PROOF: ‘e.work done_in_-moving a; POWER: ' charge from M'to'N’. {Rate of work don= Fy +0 We Ycos0’ Rate of production of { eketvical energy = IB0/0_ Accovdling to law of consewation. of energy constant velocity ‘V’ then. charge particle gq’ in the conductor _ experiences a force equal to = V(vx8)=avesine wAs a yesult 4ve charges migrate to one end of conductor. __! porpendiculay to field. Concentvation of charge produced’ Em,,= VLBSin90° yak one end amd deficiency oti Enz VOB —+% ‘ offier end. ‘MIN. EMF: © This distribution of charge sets upt_Whem conductov moves 1 a potentia? diference. Known 1 Povallel to field. 1 aS motional ” emf- t Ennin=V2BSinO%= Os!Atif/Alimed Ca MUTUAL INDUCTION :- The phenomenon. in which _a_changing— currerit in one coil induces __am_emf _ in_am other coil is called mutual induction. imory Coil seo Pata DERIVATION: Tf_curtent_is_constamt_then_mo chonge_influx.__ = I,=¢onstamt __, Ag,=0 chamge_in current will produce chamge in flux - AQ & AT, _ for ‘mn’ number of Loops a - NAge AL, 1 N,A¢= MAT, —.@ — According te Favadays Law - f=-thees et ! HENRY: wines At {One henry_is the mutual inductance .of eG AI) he poit Sf cols in ahh the ate of AE { change_of current_of_one_ampete_per ~ cond_in_the _primray_coil —&,= m(A) —* {cause —am_ induced” ern of ane =— {volt _in__the_secondyay coil.__ This_equation_shows that_induced_emf F in_secondavy_coil_is_ proportional to te 1 of change of current in_the_primavy,_ coi FACTORS AFFECTING: Moe Number_of turns “N”. + ———_" _ ~ Area. of the coil. MUTUAL-INDUCTANCES | 3. Closeness of the calls. AThe_vatio_of_emnf_induced_in_the__| 4,_Natue_of core rmaterigl, -secondary_coil_to__the_vate_of _chamge. of! -Current_in_the_primayy_cotl__is_called_ _mutual_inductamee (M4), UNIT : 2 ' As, M=Ss. = Gxat : G5 SE —Dnit of “M” = Vxs = Vs" =Hemry(H)I WORKING PRINCIPE: (AE Ceneraler | 'DERIVATION: Motionad emf along fpuy 1 Sides of coil ‘ABCD’ ll + Ex = VEBSinO Leena iE | At amgle 0 =0° I=1.Sin0 = 0 fat angle @-90 © T=J.Sin90'e Te At amgle 8 =180 At_amale 9270 I angie 6 = 360 I Ag + Exp Eng Wl85in6§ }€yp--0__"n=p LE sE wtb act EE 1 € = MOBSino+O+VIBSinO+O 1 € = 2vtesind— tip {MASNETS: Magnets ave used for ‘As we know that "Vey" 1 41, strong uniform mognelic. field 1 = RrwlOsind IP_RINGS? Ends of armature are. ol 1 € a(2vf)wesind ' = cpssind —_*A=(27)(2) When armature is rotated | foy_‘N’ numberof turns at constant angular speed wi! € = NABSinO —stih in applied magnetic. field {If @=90_€° is maximum: t between mnovth and south; E,=NWABSin90'= NWAB | FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCED EMF: _ i) become. les. The magnetic flux _! so, Equation inking the coll changes. | € =E,SinO,[E-ESinoutl+diy {This change in fux induces! fyom_ohmis law E=1R, connected with two vings RGR. {WORKING: ~ 1 BRUSHES? Two stationary cavbor brushes ‘B; and 8, incontact { with slip vings are sesponsible te provide induced curent fe ‘armature to external cir ' ' ' 7 t te ' ‘ ' ! tL 'SSA IO ase aoe LLLLZ LI See) RC-SERIES CIRCUIT : A cwevit in which am ny = (Bose (Reoph alterating voltage source : g i WY = (Vey+(Vy Phasor diagram shows that current "”d age : v Va is connected in series i : Rand’C” ave in series {lead voltage by >. with resistor amd capacitor. ; \ 1 $0, sarme current * I i P=1VCosp : i Gzy=(RY+Uxey $ P = cose : g TP pe tere a a ‘ ' PRPs} =LM Cre @ ' voi Bi = R+Xe P= s& Cos — *k “ {RESULTS j 2 {Rae GRAPH: ‘ Tn am RE circuit current _| VECTOR REPRESENTAT IO ‘Teads the voltage by am AC through pure resistive ! angle. — 0<90" | -cirevit. ¢-0° ————> ‘ { IMPEDANCE: on__Z = ARP acy * eine Diagram: AC ret pee eioctlve The combined effect of Creu ire and_yeactamce ) | se ve 113 Known as. rmpedance. = AC romh RC- re 1 SE is demoted by ‘Zz’ circuit. . T f 6 —, ‘ —1 Ve <if/Ahmed| ° F RL erier SE Circuit? fe (hyp = (Basel (Resp) wy = (Vey +(MY i Rand’L” ove in series 1 0, same current “I” (1z) = (IR) + (IX. TZ 2TR4 TX? RL-SERIES CIRCUIT : A_ circuit in which am eet voltage source { is comected in series with resistor amd inductor. ‘ Phasor diagram shows that voltoge ‘lead current by >. P=IVCos =I. P Eels} Zs R+Xe P= le Cos —+* Z_ =f R*XE GRAPH: = nom RL circuit voltage | oe _Z ={REAWOL)* VECTOR REPRESENTATION: | leads ‘the current by an_| Impedamce.Diagrom: AC through pure resistive jangle. — 0% <20" _ fA Circuit. $0) ————* 7 IMPEDANCE: AC through pure inductive ! The combined effect of circuit. | VI ‘ vesistamce amd veactamce 9:90 | oo! i re ‘ AC through RL-Sevies St is denoted by ‘z' circuit. : ' v ' 4 X - iAen abmed _ohves@ CN GMs DAMS Y. Al Le IZA Rescnance- in RLC RLC SERIES RESONANCE RLC PARALLEL RESONANCE RLC series circvit_is said to be in yvesonance when X.= Xe De | A circuit in which am AC source is connected to a ae The bequency, at which it capacitor amd inductor in parallel is called RLC’ circuit, — is cal ce epency : A. freapemey f," at which X.=X. is fesonamce Freqency, vod, mex . 7 LR L pera | Neve REL -C (é) Hg C _, BIE vs oe ; —&: pete I rs | ee PHAS! as ee PHASOR_ DIAGRAM. a PHASOR DIAGRAM: | _ Es __ H z (PROPERTIES ) Z = tp = impedamce_is maximum _at_yesonamce___ (PROPERTIES) | V1, |“frenuemey amd civeuit ig Yesete wt} : sImpedance at yesonamce is resistive _7, aa 7 4 Mok 4 | So, Lamd V is inphase. Cosp=1 # : A At resonarice current is _ménimurt_ at ~Tesonamce frequen R SSSESSSSOX) RESONANCE FREQUENCY yond I ond V inghase Ab Yesonomce Te and I. may each be _ aeaRe +At_constamt souvee voltage current X= is | thom source curent I. = IMPEDANCE: is maximum at yesonamee- | WL = auc Resonance freyoney fy = BeARHORRT «Ak Yesomomce, Vand Ve may be 2MfL = bo" UNE aq YE Xv= Xe | much larger tham source voltage . Pod ZAR HK 2} 2} zt Z=AR HOF | es Ae Re. 4¥ 3x1. Re =2kS =AR by 7 i* Ott ‘Bt ZAR | oe ie tare “Tiga FE ZR sv | “Sts Zi = WO = 25.2SS = | i Strain energy The potential energy Stored in the body because. ef an elocte delermatiom is Cllsd Steain orergy This Skain tnergy & equal, to the werk, dene ty Produce the deformation. Explanatiem = To Shel a wire eerie % the wire is Stored ar Strain Provided. fre. elastic limit ts not ercecded in the Stretching Process. epived. . Th ener gg supplied. to Stretch, = Gansider a waive off lngth which & Secpandrd vee with ene end fired 4 0 rigid Seppe This wire % Stated 4 attaching @ load of it; Juny end. if $e Srebshing fire. & honed by innrtating Be lead the etlentn clio incveays with in He closbic limit,if the doce bmik bs ‘Mek exceeded than He evlension i, det Propettiomal + applied fore energy. this Stain energy Gan be recoveredMathematical Devivation . => When the lead i mot alladhed fo wire Tha few. on it % ore (F-0) -» Buk whin lead. i allpded fo ching ie bevee on FH martmum (Fay =F) > Averoge fore om the wire while Shetehing : Fay. OF 2 F g : Elie i nw “z / cl: +18 oj, e ed 2 because. of an clacti hain trergy 6 equal, fo ee t ene Supplitd to Strain energy Gn be 6 in the Stabching Py ‘ 7 | Werke denn ty this average Fer Strain energt= area of Mingle OF nde wed yf x. p Werk Loverarye farts) 2(€ ed by allechny NS , ed by inert w-Fye mmik if the Saag ao Propettic Werk [Shain ergy = 3 Fe| Th Lb mot Celt ding Be eben “action te be fn Cattle avrg Smal erent Shierlemien) oy lamina energy Pox wil. Volume Stun energy Stuim energy Strain ene qq Por unit volume » 1 Strain cory ‘ad Yolame (Stree Stain) 3Tneop) erent ym ‘ons, on isolated ober, are ee “ucla, cad te opi ae disid latest atom: Spl inlo N- Sublevel, Called Stultz forts, erected. by other abom: im solids iY Banbs| There. permivible eneray stolex ar. dicerete bud so dowel4 spared thal: they OpPenr to form a Gntinuous emery burl [Feepinven Energy Gap befarm. a Solid.cauh energy vel of th under the ation of the Gh In belueen two Gnvuhve Permvelble energy bards theve ic © range of eneryy States whith Cannot be occupied, by eletrans, Tiese are Called faroiddan energy Stabe and its range i termed. ot forbidden energy Gap. VALANCE BAND C 1 BAND % The hight ocupid bord i: Glled Valance band, # The bound above the valunce bond. ts GMed. Goduvdicn ba & Te debren, owspied, by this band. * aye Galed. volonue elerters br, SR ob valance Gin ve either Cope or i i Poel fea 4 res Valance. band. Gn never be, ae My ¥ HE Gan mews be. Gomgtedtdy Fille MDCAT STUDY.comCasieicaTioN OF Soubs ON THe Gasie OF ELECTRICAL ConbutT model of electron disteibution in an lent material, Jel has, found. suee culate’ are those. material, in whith dean, [=———— or Canduskion Rugrding to E.BeT incubate hove Conduction Buna + Emply Gondustion band. (mo fies eledran) A full valance banc % Alarge energy gap (several er) Valance Band the nudew, and Can ny Say N brought d toms Split into N- Sul atom: im sobids,. DUCTORS Gsmdustcs ave thore mabericls, whith have. Plenty Of Fer eledlrons, fir cestral Conduction. Atuceding to E.BT + Valence & Conduction bund largely overtop each other 2 No physical clishinetign bebueen the two bunds which ___ ensures the availability of « large umber of fees electron: [SEMIGNDUCTORS| 4 Semi Cendluskce matertul. is the one where Gonmbatign Gard Valance Band mineall | Clabtca) Propectivz lie. in between thore ob. inculabce and. Cnduber w Ban} / Aerarding E.B.7 ak room temperabrre shy hove. Condvetion Band ca a “Portia fied Gnduedion bord onl | 2 Ponty fll valance bond Valance Band "oy Bel . sf Arnacrou focbidden energy 2p (Of the order of Lev) bebwun ae the Ganduction and. valance band eee ne) ey MDCAT [>= site STUDY.com Yihitch have. Plenty a fo EAT each other bunds which of fice electron: is the one whow ater and. Conducta: av of Lev) behuem AL OK, there are mo electrons in the Conduction band and thetr valence bunds ure. Complodedy Filled It means ut OF 0 ptete of “Ge” gy Si” ave Perfect inculators. Nowerew with the inevease in temperature the thermal, exiled eledvons Gump from valance band tap Conduction band afty Ca sing the narrow forbidden ger by leaving Vocanciv, in Phe valence. bund the Conduction increases radu. and thy. mabewiuh becomes, a Semi meus ak vorm Lempovabure. ‘a ue" . may ow — RECTIFICATION: | RECTIFICATION J The conversion of MC énle| HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION 7 KO we tile DE is called \\ converted into dirett cuent. || cumont: Aechfiev. ADs ~~ Prin g Dt Sn negilive Kall ele DIOD= R es os Janae Poke: oe i Qo point negative % Shen at a ia poueade” Input Output Input e Dy a a ape a as + Thin makes diod 0,,D, | bacsed, it allow cumert” |) WorKING: St convist—of—foutr_died D-Ds. |! forwarcl bared G to puss trough i and it \'In posilive half cycle cliod. is|! O amd d, connedtict to fprm a buihel! O1,D, reverse baisedt. - Block currenit' in reverse | forwarel biasect ancl current |! AC source and load. + Dio. Dz 8. Dy conduct” bated. flow thaough i and tansger }] WORKING: and current pass Arogh TYPES? « posilvt half le to a "In. positive half eyele point iy oad. 1 Llalt Wave Reitigicalion: 4" become pasilive and 8" be sab onendaa: |e Ses ia |e =i 7 WHY 0c ? Yn negilive half cycle alive: |. Tits makes dled Dy’ amct De @ eX. Cell amet belltenier are source) i> aévere bizsed ‘and no forward batrect and D, , Dy | eS BDE but expansive law | currerit’ flaw Uinough it: power anct short Livect. pt 5 panel ow taaayh Lead when) Feo, soe cnveit SE lw ee -— dliad. D; ,Ds conduct. . JAtifjAlimed| Official Change in te’ cause change in le’. These aye chamgesei = THERMAL RADIATIONS: [BEACK BODY RADIATION. | sThe electromagnetic radiations _emitted _f finaly white at 1600. This shows ‘that ]@ At given temperature, energy is not uniformfy by the objects because of their a5 ‘the temperalure increased, way th] distvibuted in radiation spectrum of the body temperature are called thermal radiations. | of radiations becomes shorter. © WEINS DISPLACEMENT LAW: +Every body,no matter hot or cold, | BLACK BODY: _ * At a given temperatine T, the emited energy continuously radiat electromagnetic waves.| An ideal body that obsobs amd emits | has a moximym value for certain wovelengfh * External temp > Body temp the radiations of oll wavelength falling on it] “Armax”. This Amox is inversely related “to — Absorption > Emission CONSTRUCTION? temperoluve % known as Weiris.D. Low. + = External temp < Body temp Consider a non-reflecting object such as a Amox Lp mt Amox® T= Constant. Absorption — < Emiasion solid that has a_hollow cavity & one hole.} + Weir's constant = 29XI0°mk. ] External temp = Body temp |The vadiations cam enter_or escape throyhit}®-STEPHEN BOLTSMANN LAW: Absorption = Emission +The inside cavity is blackend 40 make it'gooil * Area under the cue represents. the total NATURE OF RADIATIONS: obsorber amd bod teflector. <7 lv"|—energy radiated per second per sqpave-meter Nature of emitted radiations depends upon | Ik is am idea) absorber & radiator wal | over all wovelengite ot a patti INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION: Le +Tt_is_found thot _orea is directly proportional ion with Longer] Lummer ond Pringshem measure the intensity) to fourth power of kelvin temperature T. Ex TH EXOT! 80=5.67x10 Writk* ® For all wavelengifis, an increase in temperalure causes am increase. in energy emission. Rodiodion Intensity increases with increase in, wovelengiis amd ata particular wavelength "Aros 3E hos moximum value, » | further increase cause decease, in I, temperature. temperature of ‘the bod At low temperature, va -wavelengir "will be emitted a radiations fom block body ok different. te @ At high temperalluve radiations witi shorter | = y wovelemgth will be emitted. Sack oly EXAMPLE? When platinum wire is heated it appears Il dull ved at 500, cherry red ok 900, ° oromge ved ot S100', yellow ad 1300'C and] Detector apis S— dmcGe neaiey) rs a ‘ : ae PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: ane aT Se LitpoTant RESULTS) The_emission_of electron from_a_metol surface PHOTOELECTRIC oh Ee USES }- Emitled electrons hove different values of energy when exposed to light of _svitoble_freqwuency_is| K.E,,.«—OF PHOTOELECTRON: depends upon_meta? surface & frequency of light. KEnae can be find_by reversing. tne |* The. minimum frequency of Light to remove electron CONSTRUCTION: connections cf the_baitery in circuit. In| from meta) is called threshold frequency Ik consist _of evacuated glass tube wifi two | this condition photoelectrons experience} at frequency. f<4, no electron will be emitted ctrods_‘A_and_‘C’. Ais Connected to. positive | repulsion amd current decreas. J Electrons are emitted instantaneously . ( < 10s) amd'C’ is connected to negtive, termina) of | If reverse potential is increased, at a} FAILURE OF CLASSICAL E.MW THEORY: the battery. ‘A is anode amd C’ is cathode | certain value called_stoping potential | According to EM. wove theory increase in _° WORKING: the curent become ero, intensity of Bight should inctease_K.E_of _the When monochromatic fight falls .on the ve eV, x emitted electvons which contradicts _the_results»+, -surfoce of meta) cathode, it begins to emit Classical theory. also camit explain thveshdld frequency electrons called photoelectrons. These electrons EINSTEINS EXPLANATION: ai are_altracted towovds omode and cunent flows. \_extended the idea of Max Planck that This_cunent is called photoelectric current. EFFECT OF _INTENSITY_OF INCIDENT LIGHT |_fight_is_emited or absorbed in_discrete value known} current... stops when fight is cut-off, which proves p Tf intensity of fight. ___ 11|-a8__ photon. Energy of photon depends upon. freqsenc\ ot covert flows beause of incident ht. |invene, pintoded’. coed hyper see hee nt oe = vil dso increase bit I E=hf IAGRAM: «7 * WORK FUNCTION’ Be stoping potential _will_be some. EFFEC OF FREQUENCY OF INCIDENT LiGHT] is absorbed by electron _of metal surface_and_a Tf _we_increase frequency TT _4cf—.@ |CAN WE DETECT WAVE NATURE? comp. & © and ® hf =me*_ + Oy bullet moving wil V=330m/- (Rai bE eme DaBy = S:63xI0TS 3X10 it z yw ") iif. P This, warelength ’s veiy Senall ard E : aay >. aA SS WAVELENGTH OF PARTICLE: De-Groglie slate that we cam abso assign Tis wavelenyh 8 én Aange of wanelongt lo the particle of mass 2m! X-Rays ana can be detected. moving wiht velocity 'V: CONCLUSION: h + Eleclion moving with v= 10%mi' Ash ~ 663Xi0%Is____7 x10" mY ~“BLKIO™> Kg x 10 mst poh emma wilh ordinary occa’. sane pw] e=B Loe aoe eee i ae a mv interforence and diffraction rt L mv Naas | negligible.AtitjAhmed| Official ae . Pate) pay *"Germer_and_davisson_provide convincing (DAVISSON_& GERNER_EXPERMENT | WAVELENGTH FROM GRAGGS LAW: -avidance_of_the_wave_noture_of electron, “They showed that electrons ore diffracted -from_meta) crystal _in exactly the same |év 4 -manner_a>_x-rays. EXPERIMENT: eExperimenta? setup consists of electrons from a source, which are accelerated by a_ potential “V- : d= O.9LK =0.91x10"%m *A_beom of accelerated electron ig allowed A= 2(0.A1x10" (0.9063) Ss to fall on nickel crystal. WAVELENGTH _FROM_DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS | A= 1.65X10'"°m ——> x Beonn_of electron diffracted _ for ___ afamcing omgle _6=65° n ing _Bragg’s law: amd = 2dSin@ 6 for I ordey m= 4 A=RdSinO | Ae2zO.AIKI0") Sin65 “The incident electron ave scattered from metal] According to De-Broglie _ A= CONCLUSION = 7 crystol in different direction which are Ash, —o Experimerttally obereved value of ~tdtected by a detector moving along KE of accelerated sens patria Ve wavelength is in excellent agreement with ” -circulor scale. ee mv"= @ ‘theorotically predicted wavelength. So, moving- Sit is oberved ‘thot intensity ot different | mv Rev electron ale ote wove wen — 8 —angle_is_different_ond_os_a_vesult_we__|__'x" both sides by “m’ _tvs 2mev FOR OTHER PARTICLES: obtain diffraction from_crystal.__ 7" both sides mv = {2meV- Diffraction patteren con glso be observed elt can be observed from 44to 68 volt | put this value infgO — A=B——=—+ | wilh proton, neutron, hydrogen atom amd but. significant intensity obtained at Suv. | put vie inca mev helium atoms. So, ik” confirms wove eAt $= 50° maximum intensity ralive of particles. of electron was observed. e fawn A 2__6.63K10 "Te P(A-AKN0 ky L6x10"C)(SUTC™ Az enon "ACCORDING To BOHR THEORY: Electron is a particle that. revolve around nucleus. : * Electron do not emit energy. when it is revolving around —nucles in am orbit. = © Electron in a higher orbit. — has high energy. slow energy electron revolve — in lower orbit. * Electron com not revolve. every circular orbit but_it__ can only vevolve in on orbit. ~ having amaular momentum —_ mvy = nh_ this one war ane ® puzzling assumption. De-Froglie Hi au DE-BROGLIES INTERPERTATION = According to De-Brogle electron is a wave. + Electron do not emit -energy while orbiting _ -becouse it is stationayy _wove- = + Electron in the _higher__ -orbit_is_stakionavy wove _of high frequency ond —eleckron_in lower orbit is —slalionary wove of low — _Freqpensiy- According to De-Brogle's. —theoy of wove natuve_ f _of and Kid agen Here} * Electron in the circular. orbit must be pictured — n=2, “aay «Bohr orbits are shown fy _which 27 = 22,324... These states ave possible for -tlectron orbiting The nucleus +All intermediate stages are_ _not possible. any=nd dr 22nr_.@ Comparing SO! ©i -- LASER: _ _ || WORKING__PRINCIPLE: SPONTANEOUS EMISSION: ___ || POPULATION INVERSION ___ sLASER is an acronym for_||*The excited atoms are An atom in the excited state | |*Consider_a sample of free atoms ight amplification by || stimulated by incident photon. || make a tramsition to lower || in_which more atoms are in. the stimulated emission _of_ || in_order_to emit _amofier state spontaneously wilh __ || ground state than excited __ vadiaki It is a device which is. used to produce intense, monochromatic § coherent. beam of light . LASER LIGHT *High Intensity |*Low Intensity *Collimated — |+ Divergent. —_ Co— * Unidirectionol |Multidireet¥ana8. -photon_of same frequency _ incident _ photon. “To_understand_uiorking_ we _ -should_know following terms. STIMULATED ABSORPTION: _ Consider_an_atom_ho»..election| in its _graund_ state 'E,. Suppose a photon of energy eqyal to difference _of two energy levels is incident_on_this_ atom tien photons can_be. absorbed by_atom_9 makes a tramsition_to_exzited state. EL BB tht Uae — 5—4 ‘Atom + Photon —+ Atom* & emission of a photon is called Spontaneous emission. ——— g Atom” —+ Atom +Photon STIMULATED EMISSION: _ In_this_process an_atom_is. initiolly in_the_excited state. A passing photon of energy equa) to difference of two. energy level induces the atom to emit a photon 8 make_ -a_tramsition to lower level . = = Eye Pees ht = mana i) fs Atom-+ Photon —vAtom +2 Photon! -state_is_Known as norma -population. (Ny ?.N2) ‘When. there are more atoms -in_the excited state tham_ -ground__state, this is called Population inven et een Eseoeecce! E00 e—Ny Normal Population Rpulotion Inverted ‘*fopulation_inversion_ cause _ -more_stimulated_emission. * Population inversion can be -achieved if there exist a _metnstable stake. * This is the most important -Principle involve in action of -lasey._CONSTRUCTION: *Vaporization chamber.(v.)_ ‘Ionization chamber ,(10_ Acceleration chomber_AC)_ ‘Velocity selector _.(vs)_ 1Detector (0) 2 Counter. aC) -WORKING PRINCIPLE: a ~lons =of—isotopes__are__ i || accelerated by using electric ~tumber_ore_called_isotones. |] _field and then defi fected_by_ EXAMPLE: ___ ll magnetic field _in_different__ CN rat according to ‘their masses. TMASS_SPECTROGRAPH || Diagram: SMass_spectrograph_is a device ~bse__to__separate_isotopes_ of_om_elemet, measure their. -telative_abyndance_ond_to_ determine_“the_masses_of_ -isclopes__accurateby, Atoms of an element shoving same number _of__ -protons but different __ ~number_of_nevutrons_are_ called _ isotopes It_is_greek letter isos- —~topos means same_place. EXAMPLE: HH. 3H 3H —Protivm, Deuterium, “Titium,. -Isotops have same chemical —Propeties ond cont__be —Seporated by chemical —Process- — "Over 3000_isotops_exist_ ~in_nature. — le 257_isotops_are_stable__ | -and remaining ave_unstable -called radio_isotops- -| -Atoms_having _same__mass stumber_but__ different. “Isotopes_are_ionized_in__ -lonization_chomber_by__ removing electron _and leaving, -positive_ions- _ — +_These__positive_ions_are_ | - waccelerated by slits $1,S._ Using —potentiol difference. *elocity selector allow only. —farticles_of same velocity_ —to_pass_through 1b.