CHAPTER

1 Properties of Matter

1.1 Introduction
The advancement in technology & Engineering is possible through our detailed un-
derstanding of properties of matter. The mechanical properties of solids generally
deals with deformations due to the external forces impressed on the materials. The
property, elasticity is important for many applications in Engineering & Technology.
[e.g a bridge used for traffic is subjected to loads or forces of varying amounts. Before
a steel bridge is constructed, the steel samples are sent for testing to find whether the
steel can withstand the loads likely to be put on them or not].
The development of dynamics begins with the concept of an infinitely small but
massive particles for their behaviour under the influence of applied forces. Later the
idea of rigid body came into force. The behaviour of ordinary material under the
action of forces constitutes the study of elasticity.

1.2 Rigid Body

A rigid body is one in which the relative position of its constituent particles does not
change under the influence of impressed forces or in other words an ideal rigid body
does not change in shape or size under the influence of applied force of any magni-
tude. When a body is subjected to external forces, it may get deformed. Such a force
is called Deforming Force. As a result of deforming forces applied to a body reac-
tionary forces come into play internally due to relative displacement of its molecules,
tending to balance the load and restore the body to its original condition. The body
undergoes a change in its shape or size or both. These reactionary forces tend to
restore the body to its original conditions. When the deforming forces are removed,
the body tends to recover its original form.
The property of a material body by virtue of which the bodies are restored to
their original shape or size or both after the removal of external deforming force
is called elasticity. Extent to which the original form of a body is restored, when
1.2 Applied Physics

the deforming forces are removed varies from material to material. Based on their
behaviour perfect elastic and perfect plastic bodies are available.

Bodies which can recover completely Bodies which do not show any ten-
their original conditions on removal of dency to recover their original condi-
deforming forces are known as perfectly tion & retain completely are known as
elastic bodies. perfectly plastic bodies.
They develop a definite amount of Partially regain their original form.
deformation which does not increase
when the force is prolonged.
(eg) quartz fibre Putty
Generally no body is perfectly elastic or plastic. Actual bodies behave between
these two limit. Concept of perfectly elastic and perfectly plastic bodies is an ideal-
ization.

1.3 Stress
When a body is deformed by external force, internal reactionary forces are devel-
oped between the molecules of the body to oppose the action of the deforming force,
which tend to restore the body to its original condition.
The internal restoring force developed / unit area of the body when subjected
to external deforming force is called stress.

Being a disturbed force, it is measured in the same manner as fluid pressure (i.e.,)
in terms of load on deforming force applied / unit area of the body, being equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to it, until a permanent change has been brought
about in the body.
These forces are self adjusting forces. As deforming force increases restoring force
also increases. When deforming force is equal to restoring force, body attains equi-
librium. Due to this, at equilibrium, stress can be measured by the deforming force
applied on a unit area of the body.
Restoring force Deforming force F
Stress = = =
area area A
Unit of stress is Newton per metre2 (N/m2 ) and its dimensional formula is
[ML−1 T−2 ]. The stress developed in a body depends upon how the external forces
are applied over it. Depending on this three types of stress, are as follows.

Types of stress
(a) Longitudinal stress (or) Tensile stress
If the deforming force acting on a body is along its longitudinal axis and produces a
change in its length, then the deforming force / unit area acting normal to the surface
is called longitudinal or normal or tensile stress.
 Properties of matter 1.3

If the applied force is a thrust or produces a compression, then the stress is called
normal compressive stress.
Thus, Tensile stress = force / unit area =
F
F/A
Tensile stress = F/A Fig. 1

(b) Volume or Bulk stress F

F
If the equal deforming forces can be applied uni-
formly on each 6 faces of a cube in outward direc-
tion, then the cube suffers an increase in its vol- F
F
ume.
Under equilibrium, the applied force/unit
F
area is called volume or bulk stress. F
Fig. 2

(c) Shearing stress (or) Tangential stress

If the deforming forces are applied tangentially over the top surface of a cube and
bottom surface being kept fixed then, the top face gets displaced towards the direc-
tion of applied force.
E E′ F F′
F

A
B′
H
θ θ
G

D C
Fixed surface

Fig. 3

The tangential force/unit area or the stress which tends to make one part of the
body slide across the other part is termed as shearing stress or tangential stress.

1.4 Strain
A body under deforming forces undergoes a change in length, volume or shape.
Then the body is said to be under strain. The strain produced in the body is mea-
sured in terms of the fractional change produced in the dimensions of a body. Under
a system of forces in equilibrium strain is also measured as the ratio of change in
dimension of the body to its original dimension. As strain is just a ratio, it is a di-
mensionless quantity, having no units.
1.4 Applied Physics

Types of strain
(a) Longitudinal strain or Tensile strain

If the deforming force is of the nature of pull or a tension and L

acting along the longitudinal axis of a wire of length L, and
produces a change in length ∆L without any change in shape,
then this fractional change ∆L/L, is called longitudinal strain.
∆L

change in length ∆L
Longitudinal strain = =
original length L
Fig. 4
If length increases from its natural length, then it is tensile
strain. If in case there is decrease in length then it is compressive strain.

(b) Volume strain

When the forces or pressure are applied uniformly and normally inwards (or out-
wards) over the whole surface of a body of volume V, then its volume gets decreased
(or increased) by an amount ∆V without any change in shape. The ratio of this
change in volume to its original volume is called volume strain.

change in volume ∆V
Volume strain = =
original volume V

V- V

Fig. 5
(c) Shearing strain or Shear A A′ D D′

When the deforming forces are applied tangentially

over the top surface of the body, it suffers a change in
shape without any change in volume or length and is θ θ
said to be sheared. Shear is numerically equal to the
ratio of the displacement of any layer in the direction B C
of applied tangential force to its distance from the fixed Fig. 6
surface.
 Properties of matter 1.5

The strain produced is measured by an angle which a tilted surface makes with
original vertical surface.
AA0
=θ
AB
Strain produced by stretching or compressing force, both volume & shape of the
body may alter, while the strain produced by shearing forces only the shape of the
body is altered though the volume remains constant.

Elastic limit
The maximum stress which produces maximum amount of recoverable deformation
is called Elastic limit. If the stress applied exceeds the elastic limit, then the substance
does not return to its original state when the stress is removed. The substance is then
said to have acquired permanent set.

1.5 Hooke’s Law

If a substance is subjected to a stress below the elastic limit, it recovers completely
when the stress is removed or within elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional
to strain produced.
The linear relationship between the stresses and deformations produced below
elastic limit is called Hooke’s law. (i.e.,)
Stress ∝ Strain
Stress
= Constant
Strain
= E → Modulus of elasticity (coefficient of elasticity)

The value of modulus of elasticity depends upon the type of stress and strain pro-
duced.

Young’s modulus
If the strain is longitudinal then the modulus of elasticity is called “Young’s Modu-
lus” (Y).
Longitudinal stress F/A
Y = =
Longitudinal strain ∆L/L
FL
=
A∆L
Within elastic limit, the ratio of longitudinal stress to the corresponding longitudinal
strain is called Young’s modulus of elasticity.

Bulk modulus
When a uniform pressure (normal force) is applied normally over the whole surface
of a body of an isotropic material, it suffers a change in its volume though its shape
1.6 Applied Physics

remains unchanged within elastic limit. The ratio of the volume stress to the volume
strain is called bulk modulus of elasticity of the material.

Volume stress F/A PV

K= = =
Volume strain ∆V /V ∆V

Reciprocal of K is called compressibility. Unit N/m2 and its dimensional formula

N/m2 [ML−1 T−2

Modulus of rigidity J J′ I I′

When a body is subjected to tangential de-

forming force, it suffers a change in shape A
A′ B B′
but volume remains unchanged. Then
G
body is said to be sheared. The stress θ H
developed in this case is called shearing
stress, due to which a shearing strain is de- D C
veloped. Fig. 7
Within the elastic limit, the ratio of shearing stress or tangential stress to shearing
strain is called modulus of rigidity of the material.
If θ is angle of shear, then

BB 0
θ = tan θ =
BC
displacement of top surface
=
distance of top surface from fixed surface
shearing stress F/A
n= =
shearing strain θ

Unit of n is N/m2 and dimensional formula is [ML−1 T−2 ]

1.6 Poisson’s Ratio F

When a wire is pulled, it not only becomes longer but

also thinner. If a force produces elongation or extension ∆D
in its own direction, a contraction also occurs in a direc-
L + ∆L

tion perpendicular to it, that is in lateral direction or vice D L

versa. The fractional change in the direction of applied
force is longitudinal strain, fractional change in perpen-
dicular direction is lateral strain.
Within elastic limit, ratio of lateral strain to longitu-
dinal strain is constant for a given material and is called F

poisson’s ratio (σ). Fig. 8

 Properties of matter 1.7

In the Fig, a wire of original length L and diameter D is acted upon by two equal
and opposite force F along the length. Its length increases by ∆L, while its diameter
decreases by ∆D.
∆L ∆D
α= ; β=
L D
β lateral strain −(∆D/D)
σ= = =
α longitudinal strain ∆L/L
L ∆D
=−
D ∆L

σ as a differential coefficient,
L dD
σ=
D dL

Minus sign indicates that increase in the direction of force would be accompanied
by decrease in the direction perpendicular to the force. σ is dimensionless and has
no units.

1.7 Relation between the Three Moduli of Elasticity

(Y, K and n)
To arrive at the relation between Young’s modulus, bulk modulus and rigidity mod-
ulus, the three moduli need to the expressed in terms of longitudinal strain (α) and
lateral strain (β) and hence in terms of σ (Poisson’s ratio) must be known.
(i) Relation between Young’s modulus and α
1
Y =
α
(ii) Bulk modulus in terms of α and β
1
K=
3(α − 2β)

(iii) Rigidity modulus in terms of α and β

1
n=
2(α + β)

(iv) Relation between Y , K and σ

We know
β 1
σ= ; Y =
α α

1
and K=
3(α − 2β)
1.8 Applied Physics
 
1 1/α Y 1
now K= = = ∵ Y =
3α(1 − 2(β/α)) 3(1 − 2σ) 3(1 − 2σ) α

(or) Y = 3K(1 − 2σ) (1)

(v) Relation between n , Y and σ

1
n=
2(α + β)
1 1/α Y
= = =
2α(1 + β/α) 2(1 + σ) 2(1 + σ)

(or) Y = 2n(1 + σ) (2)

(vi) Relation between Y , K , n and σ and Relation between the three moduli of
Elasticity
Now from (1) and (2)

Y = 3K(1 − 2σ) and Y = 2n(1 + σ)

Y
(or) = 1 − 2σ (3)
3K

Y
and = 2(1 + σ) (4)
n

Adding the two equations (3) and (4)

Y Y 9Kn
+ =3 (or) Y =
3K n n + 3K

9 1 3
(or) = +
Y K n

Now, Dividing equation (3) by (4)

n 1 − 2σ
= (or) 2n(1 + σ) = 3K(1 − 2σ)
3K 2(1 + σ)

(or) 2n + 2nσ = 3K − 6Kσ

3K − 2n 3K − 2n
(or) σ= =
2n + 6K 2(n + 3K)
 Properties of matter 1.9

1.7.1 Limiting values of poisson’s ratio

We know Y = 3K(1 − 2σ) & Y = 2n(1 + σ)

3K(1 − 2σ) = 2n(1 + σ) (5)

(i) If σ is positive, RHS is positive.

∴ LHS must be positive.
It will be only when 2σ < 1
1
σ<
2
σ < 0.5

(ii) If σ is negative. LHS is positive.

∴ RHS to be positive.
1 + σ > 0 ⇒ σ > −1

1
−1 < σ <
2

1.8 Behaviour of a Wire under an Increasing Load

Let a wire be clamped at one end & loaded at the other end gradually from zero
value until the wire break down.

C
D

B
A’
Stress
A

Strain

Fig. 9

A–Proportional limit; A0 –Elastic limit

B–Yield point; C–Ultimate tensile strength D–Breaking stress
1.10 Applied Physics

1. The part OA of the curve is a straight line, where Hooke’s law is obeyed. (i.e.,)
Stress is proportional to strain.
2. A is called Proportional limit measured by the maximum stress that can be
developed in the given material without causing a deviation from Hooke’s law.
3. Vicinity of A lie another point A0 , known as Elastic limit upto A0 . The wire
behaves as a perfectly elastic body, upto A0 . In AA0 of the curve the stress
should be proportional to the strain is not necessary. A & A 0 – very nearer to
each other, may coincide for some materials.
4. If wire is loaded beyond the elastic limit A0 , the wire gets stretched & attains
a permanent set (ie) there is a permanent deformation in the body after the
removal of deforming forces.
5. On increasing the load still further a point B called yield point at which ex-
tension of the wire increases rapidly without an increases in the load. For a
given material, the yield point is usually determined by the minimum value of
stress for which the material begins to deform appreciably without an increase
of load. The value of stress at the yield point is called yield strength of that
material.
6. Elongation without addition in load is called creeping and this behaviour of
the metal is called yielding.
7. If the wire is further loaded, a point represented by C is reached after which the
wire begins to flow locally so that its cross sectional area gradually decreases.
At point C the value of the developed stress is maximum and is called the
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH or tensile strength of the given material.
8. Tensile strength is defined as the maximum value of tensile stress that a mate-
rial can withstand before fracture under a steady load.
Maximum tensile load
Tensile strength =
Original cross sectional area

9. The stress corresponding to point D where the wire actually breaks down, is
called Breaking stress. The normal value of the breaking stress is found to
be less than that of the ultimate strength due to fracture formation. But the
applied load at the breaking point is greater than the ultimate tensile strength
point.
Normally working stress on a body is kept far below the ultimate tensile stress
and is never allowed to cross the elastic limit. The above fact is practiced by all
design engineers to get higher stability & reliability of the structures.

1.9 Torsional Pendulum

Consider a cylindrical wire clamped vertically at one end. The other end carries
a disc of moment of inertia ‘I’ about the wire as its axis. Let the wire be twisted by
 Properties of matter 1.11

turning the body through a small angle ‘θ’ and released. The disc executes Torsional
Oscillations. This arrangement is called Torsional Pendulum.

Angle of twist and angle of shear

Imagine a cylindrical rod of length l and radius r fixed rigidly at its upper end. When
a couple is applied at its lower free end in plane perpendicular to the length & whose
axis coincides with the axis of the cylinder, the radius of each circular cross section of
the rod gets rotated in its plane about the axis of the rod, by an amount proportional
to the distance of the cross section from the fixed upper end.
r O Fixed
A 2 r
A D
Generating
line
O1
2
B1 B1
B B C C
O
1
B B

(a) (b)

O1 O1

r r

B1 B

(c) (d)

Fig. 10

The angle through which any cross section rotates is called the angle of twist
φ). Its value is zero at fixed end & maximum at the free end (Fig. 10(a)).
(φ
As the rod is twisted, a restoring couple is developed in it due to the elastic
properties of the material which is equal & opposite to the external twisting couple.
1.12 Applied Physics

As the rod is twisted, a generating line AB (Fig. r

10(a) and (b)) on its outermost layer is turned through o
x

an angle θ. Thus the line AB1 B moves into the posi-

tion AB10 B 0 , having been turned through an angle BAB 0 dx
θ
equal to θ. This angle is called Angle of shear.
l
From Fig. 10(a) angle in 4BAB 0
x
BB0  arc 
θ= ⇒ BB 0 = lθ as angle =
l radius φ
o′
In 4BOB 0
B B′
0
BB Fig. 11
φ= ⇒ BB 0 = rφ
r
lθ = rφ
r
θ= φ
l

1.10 Twisting Couple on a Cylindrical Rod

Consider a cylindrical rod of length l, radius r and modulus of rigidity n fixed at
upper end and twisted at the lower free end by means of a couple of moment τ in
a plane perpendicular to the length of the rod such that the axis of twisting couple
coincides with the axis of the cylinder. As the rod is twisted, a restoring couple,
equal & opposite to the twisting couple is set up in the cylinder due to elasticity of
the material. To find the magnitude of this couple, consider the cylinder to be made
up of large number of coaxial cylindrical shells.
Consider one shell of radius x and radial thickness dx.
x
∴ BB 0 = lθ = xφ (or) θ = φ (6)
l
Let F be the tangential force acting over the base of the elementary cylindrical
shell of radius x and width dx. Area of this annular shell = 2πx dx.
Tangential stress acting on thin shell is
force F
Tangential stress = = (7)
area 2πx dx
Thus, Rigidity modulus n of the rod is
tangential stress F/2πx dx
n= =
shear θ
F l
n= .
2πx dx φx
2πnφ 2
F = x dx (8)
l
 Properties of matter 1.13

Moment of this force about the axis of the rod OO 0 is

2πnφ 3
Fx = x dx (9)
l
This is equal to the couple required to twist the elementary shell through an angle φ.
The couple τ required to twist the whole rod is obtained by integrating Eq(9) within
the limits x = 0 & x = r.
Zr
2πnφ 3
τ= x dx
l
0

r
x4

2πnφ
=
l 4 0
4
πnr
τ= φ
2l

(i.e) couple required to twist the rod is proportional to the angle of twist φ. The
couple required to twist the rod through an angle of one radian is (i.e., φ = 1)

πnr4
C=
2l
where ‘C’ is Torsional rigidity or Torsional constant of the rod

For hollow cylinder of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2

Zr2  r
2πnφ 3 2πnφ x4 2
τ= x dx =
l l 4 r1
r1

2πnφ r24 − r14 πn(r24 − r14 )

 
τ= = φ
l 4 2l

1.10.1 To find time period of oscillation (T)

Consider an intermediate stage when the wire is under twist of angle α and the body
is moving with an angular velocity ω. At this time

P.E of the wire


1
= Cθ2
(due to the twist) 2
K.E of the wire

1
= Iω 2
(due to its rotation) 2
1 1
∴ The total energy of system = Cθ2 + Iω 2
2 2
1.14 Applied Physics

According to law of conservation of energy, the total energy of the system is constant
 2
1 2 1 dθ
∴ Cθ + I = constant
2 2 dt
Differentiating w.r to ‘t’
d2 θ
   
1 dθ 1 dθ
C.2θ + I.2 =0
2 dt 2 dt dt2
d2 θ
Cθ + I =0
dt2
d2 θ C
+ θ=0
dt2 I
2
d θ C
i.e., 2 = − θ = 0
dt I
∴ Angular acceleration displacement.
From the above equation, it is understood that torsional pendulum executes sim-
ple harmonic motion.
v
u 1
The time period of any SHM is T = 2π u
t Acceleration
u 

Displacement
 2 
d θ
dt2 C
α
θ I
r
I
∴ The time period of oscillation of torsional pendulum is T = 2π
C

1.10.2 Applications of torsional pendulum

(i) Determination of moment of inertia of an irregular body:-
The moment of inertia of an irregular body can be determined using a torsional
pendulum. First take a regular body and its moment of inertia is determined
from its mass and dimensions.
The time period T0 of the pendulum is determined without applying any mass.
Take two equal masses, whose moment of inertia is known and place it on
either side of the disc at a distance d and find the time period T 1 . Then, replace
the regular body by an irregular body and keep it at same distance d 1 . Now
the time period of the disc is calculated as T2 .
Let I0 be the moment of inertia of the disc and T0 is the
time period r
I0
T0 = 2π (10)
C Empty disc
 Properties of matter 1.15

For regular body whose moment of inertia is I1

r
I0 + I 1
∴ T1 = 2π (11)
C
Disc with mass at
equal distance
I1 is calculated with the help of the dimensions.
Irregular body of moment of inertia I2 is to be de-
termined. r
I0 + I 2
T2 = 2π (12)
C

From Eq.(10) & Eq.(11)

4π 2 4π 2
T12 − T02 = (I0 + I1 ) − I0
C C
4π 2
T12 − T02 = I1 (13)
C
From Eq.(10) & Eq.(12)

4π 2 4π 2
T22 − T02 = (I0 + I2 ) − I0
C C
4π 2
T22 − T02 = I2
C
T22 − T02
 2
T2 − T02

I2
= ⇒ I 2 = I1
T12 − T02 I1 T12 − T02
From the values T0 , T1 , T2 and I1 the value of I2 (M.I of an irregular body) is
calculated.
A
(ii) Determination of rigidity modulus of the wire:-
Consider a wire AB of length ` and radius r fixed at the l

upper end A. The lower end B is clamped to the disc. By B

adjusting the screw at B, the length of the wire ` can be
varied. The rigidity modulus is determined by measuring
the time period of the disc under the following conditions.
(i) Let T0 be the time period of pendulum without any
masses r
I0
T0 = 2π (14)
C
(ii) Let T1 be the time period T1 with equal masses at a
distance d1 placed on the disc
r
I0 + 2md21
T1 = 2π (15)
C
1.16 Applied Physics

(iii) Let T2 be the time period with equal masses at a dis-

tance d2 placed on the disc
r
I0 + 2md22
T2 = 2π (16)
C

4π 2
Eq.(16)2 - (15)2 ⇒ T22 − T12 = 2m(d22 − d21 )
C
πnr4
We know couple per unit twist C =
2`
Substitute the value of C,

4π 2
T22 − T12 = .2`2m(d22 − d21 )
πnr4
16πml (d22 − d21 )
n=
r4 (T22 − T12 )

When ‘n’ is the rigidity modulus of material of the wire. The formula can
be rewritten as
8πI` (d22 − d21 ) 2
n= where I = 2m T
T02 r4 (T22 − T12 ) 0

1.11 Shafts
A shaft is a component of a machine that transmits the power from the source to a
load.
It is an arrangement for the transmission of a couple applied at one end to appear
at the other end without any appreciable twist in it.
It can rotate on bearing about its own axis.
Thus any rotating member which is transmitting torque is called shaft.
A good shaft should have the following requirements:

1. It should transmit the couple without any appreciable twist in it. (i.e) couple /
unit twist C = πnr 4 /2l must be large.
2. Even for large couples applied, the twist in the shaft should be very small.
3. Hence
• it is preferable to use shafts of large radius.
• made of high rigidity modulus material
• avoid using longer shafts

(e.g) In flour mill the power transmission shaft is used to power(torque) devel-
oped in the prime mover (motor) to the load (machine) through a belt.
 Properties of matter 1.17

Comparison of hollow shaft with solid shaft

Consider a solid and hollow shaft of same mass, length and material. For hollow
shaft of external and internal radii r2 and r1 respectively, subjected to an external
couple, the couple/unit twist
πn 4
Ch = (r − r14 ) (17)
2l 2
For solid shaft made of same material having same length & mass.
πn 4
Cs = r (18)
2l
Dividing (17) by (18)
Ch r4 − r4 (r2 − r12 )(r22 + r12 )
= 2 4 1 = 2
Cs r r4

Since the two have same mass

m = π(r22 − r12 )lρ = πr 2 lρ (19)

where ρ is density of the material of the two shafts.

∴ r22 − r12 = r2
Ch r2 (r22 + r12 ) r22 + r12
∴ = =
Cs r4 r2
r22 + r12
(or) >1
r2
∴ Ch > Cs

∴ Hollow shaft is stronger than the solid shaft of same length, mass & material. (i.e.,)
Hollow shaft can transmit large torque or moment of couple in an efficient manner
without undergoing appreciable twist in itself.

1.11.1 Properties of shafts

The materials selected for making shafts should have the following properties:

(i) It should have high strength

(ii) A shaft should be of good machinability
(iii) It should have low notch sensitivity factor
(iv) Should transmit couple without appreciable twist
(v) Should not be affected by environmental conditions
(vi) Length of shaft should be greater than its other dimensions
(vii) Efficiency of a shaft should be high
(viii) It should have wear resistant & good heat treatment properties
1.18 Applied Physics

1.12 Bending of Beam

Beams are most important for the constructions of bridges and fly overs or for sup-
porting heavy loads. They are commonly used in the construction of multistoried
buildings.
A beam is a bar of uniform rectangular or circular cross section whose length
is much large as compared to its breadth and thickness. For such a structure the
shearing stress for any given cross section is negligibly small. Beam may be re-
garded as made up of a large number of horizontal layers placed one over the other
(Fig.12(a)).
Layers in beam
Filament in layer

(a) (b)

A B A B

(c) (d)

Fig. 12

Each layer may be considered as a collection of thin fibres parallel to the length of
the beam. These fibres are called longitudinal fibres or filaments (Fig.16 (b)). When
equal and opposite couples are applied at the two extreme ends of a beam in a plane
parallel to its length, the beam bends into a circular arc. Initially, the various fila-
ments are of equal length. When beam bends , filaments above the layer AB are
expanded, while below AB are contracted. The length of the layer AB remains un-
altered. Thus the layer in the beam, which is neither extended nor contracted is
called neutral layer. The filaments constituting the neutral layer are called neutral
filaments. The plane in which the beam bends is called plane of bending. Further,
any change in the length of any filament is proportional to distance of the filament
from neutral axis.

1.12.1 Bending moment

When a beam is bent under the action of a pair of two equal and opposite couples
acting at its ends, to oppose this bending, an internal bending (restoring) couple is
developed at each cross section of the beam, due to its elastic properties.
In equilibrium, the restoring couple is equal and opposite to the external bending
couple. The moment of the restoring couple is called bending moment or moment
of resistance.
 Properties of matter 1.19

1.12.2 Expression for bending moment

Assume weight of the beam is negligibly small as Fixed R=W
end C
compared to the load suspended and its cross sec-
A B
tion remains unaltered by the action of applied N N′
forces. D E
W
The Fig.13, shows longitudinal section of a
beam, whose one end is clamped and other end Fig. 13
is depressed by a load W .
Let the beam be divided into two parts by a plane CD and N N 0 is neutral surface.
Consider the equilibrium of part CD. Fila- P
C

ments above neutral surface are extended and be- N

D
low are compressed. Filaments above are in ten-
z
sile stress and their portions to the left of CD ex-
erts a pulling force on their portions to the right
B
of CD. Filaments below are in compressive stress Q
N′
and their portions to the left of CD exert a push- E
ing force on their portions to the right of CD. The
tensile stress developed in the upper half of beam φ
and compressive stress in the lower half of the R

beam constitute a couple called restoring couple O

(in the direction opposite to the bending couple). Fig. 14

To find the magnitude of this restoring couple or bending moment, consider the
part CB of the bent beam and forces acting over the section D as shown in Fig.14.
Let the portion BCDE subtend an angle φ at the centre of curvature ‘O’ of the arc
and R be the radius of curvature of the neutral axis N N 0 .
Consider a filament P Q at a distance z above the
neutral axis. Then from Fig.14,

P Q = (R + z)φ
N N 0 = Rφ

Before bending, each filament was of the same length as neutral filament.

(i.e) P Q = N N 0 = Rφ

∴ Extension in P Q on bending = P Q − N N 0 = (R + z)φ − Rφ = zφ

Longitudinal strain for this filament

Increase in length zφ z
= = =
Original length Rφ R
1.20 Applied Physics

If f be the force acting longitudinally on the filament under consideration, a area of

cross section and Y Young’s modulus of the beam, then

longitudinal stress f /a
Y = =
longitudinal strain z/R
Ya
f= z
R

Moment of this force about the neutral axis is

Ya 2
fz = z
R

Sum of moments of all these elementary forces of push and pull acting over entire
cross section CD of the beam is the magnitude of the bending moment at this section.

∴ Bending moment
X XYa Y X 2
= fz = z2 = az
R R
The quantity az is analogous to
2
mr2 , known as geometrical moment of inertia
P P

Ig

Y Ig
Bending moment =
R
The quantity Y Ig is known as flexural rigidity of the beam.

Geometrical moment of inertia for

bd3 breadth − b
 
Rectangular cross section =
12 thickness of the beam − d
Y bd3
Bending moment =
12R
For circular cross section of radius r
πr4
Ig =
4
Y πr4
Bending moment =
4R

1.13 Cantilever
A cantilever is a thin uniform bar fixed horizontally at one end and loaded at the
other end (Fig.15).
 Properties of matter 1.21

l
l
B
B x P
dx
P′ dθ y
A

B′ R
dθ
B′

W O mg
Fig.15 Fig.16
Consider a cantilever of length l, clamped rigidly at end A and loaded at the end
B by a weight W . Due to the load W the end B is depressed downward . The end B
is displaced to position B 0 . It is assumed that the weight of the beam is negligible as
compared to load W and produce no bending. Due to load applied at the free end, a
couple is created between two forces.

(i) Force (load W ) applied at the free end towards downward direction.
(ii) Reaction (R) acting in the upward direction at the supporting and.

This external bending couple tends to bend the beam in clockwise direction, but
since one end is fixed, the beam cannot rotate. ∴ External bending couple is balanced
by another equal and opposite couple called internal bending moment, due to elastic
nature of the body. Under equilibrium

External bending moment = Internal bending moment

1.13.1 Depression of a cantilever

Let ‘l’ be length of the cantilever OA fixed at one end and loaded at the other.
Consider a section at P at a distance x from the fixed end (Fig.20). Neglecting the
weight of the part between P and the free end, the moment of the external couple
= mg(l − x) (External bending moment)

Y Ig
The bending moment of the section P is (Internal bending moment)
R
At equilibrium
Y Ig
mg(l − x) = (20)
R
Y Ig
R= (21)
mg(l − x)

As x increases R also increases. The maximum and minimum values being at the
free and fixed ends respectively.
1.22 Applied Physics

Since the radius of curvature of the neutral axis (R) varies from point to point of
the cantilever, the bending is non uniform.
Let P 0 be another point on the bent cantilever at a distance dx from P .
∵ P & P 0 are very near, we can assume that the radius of curvature R is practically
same and O, the center of curvature. Let angle between the tangents at P & P 0 be dθ.

Then ∠P OP 0 = dθ
∴ dx = R dθ
dx
R= (22)
dθ

Substituting Eq.(21) in Eq.(22)

dθ
mg(l − x) = Y Ig
dx
(or)
mg(l − x)dx
dθ =
Y Ig
l Zl Zl
mg(l − x)dx mgl mg
Z
∴ θ= = dx − x dx
Y Ig Y Ig Y Ig
0 0 0
mgl2 mgl2 mgl2
= − = (23)
Y Ig 2Y Ig 2Y Ig

If dy is the depression of B due to curvature P P 0 , then

dy = (l − x)dθ
mg(l − x)2
dy = dx
Y Ig
Zl
mg(l − x)2
Z
y = dy = dx
Y Ig
0
Zl
mg
= (l − x)2 dx
Y Ig
0
l
2lx2 x3

mg 2
= l x− +
Y Ig 2 3 0
3
 
mg 3 l
= l − l3 +
Y Ig 3

mgl3
y= (24)
3Y Ig
 Properties of matter 1.23

Case (i): For rectangular cross section

bd3
Ig =
12
mgl3 12 4mgl3
y= =
3Y bd3 Y bd3
Case (ii) : Circular cross section
πr4
Ig =
4
4mgl3
y=
3Y r 4 π

1.13.2 Experimental determination of young’s modulus by

depression of a cantilever

Travelling
microscope

mg

Fig. 17

It consist of a beam with one end clamped to the edge of the table. A tall pin P is
stuck vertically to the free end. A hook is attached to suspend the weight hanger. A
travelling microscope is focussed on the tip of the pin.
A minimum load is attached to the hook. Microscope is adjusted such that the
horizontal cross wire coincides with the tip of the image of the pin and reading on
the vertical scale is taken. Loads are added to the hanger in steps of 50 gm and every
time, the readings are noted.

S.No Load Microscope reading while Mean Depression (y)

gms loading unloading for a load of m kg m/y
1 W
2 W + 50
3 W + 100
.. ..
. .

The experiment is repeated for decreasing loads also and the mean depression
(y) for a load m kg is found.
1.24 Applied Physics

The depression y produced for an addition of m kg is thus found. Breadth b and

thickness d are found out. Young’s modulus for rectangular cross section is,

4mgl3
Y =
bd3 y
4gl3 m
 
(or) Y =
bd3 y

Knowing l, b, d and m/y Young’s modulus can be calculated.

1.14 Non Uniform Bending - Depression at the Mid

Point of a Beam Loaded at the Middle
Consider a beam of length ‘l’ (distance be-
W/2 W/2
tween two knife edges) supported on the two
knife edges A and B. A load of weight ‘W ’ is
suspended at the center ‘C’. It is found that the y
beam bends and the maximum displacement l/2 l/2
is at the point ‘D’, where the load is given. Due A D B
C
to load (W )applied, at the middle of the beam
l
the reaction W/2 is acted vertically upwards
at each knife edges - The bending is called non W
uniform bending.
Fig. 18
The beam may be considered as two can-
tilevers, whose free end carries a load W/2 each of length l/2 and fixed at the point
‘D’.
Hence we can say the elevation of A above D as the depression of D below A.
We know, Depression of cantilever

W l3
y= (25)
3Y Ig

Therefore, substituting l = l/2 & W = W/2 in Eq.(25)

 3
W l
2 2 W l3
y= =
3Y Ig 48Y Ig

1.14.1 Experimental determination of Young’s modulus –

Non uniform bending
It consists of a beam, symmetrically supported on the two knife edges A and B. A
weight hanger is suspended at the center (C) of the beam by means of a loop. A pin
 Properties of matter 1.25

is fixed vertically at ‘C’ by some wax. The tip of the pin is focussed by a travelling
microscope. Taking weight hanger as a dead load (W ) the microscope is adjusted &
the tip is made to coincide with horizontal cross wire. The readings is noted from
the vertical scale of the microscope. Weights are added in steps of m, 2m, 3m kg and
corresponding readings are taken. Same procedure is repeated for unloading and
readings are tabulated.
Microscope

A B

Fig. 19

The mean depression y is found for a load of m kg.

Load (m) Microscope readings Depression (y) m/y

kg Increasing load decreasing load mean m kg/m
×10−2 m ×10−2 m ×10−2 m
W y0
W +m y1
W + 2m y2
W + 3m y3 y3 − y 0
W + 4m y4 y4 − y 1
W + 5m y5 y5 − y 2

W l3
We know y=
48Y Ig

where ‘l’ in length of the beam,

For rectangular beam
bd3
Ig = , W = mg
12
mgl3 mgl3
y=  3 =
bd 4Y bd3
48Y
12
3
 
gl M
Y = 3
N/m2
4bd y

Substituting all the values, Young’d modulus of the given beam is found out.
1.26 Applied Physics

1.15 Uniform Bending - Elevation at the Center of

the Beam Loaded at Both Ends
Consider a beam of negligible mass, supported symmetrically on two knife edges A
and B. Length between A and B be ‘l’. Let equal weights W , be added to either end
of beam C and B.
W
Let the distance CA = BD = a. W

Due to load applied the beam bends P E

from position F to E into an arc of a cir- x
F
cle and produces an elevation ‘x’ from C l D
position F to E. Let W be the reaction a
A B
a
produced at A & B, which acts verti- W
W
cally upwards as shown in Fig.20.
Fig. 20
Consider a point ‘P ’ on the cross sec-
tion of the beam. Then the forces acting on the part P C of the beam are
Force W at ‘C’ and Reaction W at A as W
shown in Fig.21.
a2
Let P C = a1 ; P A = a2 then, external A
bending moment about ‘p’ is C P
a
Mp = W × a 1 − W × a 2 a1
Here clockwise moment is taken as neg- W
ative and anticlockwise moment is taken as Fig. 21
positive.
Mp = W (a1 − a2 ) = W a (26)
Y Ig
Internal bending moment = (27)
R
Under equilibrium

External bending moment = Internal bending moment

Equating Eq.(26) and Eq.(27)

Y Ig
Wa = (28)
R
[∵ For a given load (W ) Y, Ig , a & R are constant, the bend- E

ing is called as uniform bending]. x

A B
Here it is found that the elevation ‘x’ from an arc of the l /2 F l /2
(2R - x)
circle of radius ‘R’ as shown in Fig.22.
From the Fig.22, we have
l l Fig. 22
(2R − x)x = . (Rule of sagita)
2 2
 Properties of matter 1.27

l2
2Rx − x2 =
4

Neglecting higher powers of x,

l2
2Rx =
4
l2
(or) R= (29)
8x

Substituting Eq.(29) in Eq.(28)

Y Ig 8Y Ig x
Wa = =
l2 /8x l2

W al2
Elevation x=
8Y Ig

W al2
Young’s modulus Y = (30)
8xIg

1.15.1 Experimental determination of Young’s modulus by

uniform bending
A beam is symmetrically supported on two knife edges with two weight hangers at
its ends. A pin is fixed at the center, whose tip is focussed through a microscope. For
dead load, the tip of the pin is made to coincide with the horizontal cross wire and
readings are noted. The same procedure is repeated for various loads and elevation
x for a given load m kg is found.

Load Microscopic readings Elevation x m/x

m kg ↑ load ↓ load mean
W x0
W +m x1
W + 2m x2
W + 3m x3
W + 4m x4 x4 − x 0
W + 5m x5 x5 − x 1
W + 6m x6 x6 − x 2
W + 7m x7 x7 − x 3

W al2
x=
8Y Ig
1.28 Applied Physics

Microscope

C D

A B

Fig. 23
For rectangular beam
bd3
Ig =
12
W = mg

mgal2 3 mgal2
x= =
8Y bd3 /12 2 Y bd3

3gal2  m 
Y =
2bd3 x

Difference between uniform and nonuniform bending

S.No Uniform bending Non Uniform bending

1. When uniform load is acting on the When the beam is loaded only at a
beam, the envelope of the bent beam point or non - uniformly the bend-
forms an arc of a circle & bending is ing is called non uniform bending.
called uniform bending
2. Load is applied at the ends of the Load is applied at the centre.
beam
3. Centre of the beam is elevated Centre of the beam is depressed.

1.16 Girders
The girders with upper & lower section broadened and
the middle section tapered, so that it can withstand
heavy loads over it is called as I shaped girders.
[Since the girder look like letter I, they are named so]
In general any girder supported at its two ends as on the
opposite walls of a room, bends under its own weight
and a small depression is produced at the middle por-
tion. This may also be caused when loads are applied to Fig. 24
the beams.
 Properties of matter 1.29

Due to the depression produced, the upper parts above neutral axis expands
while lower parts contracts. (i.e) stresses have a maximum value at the top and
bottom, which decreases as it approaches neutral axis.
∴ Upper & lower surfaces of the girder must be stronger than the intervening
part. Thus they are made of I shape.
The depression of its mid point is given by

4mgl3
y=
Y bd3
When a beam is used as a girder, it should have minimum depression under its own
weight. Further depression of the girder should be small for a given load also.
This can be achieved by decreasing its length, increasing Y and increasing b or
d. Decreasing ’`’ is not economical in many aspects. By selecting the girder material
with high ’Y ’ one can get small depression.
Since ’d’ occurs in the equation as d3 a small increase in ’d’ produces the same
effect as a larger change in b. The corresponding increase in volume of the girder
will be much smaller when d is increased than when b is increased so as to have the
same value of depression. It is therefore more economical to have a large depth and
a small breadth.
For stability , the upper and lower parts of the cross section will be broader so
that the section will have the shape of I.
When a girder is supported at its two ends, its middle part is depressed and the
surfaces above and below its neutral surface are compressed and extended respec-
tively. Compression is maximum at the upper face and extension is maximum at
the lower face, as stresses are maximum. As we proceed towards the neutral sur-
face, stresses starts decreasing. It follows therefore that upper and lower faces of the
girder should be much stronger than its middle portions. In other words, the middle
portions may be made of smaller breadth than upper and lower faces, thus saving a
good amount of material with no loss in strength and hence the shape of I.

Applications
1. Used in construction of bridges over the river.
2. Production of iron rails.
3. Supporting beams for ceilings in construction of buildings.

 Solved Problem 1

Find the stress, strain and Young’s modulus in the case of wire 1.5 m long and 1 sq
mm in cross section, if it increases by 1.55 mm, when a weight of 10 kg is suspended.
1.30 Applied Physics

I Solution

F ∆l
stress = ; strain =
A l
stress
Y = Young’s modulus =
strain
l = 1.5 m
F = 10 kg = 10 × 1000 × 980 dynes
= 150 cm
A = 1 sq.mm = 0.01 sq.cm ∆l = 1.55 mm
= .155 cm
98 × 105 2
stress = = 98 × 107 dynes/cm
0.01
∆l 0.155
strain = = = 10.33 × 10−4
l 150
98 × 107 2
Y = = 9.49 × 1011 dynes/cm
10.33 × 10−4

 Solved Problem 2

Find the force which must act tangentially over the surface of a body of surface area
18 cm2 in order to produce a shear of 2◦ . n = 9 × 1011 dynes/cm2 .

I Solution
F/A
n= ⇒ F = nAφ
φ
π
n = 9 × 1011 ; A = 18 cm2 ; φ = 2◦ = 2 ×
180
2π
F = 9 × 1011 × 18 × = 56.52 × 1010 dynes
180

 Solved Problem 3

A brass bar 1 cm square in cross section is supported on 2 knife edges 100 cm apart.
A load of 1 kg at the centre of the bar depresses that point by 2.51 mm. What is
Young’s modulus for the bars?
I Solution
W L3 bd3
y= ; Ig =
48Y Ig 12

b = d = 1 cm y = 2.51 mm
l = 100 cm = 0.251 cm
W = 1 kg = 100 × 981 dynes
 Properties of matter 1.31

12W L3 W L3
Y = 3
=
48ybd 4yd3 b
1000 × 981 × 1003 2
= = 9.77 × 1011 dynes/cm
4 × 0.251 × 1

 Solved Problem 4

A solid cylinder of 2 cm radius weighing 200 g is rigidly connected with its axis
vertical to the lower end of the fine wire. The period of oscillation of the cylinder
under the influence of the torsion of the wire is 2 sec. Calculate the couple necessary
to twist it through 4 complete turns.
I Solution
Period of the cylinder executing torsional vibrations is
r
I
T = 2π
c
M R2
I=
2
200 × 10−3 × (2 × 10−2 )2
= = 400 × 10−7 kgm2
2
4π 2 I
C=
T2
4 × π 2 × 400 × 10−7
= Nm
22
4 complete turns are exactly equal to 4 × 2π radian angle of twist.

θ = 8π radian

∴ required twisting couple = Cθ

4 × π 2 × 400 × 10−7
= × 8π
22
= 9.9 × 10−3 Nm

 Solved Problem 5

Calculate the density of lead under a pressure 2 × 108 N/m2 . Density of lead is
11.4 × 103 kg/m3 . Bulk modulus of elasticity = 8 × 109 Nm2 .
1.32 Applied Physics

I Solution
−P V
K=
dV
mass m=Vρ
dρ dV
V dρ + ρdV = 0 ⇒ =−
ρ V
P
K=
dρ/ρ
Pρ
ds =
K
2 × 108 × 11.4 × 103
=
8 × 109
3
= 0.285 × 103 kg/m

Density under applied pressure = ρ + dρ

= 11.4 × 103 + 0.285 × 103

3
= 11.685 × 103 kg/m

 Solved Problem 6

Calculate the maximum length of the steel rod that can hang vertically without
breaking. The breaking stress for steel is 8 × 106 N/m2 and ρsteel = 8 × 103 kg/m3 .
I Solution
mg vol × ρ × g
stress = =
area area
area × length × ρ × g
=
area
Smax = lmax × ρ × g

Smax 8 × 106
lmax = = = 102.04 m
ρg 8 × 103 × 9.8

 Solved Problem 7

The couple / unit twist for a certain solid cylinder of radius r is 100 Nm. Calculate
the contribution to this couple due to the central part up to radius r/4 and due to the
outer most part between radii 3r/4 and r.
I Solution πnr4
C= = 100 Nm
2l
 Properties of matter 1.33

Couple required / unit twist for an elementary cylindrical shell of radius x and
thickness dx is
2πn 3
dc = x dx
l
r
Couple in central part (ie.) 0 to
4
Zr/4
2πn
Z
0
C = dc = x3 dx
l
0
2πnr 4 1
= 4
= 100 × = 0.39 Nm
4l(4) 256

3r
Similarly for outer most part between and r
4
Zr r
x4

2πn 2πn
Z
00 3
C = dc = x dx =
l l 4
3r/4
4 !
πnr4
  
2πn 4 3r 175
= r − =
4l 4 2l 256
= 68.3 Nm

 Solved Problem 8

If the cross section of a cantilever is rectangular with sides of length a and b and if
the maximum depressions of the end of the beam for a given load and y a and yb
respectively, when a and b are vertical show that ya /yb = b2 /a2 .
I Solution
wl3 wl3 wl3
y= ; ya = ; yb =
3Y I 3Y Ia 3Y Ib
ya Ib
=
yb Ia
ba3 ab3
Ia = ; Ib =
12 12
3
ya ab 3 b2
= 12 ba = 2
yb 12 a

 Solved Problem 9

The modulus of rigidity and poisson’s ratio of the material of a wire are 2.87 ×
1010 N/m and 0.379 respectively. Find the Young’s modulus of the material of the
wire.
1.34 Applied Physics

I Solution
Y
σ= −1
2n
Y
= 1 + σ ⇒ Y = 2n(1 + σ)
2n
= 2 × 2.87 × 1010 (1 + 0.379)
2
= 7.915 × 1010 N/m

 Solved Problem 10

For the same cross section area, show that the beam of a square cross section is stiffer
than one of circular cross section of the same material. Find the ratio of the depres-
sions for a given load.
I Solution
For square cross section, let depression be ys and for circular let it be yc . Since
depression is inversely proportional to Ig

ys Igc
=
yc Igs
πr4 /4 3πr4
= 4
= 4
b /12 b

∵ C.S.A are same,

r2 1
πr2 = b2 ⇒ 2
=
b π
ys 3πr4 3πr2 .r2
= 4 = 2 2
yc b b .b
3r2 3
= 2
=
b π
(or) y s : yc = 3 : π

The science which deals with the action of force on bodies in motion is called
dynamics.

The two branches of dynamics will be discussed later.

 Properties of matter 1.35

1.17 Centre of Gravity and Moment of lnertia

Definition of centre of gravity Every particle of a body is attracted by the earth to-
wards its centre. The force of attraction which is proportional to the mass of the
particle, acts vertically downwards and is known as weight of the body W = mg.
The centre of gravity of a body is a point through which the line of action of the
weight of the body always passes in whatever position the body is held. A body
may be considered to be made up of a number of very small particles. The weights
of these particles constitute a system of like parallel forces. The resultant of this par-
allel system is the weight of the body, and the point of application of this resultant is
the centre of gravity of the body.
A body may be considered to be made up of very small masses. If each such mass
is acted on by a force proportional to the respective mass, and if these forces form a
parallel system, the point of application of this resultant is called the ‘centre of mass’
of the body.
Thus the centre of gravity and centre of mass are at the same point. In universe,
there are zones where the influence of earth’s gravitational attraction is completely
absent. In these places, the body will have no centre of gravity, but has centre of
mass.
The centre of gravity of a uniform rod lies at its middle, the centre of gravity of
a triangle lies at a point where three medians of the triangle meet and the centre
of gravity of a rectangle is the point where the diagonal meet and of circle is at its
centre.

1.17.1 Centre of gravity of plane figures by method of mo-

ments
Let us consider a plane figure of total area A
whose centre of gravity is to be determined. The
area A is composed of a number of small areas
a1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . .

A = a 1 + a2 + a3

Let x1 , x2 , x3 and x4 be the distance of the centre

of gravity of area a1 , a2 , a3 , and a4 from axis OY.
The moments of all small areas about the axis OY

a1 x 1 + a 2 x 2 + a 3 x 3 + a 4 x 4 + . . .

Let G be the centre of gravity of the area A whose distance from the axis OY is x.
The moment of total area about OY = Ax
1.36 Applied Physics

Moment of all small areas about OY = Moment of total area about OY

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + a4 x4 + . . . = Ax
a1 x 1 + a 2 x 2 + a 3 x 3 + a 4 x 4 . . . +
x=
A

Moment of the small areas about OX = moment of total area about OX

a1 y1 + a 2 y2 + a 3 y3 + a 4 y4 + . . .
∴ y=
A

Where y is the distance of G from OX and y1 , y2 , y3 , are the distance of centre of

gravity of area a1 , a2 , a3 , from axis OX respectively

Integration Method - Centre of gravity of area

P
ai x i
x= P
ai
P
ai yi
y= P
ai

where i = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
xi and yi are the distances of C.G of area ai from axis OY and OX respectively. If
the value of i is large in number then the summation can be replaced by integration
(i.e) large number of small area.

∫ xdA ∫ ydA
x= and y =
∫ dA ∫ dA

x and y are the distance of C.G of area dA from axis OY and OX respectively.

Centre of gravity of a line

∫ ydL ∫ xdL
y= and x =
L L
L → length and dL → length of an element. The centre of gravity of the line is similar
to the centre of gravity of the wire.

Centre of gravity of volume

Consider a cone of volume V.

R
∫ xdV ydV ∫ zdV
Then x = ;y = ;z =
V V V
 Properties of matter 1.37

Centre of gravity of some shapes

Shape Area(A) Centre of gravity (x, y)

Plane figure
R R R
A = dA y = ydA/A; x = xdA/A
b b
Rectangle A = bd x= ; ȳ =
2 2
1
Triangle (right angled) A= bh x = b/3; y = h/3
2
1
Triangle (iso celes) A = bh x = b/2; y = h/3
2
Circle A = πR2 x = 0; y = 0
2
πR 4R
Semicircle A= x = 0; y =
2 3π
Ellipse A = πab x = 0; y = 0

Centre of gravity of a right – angled triangle

Consider a triangle of height h and base b.
Consider one elementary strip of thickness dy
at a distance ‘y’ from the X-axis
Area of the strip dA = xdy
From similar triangles

b x
=
h (h − y)
b
∴ x = (hy)
h
b
dA = (h − y)dy (31)
h
Zh h
y2

b bh
A = (b/h)(h − y)dy = hy − =
h 2 o 2
o
Zh Zh
ydA = y(b/h)(hy)dy
o 0
Zh
b b h3 h3
hydy − y 2 dy = ( − )
h h 2 3
o
h3 bh2
 
b/h = =
6 6
∫ ydA bh2 /6 h
∴ y= = =
∫ dA bh/2 3
1.38 Applied Physics

To find x: consider a strip of depth h0 and width dx.

dA = h0 dx

From similar triangles

b h0 h(b − x)
= or h0 =
h b−x b
b
∴ dA = (bx)dx
h
Zb
b
A= (b − x)dx
h
0
b 2 b2
 
bh
= b − =
h 2 2
b h b
∫ xdA = ∫ x(bx)dx
o bo
b b3 b3 hb2
 
= − =
h 2 3 6
∫ xdA hb2 hb b
x= = / =
dA 6 2 3

1.17.2 Centre of gravity of a rectangle

To find y: Consider a strip of thickness dy of
width b.
Area of the strip dA = bdy

Z Zd
dA = bdy = bd
0

First moment of dA about X axis

ydA = ybdy
Total first moment of area about X-axis

d d bd2
∫ ydA = ∫ bydy =
o o 2
2
bd d
∴ y= /bd =
2 2
 Properties of matter 1.39

Consider a strip of thickness dx and depth d as

shown.

dA = ddx
Zb
A= ddx = bd.
0

First moment of dA about Y-axis = xdA = xddx.

Rb db2
Total first moment of area about Y-axis = xddx =
0 2

db2
∴ x= /bd = b/2.
2

1.17.3 Moment of inertia

Consider a plane area which is split into small

areas a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . Let the C.G of the small areas
from a given axis be at a distance of r1 , r2 , r3 . . .
Moment of inertia of the plane area about the
given axis is given by

I = a1 r12 + a2 r22 + a3 r33 + . . .

or I = Σar 2

The moment of inertia is the sum of the products

of the area (or mass) and the square of the dis-
tances from the axis of rotation.

1.18 Radius of Gyration

Suppose the body consists of n particles of mass m

I = Σmr 2 = m[r12 + r22 + r32 + . . . rn2 ]

 2
r1 + r22 + r32 + ...rn2

I = mn
n
r
I
I = M K or K =
2
M
r12 + r22 + r32 + . . . rn2
where K2 =
n
r
[r12 + r22 + r32 + . . . rn2 ]
or K=
n
1.40 Applied Physics

K is called the radius of gyration and is equal to the root mean square distance of
the particles from the axis of rotation.
Suppose the whole mass of the body is concentrated at a single point such that
M.I of this concentrated point mass is same as the M.I of the whole body about the
axis, the distance of that single point from the axis is called the radius of gyration of
the body about the axis.

1.18.1 Theorem of perpendicular axis

This theorem states that the moment of inertia of
a plane lamina body about an axis perpendicu-
lar to the plane is equal to the sum of moment of
inertia about two mutually perpendicular axis in
the plane of the lamina such that the three mutu-
ally perpendicular axis have a common point of
intersection. Consider a plane lamina having the
axis OX and OY in the plane of the lamina. The
axis OZ passes through O and is perpendicular to
the plane of the lamina. Let the lamina be divided
into a large number of particles each of mass m. Let a particle of mass m be at P with
coordinates (x, y) and situated at a distance r from the point of intersection of the
axis.
r 2 = x2 + y 2
Moment of inertia of the particle about the axis OZ = mr 2 .
Moment of inertia of the whole lamina about the axis,
OZ = Σmr 2 = Iz
Moment of inertia of the whole lamina about the axis OX
Ix = Σmy 2
Similarly, Iy = Σmx2
I = I x + Iy
Iz = Σmr 2
= Σm(x2 + y 2 )
Iz = Σmx2 + Σmy 2
Iz = I x + I y

1.18.2 Theorem of parallel axis

It states that the moment of inertia of a plane area about an axis in the plane of area
through the C.G of the plane area be represented by IG, then the moment of inertia
 Properties of matter 1.41

of the given plane area about a parallel axis AB at a distance h from C-G of the area
is given by,
IAB = IG + Ah2

IAB - Moment of inertia of the given area about AB.

IG - Moment of inertia of the given area about C.G.
A - Area of the section
h - Distance between C-G of the section and the axis AB.
Proof A lamina of plane area A is shown in the fig.
X − X The axis in the plane of area A
and passing through the C.G of the area.
AB The axis that is parallel to axis X X
Consider a strip parallel to X X at a dis-
tance y from the X X axis.
Let the area of the strip = d A
Moment of inertia of the strip about
XX = y 2 dA.
Moment of inertia of the total area
about X X
IG = σy 2 dA

Moment of inertia of the area dA about AB

= dA(h + y)2

Moment of inertia of the total area A about AB

IAB = ΣdA[h2 + y 2 + 2hy]

= Σh2 dA + Σy 2 dA + σ2hydA

As h or h2 is a constant

= h2 ΣdA + Σy 2 dA + 2hΣydA.

But ΣdA = A and Σy 2 dA = IG

= h2 A + IG + 2hΣydA.

Moment of area of the strip about X-X = ydA and ΣydA represents moment of
total area about X-X axis. Moment of total area about X-X axis is equal to the product
of the total area A and the distance of C.G of the total area from X-X axis. Since
distance of C.G of the total area from X-X axis is zero Σ ydA = 0.

∴ IAB = IG + Ah2 .
1.42 Applied Physics

The theorem of parallel axis states that the moment of inertia of a body about any
axis is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis
and the product of the area of the body and the square of distance between the two
parallel axis.

1.19 Moment of Inertia of Rigid bodies

Moment of Inertia of simple bodies can be determined as follows:
1. Take a general element.
2. Write down the expression for mass of the element and its distance from the
axis.
3. Integrate the term between suitable limits such that the entire mass of the body
is covered.

1.19.1 Moment of inertia of a thin uniform bar (Rod)

Consider a thin uniform bar AB of mass m and length l rotating about an axis passing
through its centre and perpendicular to its length (axis Y Y 1 )
Mass of the bar = M
Length of the bar = l
M
Mass per unit length =
`
Take an element of length dx at a distance x
from the axis   Y'
M
Mass of the element = dx
`
 
M
Moment of inertia of the element about Y Y = 0
dxx2
`
Moment of inertia of the bar AB about the axis Y Y 0

Zl/2  
M
I= x2 dx
l
−l/2
l/2
x3

M
=
l 3 −l/2
3
l3
 
M l
= +
l 24 24
M l3 M l2
= =
l 12 12
 Properties of matter 1.43

1.19.2 About an axis at the end of the rod and normal to it

Moment of inertia of the bar about the axis Y Y 0
Zl  
M
I= x2dx
l
0
1
x3

M
=
l 3 0

M l3 M l2
= = Y'
l 3 3

1.19.3 Moment of inertia of a bar about an axis perpen-

dicular to its length at a distance a from one end
Zl−a
M
I= x2 dx
l
−a
l−a
x3

M
=
l 3 −a
" #
3
M (l − a) a3
= +
l 3 3
Y'
l3 − a3 − 3l2 a + 3la2 a3
 
M
= +
l 3 3
M 2
= [l 3la + 3a2 ]
3

1.19.4 Moment of inertia of a ring

Consider a thin uniform ring of mass M and radius R. The ring rotates about an axis
Y Y 1 passing through its centre.
Mass of the ring = M
Length of the ring = 2πR.
M
Mass per unit length =
2πR
Take an element of length dx. It distance from
the axis is R.  
M
Mass of the element = dx
2πR Y'
 
M
Moment of inertia of the element about the axis = R2 dx.
2πR
1.44 Applied Physics

M R 2πR M R 2πR
Moment of inertia of the ring I = [x]0 = M R2
R
dx =
2π 0 2π

1.19.5 Moment of inertia of a solid sphere

About the diameter
Consider a solid sphere of radius
R and mass M.
4
Volume of the sphere = πR3
3
M
Mass per unit volume =
4/ πR3
3
Consider an element of thickness
dx at a distance x from the centre.
√
Radius of the element r = R2 − x2
Volume of the element = πr 2 dx

= π(R2 x2 )dx
M
Mass of the element = π(R2 x2 )dx
4/ πR3
3
3M 2 2
= (R x )dx
4R3
Moment of inertia of the element about the axis XX 1
1
= × mass × square of radius.
2

r2
 
3M 2 2
= R − x dx
4R3 2
 
3M
= (R2 x2 )(R2 x2 )dx
8R3
3M 2 2 2
= (R x ) dx
8R3
Moment of inertia of the whole sphere about the axis XX 1 .
ZR
3M 2 2 2
I=2 (R x ) dx
8R3
0

ZR
3M
= (R4 + x4 − 2R2 x2 )dx
4 R3
0
R
x5 2R2 x3

3M
= 3
R4 x + −
4R 5 3 0
 Properties of matter 1.45

R5 2R5
 
3M 5
= R + −
4R3 5 3
3M R2 8
= ×
4 15
2M R2 2
= M R2
5 5

About a tangent

Moment of inertia of a solid sphere about a tan-

gent is given by,

Iy = IAB + M R2
2 7
= M R2 + M R2 = M R2
5 5

1.19.6 Moment of inertia of a uniform circular disc

Consider a uniform circular disc of mass M and radius R rotating about an axis pass-
ing through its centre.

Mass of the disc = M

Area of the disc = πR2
M
Mass per unit area =
πR2
Consider a thin element of the disc of radius x and radial thickness dx.
Area of the element = 2πxdx.
M
Mass of the element = 2πxdx
πR2
2M
= 2 xdx
R
1.46 Applied Physics

Moment of inertia of the element about the axis of rotation

= mass × x2
2M 3
= x dx
R2

RR 2M 3
Moment of inertia of the whole disc about the axis of rotation = 2
x dx
0 R

2M R4
I=
R2 4
1
= M R2
2
Moment of Inertia of a disc about its diameter

M R2
I=
4
where I = Ix + Iy = 2Ix .
2
1 MR 2 M R2
or Ix = =
2 2 4

1.19.7 Moment of inertia of an annular disc

Consider a uniform circular (annular) disc of inner radius R 1 , and outer radius R2 .
Let mass of the disc be M.

Area of the disc = π R22 − R12

M
Mass per unit area =
π (R22
− R12 )
Consider an element of radius x and radial thickness dx
M
Area of the element = 2πxdx
π (R2 − R12 )
2

2M xdx
= 2
R2 − R12
 Properties of matter 1.47

Moment of inertia of the element about an axis passing through its centre and
perpendicular to the plane of the disc.

2M xdx 2
= x
R22 − R12

Moment of inertia of the whole disc about Y Y 0

ZR2
2M x3 dx
I=
R22 − R12
R1
 4 R2
2M x
= 2
R2 − R12 4 R1
2M (R24 − R14 )
=
(R2 − R1 ) (R2 + R1 ) 4
2M (R22 − R12 )(R22 + R12 )
=
R22 − R12 4
M 2
I= (R2 + R12 )
2
b) About the diameter I = Ix + Iy = 2Ix {Ix = I/2}
M 2
= (R2 + R12 )
4
c) About a tangent in the plane of the disc.

I = IX + M R22
M (R22 + R12 )
= + M R22
4

1.19.8 Moment of inertia of a spherical shell

Consider a spherical shell of radius R and
mass M. Consider an element between two
planes P and Q. The distance between the
two planes is dx.
∠GOE = δq
Then EG = Rδθ.
Radius of thin element
y = R cos θ
x = R sin θdx = R cos θdθ
Surface area of the element = 2py(EG)
= 2πR cos θRdθ
1.48 Applied Physics

= 2πR2 cos θdθ

= 2πRdx
M
Mass per unit area of the shell =
4πR2
M
Mass of the element = 2πRdx
4πR2
M dx
=
2R
Moment of inertia of the element about the diameter AB
M dx 2 M dx 2
y = (R − x2 )
2R 2R
Moment of inertia of the whole shell about the diameter
ZR
M dx 2
=2 (R − x2 )
2R
O
R
x3

M 2
= R x−
R 3 0
3
 
M R 2
= R3 − = M R2
R 3 3
About the tangent
2 5
I + M R2 = M R2 + M R2 = M R2
3 3

1.19.9 Moment of inertia of a hollow sphere

Consider a hollow sphere of inner radius R1 and
outer radius R2
Mass of the sphere = M
Let the density of the material = ρ
4
M= π(R23 − R13 )ρ (32)
3
Moment of inertia of the hollow sphere
2
I= (M1 R22 − M2 R12 )
5 
2 4 3 2 4 3 2
I= πR ρR − πR ρR
5 3 2 2 3 1 1
= R25 − R15 πρ

M
ρ= from equation (1)
4/ π(R3 − R3 )
3 2 1
 Properties of matter 1.49

2 5 5
5 M (R2 − R1 )
I=
(R23 − R13 )

when R1 = 0; R2 = R
2
I= M R2
5

1.19.10 Moment of inertia of a rectangular plate

Consider a rectangular plate of uniform thickness, length and breadth be l and b
respectively.
Consider an element of length dx
at a distance x from Y Y 0 .
Mass of the plate = M
Area of the plate = l × b
M
Mass per unit area =
l×b
Area of the element = bdx
M
Mass of the element = bdx Y'
lb
M
= dx
l
M
Moment of Inertia of the element about the axis Y Y 0 = dxx2
l
Moment of inertia of the whole plate about the axis Y Y 0

Zl/2
M
Iy = x2 dx
l
−l/2

l3 l3 M l2
 
M
= + =
l 24 24 12

Similarly about XX 0
M b2
Ix =
12
Moment of Inertia of the plate about an axis ZZ 0 passing through the centre of grav-
ity (perpendicular axis theorem).

IZ = I x + I y
M 2
Iz = (l + b2 )
12
1.50 Applied Physics

Moment of Inertia of the plate about an axis PR

 2
l
IP R = I y + M
2
M l2 M l2 M l2
= + =
12 4 3
Moment of Inertia of the plate about an axis PQ.
 2
b
IP Q = I x + M
2
M b2
=
3

1.19.11 Moment of inertia of hollow rectangular section

Moment of Inertia of solid rectangular about X-X axis
M b2
Ix =
12
Moment of Inertia of section EFGH about X-X axis
M b21
=
12
Moment of Inertia of hollow rectangular section about
Y'
X-X axis
M b3 M b31
= −
12 12

1.19.12 Moment of inertia of a circular section

Let us consider a circular section of radius R and
O as centre. Consider an elementary circular ring
of radius r and thickness dr.
Area of elementary circular ring = 2πr dr
Moment of inertia of the elementary circular
ring about an axis passing through O and perpen-
dicular to the plane of the paper
Moment of Inertia = 2πr dr. r2
= 2π r3 dr.

Moment of Inertia of the whole circular section about an axis passing through O
and perpendicular to the plane of the paper is given by
ZR R
r4

2πr3 dr = 2π
4 0
0
 Properties of matter 1.51

π 4
R
=
2
D
But R =
2
D Diameter of the circular section
4
πD4
  
π D
I= =
2 2 32

But from the theorem of perpendicular axis is given by I xx = Iyy

I = Ixx + Iyy
I = 2Iyy
I
= Ixx (or) Iyy
2
πD4 1
= ×
32 2
πD4
=
64

1.19.13 Moment of Inertia of a hollow circular section

D −→ Diameter of the outer circle
d −→ Diameter of the inner circle
πD4
Moment of Inertia of outer circle about XX axis =
64
πd4
Moment of Inertia of inner circle about XX axis =
64
.5 Moment of Inertia of hollow circular section
about XX axis
π
Ixx = [D4 d4 ]
64
π
Similarly Iyy = [D4 d4 ]
64

1.19.14 Moment of inertia of triangular plate

P
Consider a triangular plate PQR of mass ‘M’, base ‘a’
and height ‘h’ as shown in the figure.
S T h
From the above figure A
QR = a, the base of the triangular plate x
B
PB = h, the height of the plate. Q R
a
1.52 Applied Physics

Area of the plate

1
= × base × height
2
1
= × QR × PB
2
1
= ah (33)
2
M
∴ Mass per unit area (m) of the triangular plate =
1
ah
2
2M
=
ah
∴ Mass of the plate for the given area PQR is

M = Area × Mass per unit area

1
M= amh (34)
2

To find moment of inertia of the plate about base QR

Consider a small strip ‘ST’ of thickness ‘dx’ at a distance ‘x’ from the base QR. (Many
such strips combine together to constitute the given triangular plate)

Area of the strip = ST.dx (35)

Mass of the strip

= Area of the strip × Mass per unit area of the plate.

= ST.dx.m (36)

To find ‘ST’
ST = SA + AT
From the similar triangles ∆ PQB & ∆ PSA
SA PA h−x
= =
QB PB h
 
h−x
∴ SA = .QB (37)
h
From the similar triangles ∆ PRB & ∆ PTA
AT PA h−x
= =
BR PB h
 
h−x
∴ AT = .BR (38)
h
 Properties of matter 1.53

Adding Eq.(37) and Eq.(38) we get

 
h−x
ST = SA + AT = (QB + BR)
h
 
h−x
∴ ST = QR
h
 
h−x
ST = a (39)
h

Substituting Eq.(39) in Eq.(36) we get

Mass of the strip = ST.dx.m

 
h−x
= a.m dx (40)
h

M.I. of the strip about base BC

= Mass of the strip × (distance from base)2

 
h−x
= a.m dx.x2
h
 
h−x
= am x2 dx (41)
h

∴ M.I. of the triangular plate about base axis QR is

Zh  
h−x
= am x2 dx
h
0

Zh
am
= (h − x)x2 dx
h
0
h
am hx3 x4

= −
h 3 4 0
4
am h
=
h 12
amh3
=
12
M h2
∴ M.I = (42)
6
1
Where M = amh, is the mass of the triangular plate. Eq.(41) gives the moment of
2
inertia of the triangular plate about its base axis.
1.54 Applied Physics

Moment of inertia of a triangular section about an axis passing through

C.G and parallel to the base

Height = h
Base width = b
Distance between the base and C.G of
h
the triangular section =
3
From the theorem of parallel axis
Moment of Inertia about BC = Moment
of Inertia about C.G + Area × (Distance be-
tween XX and BC)2
 2
h
IBC = IG + A
3
Ah2
IG = IBC
9
 2
bh3 b×h h
= −
12 2 3
bh3 bh3
=− −
12 18
bh3
IG =
36

1.19.15 Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder

About its own axis
Consider a cylinder of length 1 and mass M.
Its inner radius is R1 and outer radius R2 .
M
Mass per unit volume =
π (R22 − R12 ) l

Consider an element of length l, radius x and

thickness dx.

Volume of the element = 2π x dx l

M (2πxdx)l
Mass of the element =
π (R22 − R12 ) l
Moment of Inertia of the element about the axis
2M xdx 2
YY1 = 2 x
R2 − R12
 Properties of matter 1.55

Moment of Inertia of the whole cylinder about the axis YY 1

ZR2
2M
I= x3 dx
(R22− R12 )
R1
 4 R2
2M x
= 2 2
(R2 − R1 ) 4 R1
M R22 + R12


I=
2
For solid cylinder
R1 = 0
R2 = R
M R2
I=
2

Moment of Inertia a of a solid cylinder about an axis passing through

its centre and perpendicular to its own axis of cylindrical symmetry
Let l be the length, R the radius and M is the mass of the cylinder, then the mass per
M
unit length of the cylinder will be . Let YY1 be the axis about which the moment
1
of inertia has to be determined.

Consider a small disc of width dx at a distance x from the axis YY 1 .

M R2
Moment of inertia of the disc about its diameter =
4
Moment of inertia of this small disc about an axis YY1
  2  
M R M
dx + dx (x2 )
l 4 l
Moment of inertia of the cylinder about YY1

Z`/2
M R2

M 2
I=2 . dx + x dx
l 4 l
0
1.56 Applied Physics

Zl/2
R2

2M 2
= + x dx
l 4
0
l/2
x3

2M R2
= x+
` 4 3 0
2 3
 
2M R l l
= . +.
` 4 2 24
 2 3

M R l
= l+
l 4 12
M  2
3R l + l3

=
12l
 2
l2

R
=M +
4 12

1.20 Oscillations of Rigid Bodies

A mechanical vibration is the motion of a particle or a body which oscillates about
a position of equilibrium. A mechanical vibration generally results when a system
is displaced from a position of stable equilibrium. The time interval required for the
system to complete a full cycle of motion is called the period of vibration. The num-
ber of cycles per unit time defines the frequency, and the maximum displacement of
the system from its position of equilibrium is called the amplitude of vibration.
When a body vibrates under the action of restoring forces only, the motion is
called a free vibration. If resisting forces are also present, the motion is called damped
free vibration. If the vibrations are caused by a periodic force applied to the body,
the motion is called a forced vibration which may or may not be damped.

1.20.1 Simple pendulum

A simple pendulum displaced slightly
from its equilibrium position executes os-
cillation.
Figure shows a simple pendulum dis-
placed to a position A by a small angle q
from its mean position B. At the position
A, the weight mg of the bob acts vertically
downwards and tension T in the string acts
along the string upwards. The weight mg
can be reduced into two mutually perpen-
dicular components.
 Properties of matter 1.57

1. The component mg cos θ, along the string, is balanced by the tension T in the
string.
∴ mg cos θ = T.
2. The component mg sin θ, along the direction perpendicular to the string is un-
balanced. This force on the bob is directed towards the mean position and
under the influence of this force the bob moves towards the mean position.
The displacement AB = x = lθ where l is the effective length of the pendulum and θ
is very small.
The restoring force acting on the oscillating particle = mg sin θ
For small angular displacement θ, sin θ = θ.
∴ Restoring force F = mg θ.
(ve sign indicates restoring force is opposite to the direction of displacement).
Substituting the value for θ
−mg
F = x
`
Since the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement and is directed
opposite to the displacement, the oscillations of simple pendulum are simple har-
monic.
Force
∴ Force constant K =
displacement
F mgθ mg
= = =
x `θ `
Time period of the pendulum
r
m
T = 2π
k
m
r
= 2π
mg/`
s
`
= 2π
g

Frequency of oscillation of simple pendulum

1
v=
T
r
1 g
=
2π `

The time period does not depend on the mass of the body but only on the length ` of
the pendulum.
1.58 Applied Physics

1.20.2 Compound pendulum

A compound pendulum is a rigid body, capable of oscillating freely about a horizon-
tal axis passing through it.
Let m be the mass of the pendulum and it
makes small oscillation under gravity about an
axis through a point O. Let G be the centre of
gravity of the pendulum and l be the distance OG.
The pendulum is displaced from its position of
rest so that OG makes an angle θ with OA the ver-
tical through O. The weight of the pendulum mg
acting vertically downwards produces equal and
opposite reaction acting at O. These two forces
together form a couple which tends to bring the
pendulum to its initial position.
Now let us take moment about the axis of rotation.
The moment of weight mg is = mg l sin θ.
Here θ is small angular displacement from the position of equilibrium.
If I is the moment of inertia of the rigid body about the axis of rotation, then the
equation of moment.
d2 θ
I = mgl sin θ
dt2

The negative sign indicates as θ increases the couple tries to reduce it.
We know I = M K 2
where K is radius of gyration about O

d2 θ
∴ mk 2 + mgl θ = 0
dt2

when θ is small sin ≈ θ

d2 θ
∴ mk 2 + mgl θ = 0
dt2
k 2 θ = glθ
−glθ
∴ θ=
k2

d2 θ
From the above relation it is clear that the motion is S.H.M, as is proportional to
dt2
angular displacement θ.
 Properties of matter 1.59

displacement
r
Time period of the pendulum = 2π
acceleration
v s
u θ k2
T = 2π t
u = 2π
lg lg
.θ
k2
r
1 1 lg
Frequency f= =
T 2π k 2

Torsional Pendulum
A torsional pendulum is a pendulum performing torsional oscillations and consist-
ing of a metal wire clamped to a rigid support at one end and carries a heavy circu-
lar disc at the other end. When the disc is subjected to slight rotation and left free,
it starts oscillating periodically about the wire as axis. During its oscillations, its
d2 θ dθ
angular acceleration ‘a’ = 2 and angular velocity, ‘ω’ = .
dt dt
Potential energy confined to the wire (equal to the work done in twisting it through
θ
θ) = ∫ moment of the couple x dθ.
0

θ 1 2
= ∫ c θ. dθ = cθ
0 2
where ‘c’ is the couple per unit twist.
1 P 1
Kinetic energy confined to the rotating disc = mi vi2 = I ω 2 .
2 2
where ri ω = vi and I = mi ri2 = moment
P

of inertia of the circular disc about the axis of sus-

pension.
Total energy of the torsional pendulum =
1 1
c θ2 + I ω2
2 2
According to the principle of conservation of
1 1
energy c θ2 + I ω 2 = constant.
2 2

Diff. w.r.to time

1 dθ 1 dω
c.2.θ + I.2.ω =0
2 dt 2 dt
dθ dω d2 θ
Sub: ω= ; = 2
dt dt dt
1 dθ 1 dθ d2 θ
we get, c.2.θ + I.2.
2 dt 2 dt dt
1.60 Applied Physics

d2 θ −cθ
2
=
dt I
This eqn represents a simple harmonic motion eqn.
Then,
−c
ω2 =
I
r
c
ω=
I
r
1 c
f=
2π I
r
I
Time period, T = 2π
c
r
1 c
Frequency, f=
2π I

Short Questions
1. Define ‘Elasticity’
2. Define ‘Strain’ and ‘stress’
3. State Hooke’s law.
4. Represent the relation between stress & stain by a graph and indicate the im-
portant point.
5. What do you mean by elastic limit.
6. What is breaking stress.
7. Explain yield point and yielding stress
8. Differentiate perfect elastic and plastic materials
9. Define Tensile strength
10. Define Young’s modulus, bulk modulus and rigidity modulus
11. Define poisson’s ratio
12. Derive the limiting value of σ?
13. What is a shaft?
14. What are the requirement of a good shaft?
15. Define neutral surface?
16. What is a cantilever ?
17. Differentiate uniform and non uniform bending
18. What are I shaped girders.
19. What are the three moduli of elasticity? Give the relation between then?
 Properties of matter 1.61

20. What is a torsion pendulum?

21. Why do we prefer I shaped girders rather than solid girders?
22. What are the basic assumptions for theory of bending.
23. Define moment of inertia
The moment of inertia is the sum of the products of the area (or mass) and the
square of the distance from the axis of rotation.
I= ar or I = mr2 .
P 2 P

24. What is a centroid?

The plane figures (like triangle, quadilateral, circle etc) have only area but no
mass. The centre of area of such figures is known as centroid.
25. What do you mean by centre of gravity?
It is defined as the point through which the whole weight of the body acts,
irrespective of the position of the body
26. Define radius of gyration?
Suppose the whole mass of the body is concentrated at a single point such that
moment of inertia of this concentrated point mass is same as the moment of
inertia of the whole body about the axis, the distance of that single point from
the axis is called the radius of gyration of the body about the axis
or
Radius of gyration is equal to the root mean square distance of the particles
from the axis of rotation.
q
2 2 2
k = r1 + r2 + .... + rn π

27. State theorem of perpendicular axis

This theorem states that the moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an axis
perpendicular to the plane is equal to the sum of moment of inertia about two
mutually perpendicular axis in the plane of the lamina such that the three mu-
tually perpendicular axis have a common point of intersection.
28. State theorem of parallel axis
Parallel axis theorem states that the moment of inertia of a plane area about
an axis in the plane of area through the centre of gravity of the plane area be
represented by IG , then the moment of inertia of the given plane area about a
parallel axis AB in the plane of the area at a distance h from centre of gravity
of the area is given by
IAB = IG + Ah2 where A is area of the section.
IAB −→ Moment of inertia of the given area about AB
IG −→ Moment of inertia of the given area about centre of gravity
1.62 Applied Physics

29. Give the moment of inertia of a rectangular plate, triangular plate and cylin-
der?
M 2
Moment of inertia of a rectangular plate = (l + b2 )
12
bh3
Moment of inertia of a triangular plate =
12
(about its base)
M R2
Moment of inertia of a solid cylinder =
2
M R22 + R12


Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder =
2

Review Questions
1. What is a shaft? Give examples? What are the requirements of a good shaft?
Explain why hollow shaft are stiffer than solid shaft.
2. Define Torsion pendulum. With necessary theory,derive the expression for the
time period of oscillation for a torsion pendulum.
3. With necessary explanation, derive the expression for couple / couple unit
twist on a cylinder fixed at one end.
4. Explain the determination of rigidity modulus of the given wire, by Torsional
oscillations.
5. Derive an expression for the internal bending moment of a beam.
6. Define a cantilever? If ‘y’ be the depression of the cantilever when loaded at its
free end, with necessary theory, derive an expression for ‘y’ in terms of Young’s
modulus of the beam.
7. Describe an experimental method for determining the Young’s modulus of a
material of a cantilever.
8. Derive an expression for the time period of oscillation of cantilever.
9. Derive an expression of a beam supported at two ends and loaded at the mid-
dle. Also describe an experiment to determine the Young’s modulus using this.
10. Define uniform bending and obtain an expression for the elevation at the centre
of the beam subjected to the loads at its ends Also give experimental determi-
nation of young is modulus using uniform bending.
11. State parallel axis theorem? Derive on expression for moment of inertia and
radius of gyration?
12. State perpendicular axis theorem? Derive the expression for moment of inertia
of rectangular plate?
 Properties of matter 1.63

13. Obtain an expression for the moment of inertia of a triangular plate about its
base and about an axis passing through centre of gravity and parallel to the
base?
14. Deduce an expression for the moment of inertia of a hollow and solid cylinder
about its own axis?
15. Derive the moment of inertia of a solid cylinder about an axis passing through
its centre and perpendicular to its own axis?
16. Obtain the expression for time period of oscillation of simple pendulum? De-
rive the expression for frequency of oscillation of compound pendulum?
17. Describe with a neat diagram the construction of torsional pendulum and de-
duce an expression for the time period of oscillation?

Exercise Problems
1. Calculate Young’s modulus of a rubber tube 0.4 m long, whose external and
internal diameter are 0.01 m and 0.004 m respectively extends 0.0006 m when
stretched by a force of 5 kg wt. (Ans : 4.9 × 108 N/m 2 )

2. A spherical ball contracts in volume by 0.01%. When subjected to a normal uni-

form pressure of 100 atmospheres. Calculate the bulk modulus of the material
(Ans: 1010 N/m )
2
of ball.

3. A material has Poisson’s ratio of 0.20. If a uniform rod of it suffers a longitudi-

nal strain 4.0 × 10−3 , deduce the percentage change in its volume.
(Ans: 0.24%
0.24%)

4. A wire of length 1m and diameter 10−3 m, is stretched by 6 × 10−4 m by a load

10 kg. The wire is twisted by 70◦ by a force of 5 × 10−3 kg applied to each end
of 0.2 m length rod soldered at its mid point to the end of the wire. Calculate
(Ans: n = 8.17 × 1010 N/m ; Y = 20.806 × 1010 N/m ;
2 2
y, n, k & σ.
2 2
k = 15.2 × 1010 N/m ; σ = 0.27
0.27)

5. A metallic wire of length 1 m and radius 0.5 mm is twisted through 0.6 ra-
dian by applying a torque 0.006 Nm. Calculate the corresponding modulus of
elasticity of the material of the wire. (Ans: 12.07 × 1010 pa
pa)

6. A steel transmission shaft 2 cm in diameter and 5 m long rotates at 1500 rpm.

The torsion in shaft is 0.02 radian. Rigidity modulus = 8 × 10 10 N/m2 . Find
power transmitted by the shaft. (Ans: 790.2 watts
watts)

7. The restoring couple/unit twist in a solid cylinder of radius 5 cm in 10 −1 Nm.

Find the restoring couple / unit twist in a hollow cylinder of the same material,
mass and length but the internal radius 12 cm. (Ans: 1.25 Nm
Nm)
1.64 Applied Physics

8. Calculate the % saving in material if a hollow coupling shaft with internal ra-
dius one half of the external radius, replaces a solid shaft of same material and
length, the 2 shafts having equal torsional rigidities. (Ans: 22%
22%)

9. A thin walled circular tube of mean diameter 20 cm and thickness 0.5 mm is

melted up and recast with a solid rod of same length. Compare the torsional
rigidities in the 2 cases. (Ans: 200
200)

10. Forces of 105 N each are applied in opposite directions on upper and lower
faces of a cube of side 10 cm, shifting the upper face parallel to itself by 0.5 m.
If the side of the cube was 20 cm, what would be the displacement?
(Ans: 0.25m
0.25m)

11. Two solid cylinders of same material having lengths l, 2l and radii r, 2r respec-
tively are joined coaxially. Under a couple applied between the free ends, the
shorter shows a twist of 30◦ . Calculate the twist of the larger cylinder.
(Ans: 3.75◦ )

12. If the values of Young’s modulus and rigidity modulus are 20×10 10 N/m2 and
8 × 1010 N/m2 . Find bulk modulus and poisson’s ratio.
(Ans: σ = 0.25; k = 13.3 × 1010 N/m )
2

13. A gold wire 0.32 mm in diameter, elongates by 1 mm, when stretched by a force
of 330 gmwt and twists through 1 radian. When equal and opposite torques
of 145 dynes cm, are applied at its ends. Find the values of Poisson’s ratio for
gold. (Ans: 0.429
0.429)

1
14. How much force is required to punch a hole in, in diameter in a steel sheet
2
1
in thick whose shearing strength is 4 × 104 lb/in2 . (Ans: 7840 lb
lb)
8
15. An Aluminium wire 3 mm in diameter and 4 m long is used to support a mass
of 50 kg. What is the elongation of the wire? Y = 7 × 1010 Pa.
(Ans: 3.96 mm
mm)

16. A sheet of Indian rubber of 10 cm sq and 2 cm thick has one face fastened to a
vertical wall and to the other face a piece of wood is cemented when a load of
30 kg is hung from the wood, the wood is found to be finally lowered by 0.03
(Ans: 1.96 × 10 7 dynes/cm )
2
cm. Find the co-efficient of rigidity of rubber.

17. A uniform glass tube is hung from a support and stretched by a weight. It is
found that 1 m of the tube stretches by 0.6 cm, but that a column of water 1 m
long contained with in the tube lengthens by only 0.4 cm. Find the Poisson’s
ratio of glass. (Ans: 0.3332
0.3332)
 Properties of matter 1.65

18. Two cylindrical shafts have the same length and mass and are made of the same
material. One is solid, which the other, which is hollow, has an external radius
twice the internal radius. Compare their torsional rigidities and the maximum
√
strains produced by equal twisting torques. (Ans: 3/5 & 5/2 33)

19. A 10 cm wide and 0.2 mm thick metal sheet is bent to form a cylinder of 10
cm length and 50 cm radius. If the Young’s modulus of the metal is 1.5 × 10 12
dynes/cm2 , calculate (i) the stress and strain on the convex surface (ii) bending
(Ans: 3 × 108 dynes/cm ; 2 × 10−4 ; 2 × 105 dyne cm
2
moment. cm)

20. A cantilever of length 0.5 m has a depression of 15 mm at its free end. Calculate
the depression at a distance of 0.3 m from the fixed end.
(Ans: 6.48 × 10−3 m
m)
2.1 Doppler Effect
It is commonly observed that the pitch of a note apparently changes when either
the source or the observer are in motion relative to each other. When the source
approaches the observer or when the observer approaches the source or when both
approach each other the apparent pitch is higher than the actual pitch of the sound
produced by the source. Similarly, when the source moves away from the observer
or when the observer moves away from the source or when both move away from
each other, the apparent pitch is lower than the actual pitch of the sound produced
by the source.

Suppose a person is standing on a platform. The apparent pitch of the whistle

of the engine increases, when the engine is approaching the person. When the en-
gine moves away from the person, the apparent pitch of the whistle of the engine
decreases. This apparent change in the pitch due to the relative motion between the
source and the observer is called Doppler Effect.

Doppler effect in sound is asymmetric. When the source moves towards the ob-
server with a certain velocity, the apparent pitch is different to the case when the
observer is moving towards the source with the same velocity. But it is not so in the
case of light. Doppler effect in light is symmetric. The apparent pitch in different
cases is calculated as shown below.

2.1.1 Observer at rest and source in motion

(a) When the source moves towards the stationary observer
Suppose a source S is producing sound of pitch n and wavelength λ. The velocity
of sound is υ (Fig.1).
2.2 Applied Physics

Let the source move with a velocity a towards the observer. In one second, n waves
will be contained in a length (υ − a) and the apparent wavelength,
(υ − a)
λ0 =
n
The apparent pitch,
υ
n0 =
λ

0

υ
∴ n = 0
n (1)
υ−a

Thus the apparent pitch of the note increases when the source moves towards a
stationary observer.

S O

(i)

S O

V-a
(ii)

Fig. 1

(b) When the source moves away from the stationary observer

S O

(i)

S O

V+a
(ii)

Fig. 2

Suppose a source S is producing sound of pitch n and wavelength λ. The velocity

of sound is υ (Fig.2). Let the source move with a velocity a away from the observer.
 Technical Acoustics 2.3

In one second, n waves will be contained in a length (υ + a)and the apparent wave-
length,
υ+a
λ0 =
n
The apparent pitch,
υ
n0 =
λ

0

υ
∴ n = 0
n (2)
υ+a

Thus the apparent pitch of the note decreases when the source moves away from
a stationary observer.
Note: For the same values of υ, a and n, the values of n0 in equations (1) and (2)
will be different.

2.1.2 Source at rest and observer in motion

(a) When the observer moves towards a stationary source

V
(i)

S O

b
(ii)

Fig. 3

Suppose a source S is producing sound of pitch n and wavelength λ. The velocity

of sound is υ (Fig.3). Let the observer move with a velocity b towards a stationary
source. In the case the observer receives more number of waves in one second. The
apparent wavelength remains the same. The apparent frequency

b
n0 = n +
λ
0 υ b
n = +
λ
 λ 
0 υ+b
n =
λ
2.4 Applied Physics

υ
But λ=
n
 
υ+b
∴ n0 = n (3)
υ

Thus the apparent pitch of the note increases when the observer moves towards
the stationary source.
(b) When the observer moves away from a stationary source

S O

(i)

S O

(ii)

Fig. 4

Suppose a source S is producing sound of pitch n and wavelength λ (Fig.4). The

velocity of sound is υ. Let the observer move with a velocity b away from a stationary
source. In this case, the observer receives less number of waves in one second. The
apparent wavelength remains the same, The apparent frequency

b
n0 = n −
λ
υ b
n0 = −
λ
 λ 
0 υ−b
n =
λ
υ
But λ=
n
 
υ−b
∴ 0
n = n (4)
υ

Thus the apparent pitch of the note decreases when the observer moves away
from a stationary source.

Note: For the same values of υ, b and n, the values of n0 in equations (3) and (4)
will be different.
 Technical Acoustics 2.5

2.1.3 When both the source and the observer are in motion
When the source moves towards the observer and the observer moves away from
the source
Suppose a source S is producing a sound of pitch n and wavelength λ. The
velocity of sound is υ (Fig.5). The velocity of the source is a and the velocity of the
observer is b.
Let the source move towards the observer with a velocity a and the observer
move away from the source with a velocity b.

S O

(i)

a b

S O

(ii)
Fig. 5

The apparent wavelength

υ−a
λ0 = (5)
n
 
υ−b
and 0
n =
λ0
 
υ−b
∴ 0
n = n (6)
υ−a

Special Cases

(a) When the source and observer move towards each other in equation (5), taking
b to be negative,
 
υ − (−b)
n0 = n
υ−a
 
υ+b
n0 = n (7)
υ−a
2.6 Applied Physics

(b) When the source and observer move away from each other
In equation (5), taking a to be negative
 
0 υ−b
n = n
υ − (−a)
 
υ−b
n0 = n (8)
υ+a

(c) Source moving away from the observer and the observer moving towards the
source
In equation (5), taking both a and b negative,
 
υ − (−b)
n0 = n
υ − (−a)
 
υ+b
n0 = n (9)
υ+a

Note: While solving numerical problems, the general formula

 
0 υ−b
n = n
υ−a

should be applied.

The general relation refers to the case when the source moves towards the ob-
server and the observer moves away from the source. When any of these two direc-
tions changes, the signs of a and b have to be changed. The modified formula should
be used for calculating the apparent pitch.

2.1.4 Effect of wind velocity

Suppose the wind is moving with a velocity w in the direction of propagation of
sound. The apparent velocity of sound will be (υ + w). In all relations, in place of υ,
(υ + w) should be used. If the wind is blowing in a direction opposite to the direction
of propagation of sound, velocity of sound will be (υ − w). In all relations, in place
of υ, υ − w should be used.
The general relation will be
 
(υ + w) − b
0
n = n (10)
(υ + w) − a

Here the wind direction is the same as the direction of propagation of sound.
When the direction of wind is opposite to the direction of propagation of sound,
 
(υ − w) − b
0
n = n (11)
(υ − w) − a
 Technical Acoustics 2.7

2.1.5 Applications of Doppler effect

1. The broadening of spectral lines is due to Doppler effect, due to the fact that
the emitting atoms or molecules move in all directions & with varying speeds
relative to observing instruments.
2. Using the Doppler shift in frequency, it is found that the sun is rotating from
west to east about its own axis.
3. The theory of expanding universe is based on red shift of spectrum, moving
away from the earth.
4. When a star is moving toward the earth, it shows a shift of spectral lines to-
wards violet. Double stars were discovered by application of Doppler effect.
5. Doppler effect is employed in radar to determine the velocity of a moving ob-
ject.
6. It is used to determine the blood flow velocity in the blood vessels.
7. It is also used to monitor the heart beat rate of fetus.

2.2 Mach Number ‘M ’

It is used to indicate the velocities of supersonic jets or aeroplanes in terms of the
velocity of sound in air. Thus Mach number is defined as “Ratio between the velocity
of the body moving in a medium and the velocity of sound in the medium”. (No
dimensions).
V Velocity of supersonic plane or jet in air
M= =
C Velocity of sound in air

Case(i) If V < C then, M <1 Sub sonic

Case(ii) If V = C then, M =1 Sonic
Case(iii) If V > C then, M >1 Supersonic

(e.g: M = 2, aeroplane can move with the velocity equal to twice the velocity of
sound in air)

2.3 Sonic Boom

If a source of sound (aeroplane) is moving towards a stationary detector at a speed
equal to speed of sound.
(i.e) V = C, then Doppler shifted sound frequency becomes infinite.
This means that the source is moving so fast that it keeps pace with its own spher-
ical wavefront. When speed of source exceeds speed of sound, the wavefronts origi-
nated at various points of the moving source bunch along the surface of Mach cone.
“Mach cone is the cone with the vertex at source point ‘S’ & is formed by the tangents
drawn to the different circles which represent the propagated spherical wavefronts
lagging behind the source of sound”. A shock wave is said to exist along the surface
2.8 Applied Physics

of Mach cone because the bunching of wavefront cause an abrupt rise & fall of air
pressure as the surface passes through any point. The half angle ‘θ’ is called Mach
angle.

1 C
sin θ = =
M V

θ V
S

Fig. 6

C – Velocity of sound in air

V – Velocity of aeroplane or jet.

The shock wave generated by a supersonic aircraft produces a burst of sound

called sonic boom.
Comparison of Reynold number and Mach number

S.No Reynold number Mach number

1. It is used to indicate the fluid flow. It is used to indicate velocity of su-
personic aeroplanes in air
Inertia force of fluid Velocity of body in air
2. R= M=
Viscous force on the fluid Velocity of sound in air

3. R < 2000 for stream line flow of wa- M = 1; Velocity of aeroplane =

ter for a pipe of diameter 2 cm. velocities of sound in air

2.4 Acoustics
2.4.1 Introduction
Acoustics is the science of sound. Acoustics is a branch of physics which deals
with the properties of sound waves, laws of their excitation, propagation and ac-
tion of sound waves at an obstacle. Originally, acoustics was limited to stimulation
of human ear by the incident sound wave. Modern acoustics deals with all sorts of
sound which have no relation to human ear (e.g seismological disturbances ). A new
branch, namely “Architectural acoustics” deals with the design of a good auditorium
and buildings with less noise & clear sound, to avoid confusion to the listener.
 Technical Acoustics 2.9

Basic acoustics may be divided into three categories namely, production, trans-
mission and detection of sound. Sound is a mechanical wave (Elastic waves). It
propagates through a medium by means of wave motion. They are mainly trans-
mitted by vibrations of the constituent particles of a medium and hence they cannot
travel in free space. Since they propagate as a wave, characterised by various prop-
erties such as wave length, frequency, velocity etc, sound waves can be classified
based on their frequencies.

Classification frequency ν Characteristics

(1) Infrasonics ν <20Hz Inaudible to human ear
(2) Ultrasonics ν >20kHz Inaudible to human ear
(or) 20,000Hz
(3) audible sound 20Hz < ν <20kHz audibility range of human ear.

Audible sound are further classified as Musical sound & Noise.

Musical Sound Noise

They produce pleasing effect to the They producing a jarring and un-
ear. pleasant effect to the ear.
Musical sounds are produced when Noises are the sounds of complex
a series of similar impulses follow nature having irregular periods and
each other regularly at equal inter- amplitudes.
vals of time
Absence of any sudden changes in undergo sudden changes in their
their intensities intensities
Wave form
Displacement
Displacement

Time
Time

2.5 Characteristics of Musical Sound

1. Pitch (or) frequency
2. Quality (or) Timbre
3. Intensity (or) Loudness.

2.5.1 Pitch or Frequency

(i) Pitch is that characteristic of sound which distinguishes between a shrill
sound and a grave sound.
2.10 Applied Physics

(ii) It is the sensation conveyed to human brain.

(iii) Pitch of a musical sound is determined by its frequency but it is also a func-
tion of intensity and waveform.
(iv) Greater is the frequency of a musical note, higher is its pitch and vice versa.
(v) Frequency is a physical quantity, that can be measured. Whereas pitch is
a physiological quantity, that depends on the mental sensation experienced
by the observer.
(vi) The change in pitch with loudness is most pronounced at frequencies of
about 100 Hz.
(vii) In the frequency range 20 Hz to 10,000 Hz the pitch varies in a parabolic
manner with frequency.
(viii) Frequency of a sound is defined as the number of vibrations per second.

2.5.2 Loudness
(i) Loudness of the sound is defined as the degree of sensation produced on the
human ear.
(ii) Loudness depends upon the listener.
(iii) It is not a purely physical quantity but it is subjective in nature.
(iv) Loudness signifies how far and to what extent, the sound is audible.
(v) Loudness (L) is related to intensity of a sound (I) as

L ∝ log I
(or) L = k log I

This is known as Weber Feschner’s law. Here k is a constant that depends

on the sensitivity of the ear, quality of sound and other factors.
(vi) Loudness varies with frequency also.

2.5.3 Intensity
Intensity of a sound is a physical quantity and does not depend on the listener.
Intensity of sound is defined as the amount of sound energy flowing across unit
area held normally to the direction of propagation of the sound waves per second.

unit = watt/m2

(a) Factors affecting intensity or loudness of sound

Intensity of sound waves is given by

I = 2π 2 ν 2 a2 vρ
 Technical Acoustics 2.11

where
ν - frequency of sound wave
a - amplitude of sound wave
v - velocity of sound and
ρ - density of the medium.

From the above equation the following points are noted.

(i) Intensity and hence loudness are directly proportional to square of the am-
plitude.
(ii) Intensity of sound is directly proportional to the density of medium.
(iii) Intensity and loudness vary with frequency of sound.
(iv) With increase in the size of a body, larger quantity of air is set into vibration.
So larger the size of the body, greater is the intensity and louder is the sound
produced.
(v) Loudness decreases with increase of distance from the source of sound.
Thus loudness varies inversely with the square of the distance from the
source.
(vi) Loudness is greater in the direction of wind motion than in the opposite
direction.

(b) Measurement of intensity

Intensity of a sound wave is measured in watt/m2 . Just as there is a minimum value
of frequency below which human ear cannot hear the sound, a minimum intensity of
sound exists below which human ear cannot detect the sound. This lowest intensity
of sound to which a normal human ear can respond is 10−12 watt/m2 . This value
is chosen as standard intensity. Intensity of any sound is measured with reference
to this standard intensity only. Hence it is only the relative intensity that is mea-
sured, which indicates how much the intensity of sound is higher than the standard
intensity.
The ratio of the intensity of sound wave to the standard intensity is known as
intensity level (or relative intensity of sound).

Intensity (I)
Intensity level =
Standard intensity (I0 )

Relation between loudness (L) and intensity (I) is

L = k log I

Let L1 be the loudness corresponding to intensity I and L0 , the standard loudness

corresponding to standard intensity (I0 ).
2.12 Applied Physics

Then,

L1 = k log I and
L0 = k log I0

Now difference in the loudness is

L = L1 − L0 = k log I − k log I0
I
= k log
I0

where L now is called intensity level or loudness level and the above relation is
true for all frequencies.
The unit of intensity level is Bel.
We know L = k log I
I0

If k = 1 and I/I0 = 10 then

L = 1 × log10 (10) = 1 bel

In practice bel is a larger unit and hence decibel 1

of a bel is used. (i.e.,)


10

If k = 10 and I/I0 = 10 then

L = 10 log10 (10) = 10 decibel(dB)

(i.e.,) 1 bel = 10 decibel = 10 dB

(c) Significance of intensity level

2
Let a sound have an intensity of say I = 10−5 watt/m .

I 10−5
Intensity level = = −12 = 107
I0 10

This means that the sound intensity is 107 times more than the standard intensity.
1 dB change in intensity level of sound corresponds to an increase of 26% of the
intensity of sound.

Proof: Consider two sounds of intensity I1 and I2 . Expressing them with reference
to the standard intensity,
 Technical Acoustics 2.13

I1
Intensity level dB1 = 10 log
I0
I2
dB2 = 10 log
I
 0 
I2 I1
Hence dB2 − dB1 = 10 log − log
I0 I0
I2
(or) 1 = 10 log
I1
I2 1
(or) log = = 0.1
I1 10
I2
(or) = 100.1 = 1.26
I1
(or) change in intensity level
I2 − I 1
= 0.26 (or) 26%
I1

(i.e) An increase of one decibel in intensity level of sound corresponds to an in-

crease of 26% of the source intensity

Note: Whenever intensity of sound is expressed in dB, it represents intensity level

of sound only.

Intensity level of some sound signals

Sound Signal dB Sound Signal dB

General noise level 10 Busy Traffic 70-80
Whispering 10-20 Runining Train 100
Passing Motor Car 30 Passing aeroplane 100
Soft Music 40 Thunder 100-110
Average Conversation 60-70 Painful sound 7120

Difference between loudness and intensity

S.No Loudness Intensity

1. It is the amount of sensation pro- It is quantity of sound energy flow-
duced in the ear & hence it depends ing across unit area / sec & hence it
upon the listener. depends on source of sound.
2. It is not a purely physical quantity It is pure physical quantity
but is subjective in nature.
2
3. Measured in sones. Measured in W/m
4. It is difficult to measure. It can be easily & accurately mea-
sured.
2.14 Applied Physics

We know that an intensity of 10−12 watt/m2 is the minimum intensity that a hu-
man ear can detect. Similarly there exist an upper limit of hearing corresponding to
120 dB (as indicated in the above table). This upper limit is called threshold of feeling
or pain threshold. The lower limit of hearing (10−12 watt / m2 ) is called threshold of
audibility which is also zero level intensity corresponding to sound level of 0 dB.

(d) Phon

For measurement of sound in decibels, it was assumed that zero intensity level I 0 is
same for sound of all frequencies. But actually, sound of same intensities may have
different frequencies and also in loudness. Hence a standard frequency of 1000 Hz
is chosen for comparing sounds. This gives another unit called phon for measuring
intensity level.
The loudness level or equivalent loudness of a sound is said to be 1 phon, if the
intensity level of standard tone with equal loudness is 1 decibel above the standard
intensity.
(i.e.,) For a standard frequency of 1000 Hz
I
Loudness (in phon) = Lp = 10 log
I0

(e) Sone

The unit of loudness is a sone which is defined as being the loudness of a 1000 Hz
tone of 40 dB intensity level. (or 40 phons of intensity level).
Empirically,
log L(sone) = 0.033(Lp − 40)

where L is loudness in sone.

Lp is loudness level in phon.
We know
I
Lp = 10 log
I0

I0 = 10−12 watt/m2
I
Lp = 10 log
10−12
= 10 log I − 10 log 10−12
= 10 log I + 120
∴ log L = 0.033(10 log I + 120 − 40)
= 0.033(10 log I + 80)
= 0.33 log I + 2.64
 Technical Acoustics 2.15

L
(or) log = 2.64
I 0.33
L
(or) = e2.64
I 0.33
(or) L = coust I 0.33
√
(or) L ∝ I
3

(i.e.,) Loudness level in sone is proportional to cube root of intensity of sound at

a frequency of 1000 Hz.

(f) Sound pressure level

The intensity of sound is also measured in terms of sound pressure level. As dis-
cussed earlier, since sound is a form of energy, and the rate of flow of energy is power,
one can associate this concept in measuring the intensity of sound. But generally the
power associated with a sound is extremely small. Hence sound measuring devices
actually respond to pressure exerted by sound.
 
Sound pressure level (SPL) = 20 log PP0 dB
P0 = standard effective pressure
2
= 2 × 10−5 N/m
Sound level meters are used to measure the intensity level of sounds and loud-
ness. It consist of a high sensitive microphone of good stability, a linear amplifier
with uniform frequency response, a set of frequency weighting networks and an in-
dicating meter. The frequency weighting network is to make the reading of sound
level meter correspond as closely as possible to observed loudness levels. The mi-
crophone converts sound energy into electrical energy (voltage), which is then am-
plified and passed through frequency weighting network and then calculated using
indicating meter, which reads the sound level in dB above the standard reference
intensity.

2.5.4 Quality or Timber

The third characteristics of a musical note is quality or Timbre. The note emitted
by musical instruments are never simple, but are composed of several frequencies.
Normally they consist of a large number of tones of different frequencies of vary-
ing intensity. The tone of the smallest frequency is the loudest and is called the
fundamental, which is dominant and defines the pitch of a note. The frequencies ac-
companying the fundamental are called overtones. The intensities of the overtones
diminishes with increase of their frequencies. Each musical instrument produces dif-
ferent overtones and they are generally characteristics of those instruments. Even if
two different musical instruments produce notes of same pitch, the overtones accom-
panying will be different. This differences defines the quality of the note emitted by
one instrument and distinguishes the note produced by that instrument from others.
2.16 Applied Physics

Thus, quality of the note is marked by the nature of the composition of the fre-
quencies of the note. It depends upon the presence or absence of particular overtones
and their relative intensities.

2.6 Acoustic of Buildings

2.6.1 Reverberation
The persistence of sound in a room, hall auditorium etc due to successive reflections
from the walls, ceilings, flooring & materials present in them, even after the source
ceases to produce sound is called reverberation.

2.6.2 Reverberation time

The time interval required by the reverberant sound to fall to one millionth of its
original intensity is called reverberation time.
I
I = I0 × 10−6 = 10−6
I0

2.6.3 Absorbtion of sounds

Amount of absorbtion of sound depends upon the nature of the materials and their
surface area.

Absorbtion coefficient (a )

Sound energy absorbed

Absorbtion coefficient =
Sound energy absorbed by an equal area of an open window
An open window is a perfect absorber. Absorbtion coefficient of open window
is taken as unity and is called sabine. Absorbtion coefficient of a surface is also
defined as the reciprocal of its area which absorbs the same amount of sound energy
as absorbed by a unit area of an open window.
Absorbing power is product of surface area of absorbtion and its absorbtion co-
efficient
A = aS unit : m2 − Sabine

For more than one surface, A = a1 S1 + a2 S2 + a3 S3 + · · · = ΣaS

2.6.4 Principles to be observed in acoustically designing

an auditorium
Acoustically designing an auditorium refers to the design of the auditorium with
necessary following acoustical parameter determining factors:
 Technical Acoustics 2.17

1. Shape

2. Volume

3. Sound absorption

4. Sound distribution

The prime factor in designing the auditorium is the selection. The size should
be selected well off from industries, airports, railway stations, etc. to avoid external
noise. In such place the auditorium can be air conditioned to avoid external noises
under unavoidable circumstances.

1. Shape
Shape of auditorium is one of the prime factor in yielding good acoustics for the
auditorium. A proper shape can effectively distribute sound throughout the audito-
rium.
Some of the preferred shape are:
1. Fan shape
2. Rectangular shape
3. Horse shoe shape
4. Oval or circular shapes
For illustrations a fan shaped auditorium outline is shown below in the fig..
Audience

Stage

The above diagram explain even distribution of sound through out the audito-
rium.

2. Volume
Volume of the auditorium can be decided in such a way that the intensity of sound
throughout the auditorium is of optimum level. The volume of hall or auditorium
is directly proportional to the intensity of sound produced. For cinema theatre or
concert hall, the volume is maximum compare to lecture hall or class rooms where a
minimum volume serves better for better intensity and distribution of sound.
2.18 Applied Physics

In considering the volume of auditorium, its height is a prime deciding factor for
uniform sound and intensity distributions.
The normal ratio of ceiling height to breadth is 2:3 for better acoustics and the ra-
tio between volume and number of seats must not be more than 5.7. As the audience
also contribute for absorption of sound, volume per seat may be allocated in 3.74 to
4.2 m3 range.

3. Sound absorption
In an auditorium the sitting audience contribute for considerable absorption of sound.
Therefore proper arrangement of seats and its number can considerably alter the
reverberation time which decides better acoustics. A proper and better seating ar-
rangement is shown below.

10cm
110cm

80cm

In the above figure the sound can not be blocked or absorbed by the audience as
their heads are not in line.

4. Sound distribution
The shape and volume decide the sound distribution. In addition to these parame-
ters, intensity of sound also plays a vital role. The implementation of digital theatre
sound system, stereo loud speakers etc, in different places of auditorium or theatre
attribute for better sound distribution.
Further points to keep the reverberation time in desired level are:

1. Sound absorbing curtains can be used at the back side wall of theatre.
2. Floor carpet can be used for better absorption.
3. Audience seat can be fixed with good sound absorbing materials.

2.7 Sabine’s Formula

Sabine found experimentally that the time of reverberation of a hall is directly pro-
portional to its volume and is inversely proportional to its absorbing power.

0.163V
T =
A
 Technical Acoustics 2.19

Derivation
Let a1 , a2 , a3 etc be the absorbtion coefficients of the surfaces S1 , S2 , S3 etc of the
given hall.
Average absorbtion coefficient

a1 S1 + a 2 S2 + a 3 S3 + · · ·
ā = (12)
S1 + S 2 + S 3
P
aS
=
S
⇒ āS = ΣaS (13)

Let S be total internal surface area of hall.

By statistical method, Jager showed that, the sound travels an average distance
4V
of between two successive reflections, where V is Volume and S is total surface
S
area of the hall.
If ‘v’ is the velocity of sound, then
distance
 
4V
Time taken between two successive reflections = t=
Sv velocity
Average number of reflections in time ‘t’

Svt
n= (14)
4V

Sound absorbed at a single reflection = ā

Sound energy reflected for a single reflection = (1 − ā)
Sound energy reflected after two reflections = (1 − ā)(1 − ā)
= (1 − ā)2
(From Fig.7)
similarly for ‘n’ reflections = (1 − ā)n

Let I0 be initial intensity of sound and It be intensity

after time ‘t’.
Svt
(i.e) after reflections
4V

It = I0 (1 − ā)n (15)
Fig.7
Substituting for n from Eq.(13), Eq.(14) becomes

It = I0 (1 − ā)Svt/4V (16)
2.20 Applied Physics

According to the definition of reverberation time,

When t = T , reverberation time.

It
= 10−6
I0

Substituting from Eq.(15)

10−6 = (1 − ā)SvT /4V

Taking log on both sides

SvT
log 10−6 = loge (1 − ā)
4V
4V
(or) T = loge 10−6
Sv loge (1 − ā)
4V
= 2.303 × loge 10−6 ×
Sv loge (1 − ā)
but, v = 330 m/s (Velocity of sound)
2.303 × (−6) 4V
= ×
330 S loge (1 − ā)
−0.1625V
= (17)
S loge (1 − ā)

Eq.(16) is known as Eyring’s formula. Approximation of this formula leads to

Sabine’s formula.

∵ ā < 1, loge (1 − ā) can be expanded in logarithmic series

ā2 ā3
 
loge (1 − ā) = −ā − − − ···
2 3

Neglecting higher power of ā

−0.1625V +0.1625V
T = =
S(−ā) Sā

From Eq.(12) āS = ΣaS

0.1625V
T =
A
0.162V
T =
ΣaS
 Technical Acoustics 2.21

2.7.1 Sabine’s Formula (Alternate methods)

The relation between

• Reverberation time (t)

• Volume of the hall (V)

• Area of the surface and its absorption coefficient

is given by Sabine’s formula.

The standard reverberation time is defined as the time taken by the sound wave
to fall in its intensity to one million of its original value.
Absorption coefficient for the material of the surface is defined as the ratio of the
sound energy absorbed by the surface to the sound energy absorbed by perfect ab-
sorber such as an open window. It is denoted by α. The unit of absorption coefficient
is Sabine.
Sabine is the sound energy absorbed by one square feet of an open window.
Let I be the average intensity of the sound at time ‘t’ and let dI be the fall in
intensity during the time dt.

dI = −α n I dt (18)

where
n - no. of reflections of the sound wave.
α - absorption coefficient of the absorbing surface.
(-ve sign indicates that as the time increases the intensity of the sound decreases.)
By statistical method it is shown that the sound wave travels an average distance
4V
between successive reflections.
S
Where
V → Volume of the hall
S → Total area of the reflecting surface
Let C be the velocity of sound wave.
Time taken for two successive reflection is

Distance travelled between 2 successive reflections

t=
Velocity of sound wave
4V
4V
S
t= =
C SC
1 SC
n= = (19)
t 4V
2.22 Applied Physics

Sub (2) in (1)

SC
dI = −α I dt
4V
dI SC
= −α dt
I 4V
For identifying the limits of integration
Let Io - Steady intensity of sound wave when source is cutoff.
It - Intensity of sound wave after t sec

ZIt Zt
dI SC
= −α dt
I 4V
Io 0

I SC t
log [I]Ito = −α [t]0
4V
SC
log It − log Io = −α [t − 0]
4V
It SCt
log = −α
Io 4V
It SCt
= e−α 4V (20)
Io

From the definition of standard reverberation time.

It
= 10−6 (21)
Io

Comparing (3) & (4)

αSCt
e− 4V = 10−6

αSCt
= log e(10 )
−6
−
4V
Converting to logarithm to the base 10,

αSCt
= 6 × 2.303 × log10 10
4V
6 × 2.303 × log10 10 × 4 × V
t=
α×S×C

C ' 330 m/s

0.16 V
t' (22)
αS
 Technical Acoustics 2.23

2.8 Measurement of Absorbtion Coefficient

Determination of Absorption Coefficient:
The reverberation time in hall is determined by

• Without absorbing material in hall (t1 )

• With absorbing material in hall (t2 )

0.16 V
t1 =
αS
0.16 V
t2 =
α S + α a Sa
(αa - absorption coefficient of the material of the area Sa ).

1 1 αS + αa Sa αS
− = −
t2 t1 0.16V 0.16V
α a Sa
=
0.16V h i
0.16V t12 − t11
αa = (23)
Sa

2.9 Factors Affecting Acoustics of Buildings

(a) Reverberation
As we know, the persistence of sound in the hall even after the source is cut off is
called reverberation.This is due to successive reflections taking place on the walls of
the hall. Because of this, the previous note of sound is heard for short interval of
time, eventhough the second note of sound is emitted. Too much of reverberation
may cause booming sound while too low reverberation causes flat sound. Therefore,
the reverberation must be at optimum level for continuous hearing of sound. This
can be obtained by using sound absorbing materials in walls, ceilings, floor etc.

(b) Reflections and Echoes

The walls of the hall should scatter the sound and not reflect it. To avoid reflections,
the walls should be rough. When sound is reflected from walls and other surfaces,
they produce echoes which causes a nuisance effect and a change in the original
sound.
An echo is heard when the direct and reflected sound waves coming from the
same source reach the listener with a time interval of about 1/7 second. The reflected
sound reaching earlier than this helps in raising the loudness (Reverberation) while
those arriving later, produces echoes and cause confusion. These echo effects can
2.24 Applied Physics

be avoided by using sound absorbing materials and by providing more number of

doors and windows.
Echelon effect: Sometimes a separate musical note with regular phase difference is
produced due to combination of echoes. (e.g) If there is a stair case, then reflections
from equally spaced steps at regular intervals of time, produces a separate sound,
which may interfere with original sound and cause confusion.
Thus a set of railings or any regular spacing of reflecting surfaces may produce
a separate musical note due to regular succession of echoes of the original sound to
the listener. This effect is called echelon effect.
This can be avoided if any such regular spacing available, is covered with sound
absorbing materials.

(c) Focussing and interference effects

If there is any concave surface present in the hall, then sound is concentrated at its fo-
cus region and hence dead space at some other region is created. Hence such surfaces
may be avoided. If present, they can be covered with sound absorbing materials.
Similarly if there is interference of direct and reflected waves, interference patterns
create maximum intensities at some places and minimum intensities at some other
places in the hall. All these can be avoided by using good sound absorbing material.

(d) Resonance effect

Hollows, crevices, window panes etc select their natural frequencies from the sound
produced in the hall and reinforce them there by producing a resonance effect, which
can disturb the original sound. Hence they may produce a jarring effect. These can
be reduced by convex cylindrical segments on the walls and ceilings, which diverge
the reflected sound and provide uniform distribution.

(e) Noises from exterior

Any noise outside the hall produces a distributing effect inside. To avoid these, the
opening like windows etc, can be covered using screens etc.

2.10 Noise Control in a Machine

In factories the noise produced by the machineries are very high. This produces
harmful effects to the employees. This noise can be controlled by modifying the
design of the machine. For example instead of toothed cutting an abrasive cutting
action can be used for noise control. The noise can also be reduced by properly insu-
lating the machine with sound proof materials. The following are the steps involved
in controlling the noise in a machine.
 Technical Acoustics 2.25

Machine

non rigid floor

The machine is mounted on non rigid floor which produces a noise level of 85 dB.

Step 1

The machine is first mounted with soft vibration mount which decreases the noise at
lower frequencies.

Machine

Soft vibration
mount

Step 2

A porous acoustical blanket is covered over the machine. This blanket controls the
reverberation time and also reduces the amplitude of high frequency components.

Acoustical absorbing
wall
Machine

Step 3

Now the machine is kept in an air tight sealed enclosure which reduces a large
amount of higher and lower frequency noise.
2.26 Applied Physics

Rigid scaled
Machine

Step 4
Finally the machine resting on the vibration mount enclosed by the air tight box
enclosure is further enclosed by an air tight box so that the noise is controlled and
can be reduced to a large extent. This method is called noise reduction by double
enclosure with double vibration mounts. Thus the noise level is very much reduced.

Machine

2.10.1 Noise Pollution

We know that noise can be classified into air borne, structure borne and internal
noises. All these three noises pollute the area at which it has been produced and
create harmful effects to human beings, especially air borne noise produced in rural
areas.

Effects
1. It produces mental fatigue and irritation.

2. It divides the concentration on work and hence reduces the efficiency of work.

3. It sometimes affects the nervous system and lowers the restorative quality of
sleep.
 Technical Acoustics 2.27

4. Some strong noises lead to the damage of the ear drum and make the working
people hearing impaired.

5. The noises which are produced regularly will even retard the normal growth
of infants and young children.

Noise Reduction
The following methods can be adopted to control the noise and thereby reducing it.

(i) It is controlled by using special construction to reduce transmission of sound

the walls and the partitions (i.e.,) providing double sealed walls.

(ii) It can be reduced by keeping the sound proof near the sources from which
noises are produced.

(iii) It is further reduced by isolating the source of sound from supporting struc-
tures.
We can keep the source of sound inside some special mountings.

(iv) The noise can also be reduced by properly choosing the site for constructing the
building. For example hospitals, colleges, temples, etc. should be constructed
away from airport, rail rods and busy streets so that noise can be avoided.

(v) In some working places the noises are reduced by wearing ear muffs and ear
plugs. Also in many industries the employees are conducted hearing test peri-
odically to ensure the hearing capacity.

(vi) Finally the noise can be controlled by decreasing the directivity index in the
direction in which the listener is located.

2.11 Ultrasonics
Introduction
A very important type of sound waves is the Ultrasonic wave. They are sound waves
characterised by very high frequency greater than 20,000 Hz. They have properties
that are common to all sound waves. Ultrasonics find a greater range of application
in the field of Engineering and Medicine.
Apart from sound waves that can be heard by human ear (20 Hz - 20 kHz) there
are sound waves of frequencies less than 20Hz (infrasonics) and greater than 20 kHz
(ultrasonics).
Ultrasonic waves are called high frequency waves and are inaudible to human
ear.
Ultrasonic applications are based on the principle “sound waves are reflected at
the boundary of two surfaces that have different acoustical parameter”.
2.28 Applied Physics

Properties
1. They are acoustical waves with frequency > 20 kHz.
2. They are highly energetic.
3. They show negligible diffraction due to their small wavelength. Hence they
can be transmitted over long distances without any appreciable loss of energy.
4. They are reflected at boundaries. These reflected ultrasonic waves are called
echoes.

2.11.1 Production of Ultrasonic Waves

2.11.1.1 Magnetostriction oscillator
Principle
Magnetostriction effect: When a magnetic field is applied parallel to the length of a
ferromagnetic rod of shorter length, a small change in length occurs (ie) elongation
or contraction. This phenomenon is known as magnetostriction and the effect is
known as magnetostriction effect.
This change in length depends on the intensity of the applied magnetic field and
the nature of the ferromagnetic material.
When alternating field is applied the rod suffers change in length for every half
cycle of the applied field, which indicates that the rod vibrates (alternate expansion
and compression). If the rod is made to vibrate with its natural frequency (ie) if the
frequency of the alternating current coincides with the frequency of the rod, then
Resonance occurs. At resonance, the amplitude of vibration increases enormously.
The natural frequency of vibration of the rod is given by
s
n Y
f=
2l ρ

where Y − Young’s modulus of the material of the rod

ρ − density of the rod
l − length of the rod
n − integer (1,2,3 · · · · · · )

Construction
It consists of a tuned oscillator constructed with a NPN transistor which is used to
generate the alternating field. Tank circuit is connected to the collector. Another coil
L1 is connected to and is kept close to L2 . The ferromagnetic rod which is clamped
in the middle is surrounded by L1 &L2 .
 Technical Acoustics 2.29

Clamp
L1 L2

Ultrasonic Ultrasonic
Waves Waves

C MA
B S

Fig. 8

Working
When the supply is switched on, collector current starts rising and oscillations starts
in L-C circuit (Tank circuit). To maintain sustained oscillations, changes of current
in L are fedback to the Base, through mutual inductance between L 2 and L1 . The
frequency of oscillation of LC circuit is given by
1
f= √
2π L2 C
By varying ‘C’ this frequency can be adjusted to be equal to the natural frequency
of vibration of the ferromagnetic rod. When the frequency of vibration of the rod
equals the frequency of the ac circuit, resonance occurs and the rod is thrown into
vigorous vibration, thus emitting ultrasonic waves.
Since the tank circuit is connected to the collector of the transistor, the circuit is
also known as collector tuned circuit.

Advantages
• Magnetostrictive materials are easily available & inexpensive.
• Oscillatory circuit is simple to construct.
• Large output power can be generated.

Disadvantages
• Generation of frequencies beyond 300kHz is not possible.
• Single frequency oscillation is not possible, since elastic constant varies with
magnetisation.
2.30 Applied Physics

2.11.1.2 Piezo electric generator

Principle
Piezo electric effect
This effect refers to the development of an emf across one pair of faces of certain crys-
tals like quartz, if mechanical force is applied perpendicular to other pair of faces.
When a pair of opposite faces of certain crystal such as quartz is subjected to
pressure, electric charges are developed in the other pair of opposite faces. When
subjected to tension instead of pressure, the sign reverses.
The converse is also true (i.e)

Inverse Piezo electric effect

When high frequency alternating current is applied to the opposite faces, certain
crystals like quartz (cut with their faces perpendicular to its optic axis), expands and
contracts periodically.
When the frequency of vibration of the rod and alternating current frequency are
made equal, resonance occurs and the crystal vibrates vigorously, emitting ultrasonic
waves.

Optic axis, mechanical axis and preparation of the crystal

Z-axis
(optic axis) X

X3 Y2 X1 X1
Y1
Y1 Y3

X2 X2 X2 X2

Y1 mounting Z Crystal
Y1
Y3 electrode slice
X1
X1 Y2 X3

(a) Quartz Crystal (b) X-cut slice (c) Y-cut (d) Crystal
in natural form (shaded area) crystal slice mounting

Fig. 9
Natural crystal has hexagonal prism shape with a pyramid attached at the end
(Fig.9). The line joining the end points of these pyramids is called the optic axis
or Z axis. The three lines which pass through the opposite corners of the crystal
constitute its electrical axes or X axes and the three lines perpendicular to the sides
of the hexagon forms the mechanical or Y axes.
 Technical Acoustics 2.31

Fig. 10 Piezoelectric ultrasonic generator

Thin plates cut perpendicular to X axes are called X cut plates, which can gen-
erate longitudinal mode of ultrasonic vibrations. Plates cut perpendicular to Y axes
are known as Y cut plates, which can generate transverse ultrasonic waves.
Consider a plate of thickness t and length ‘l’. Its thickness is parallel to X axis,
the length is parallel to Y axis and breadth is parallel to Z axis. When an alternating
voltage is applied along electrical axis, then alternating compression and expansion
are set up both in its thickness and length.
Hence frequency of vibration is given by
s s
P Y P Y
n= and n =
2t ρ 2l ρ

where

Y − Young’s modulus
ρ − density of the material of the plate

Both these forms of oscillations are used for generation of ultrasonic waves.

Construction
The crystal plate is sandwitched between two metal sheets forming a parallel plate
capacitor , which is coupled to an electronic oscillator through primary coil L 3 of the
transformer T .
Coils L2 and L1 of oscillator circuit are taken from the secondary of a transformer
T . Coils L2 and L1 are inductively coupled. The coil L1 and variable capacitor C
form the tank circuit. Since the tank circuit is connected to the base of the transistor,
the circuit is called base tuned circuit.
2.32 Applied Physics

Working

When the battery is switched on, the oscillator produces high frequency oscillation,
which can be varied using the variable capacitor. By transformer action, emf is in-
duced in L3 which is oscillating in nature. Now the crystal is subjected to high fre-
quency alternating voltage. The value of C1 is varied until the frequency of oscilla-
tion matches with the natural frequency of vibration of the crystal (i.e)
s
1 P Y
f= √ =
2π L1 C1 2l ρ

P - Order of harmonics
P - 1, 2, 3, ....
Y - Y’s modulus of the crystal
ρ - Density of material of the crystal
Now the crystal is thrown into resonance, vibrate vigourously and emits high
power ultrasonic waves.

Advantages

(i) High frequency of about 500 MHz can be generated

(ii) Stable and constant frequencies can be achieved.
(iii) Synthetic materials like LiN bO3 etc can be used.
(iv) It is insensitive to temperature and humidity.

Disadvantages

(i) Cost of piezo electric quartz plate is very high.

(ii) Cutting and shaping process is very complicated.

Comparison of Piezo electric and magnetostriction method

S.No Piezo electric method Magnetostriction method

1. Generates very high frequency (500 Generates low frequency (3 MHz)
MHz)
2. We can obtain constant frequency Constant frequency cannot be
obtained
3. Peak of resonance curve is narrow peak of resonance curve is broad.
4. Frequency of oscillation is indepen- frequency of oscillation depends on
dent of temperature temperature.
 Technical Acoustics 2.33

2.12 Applications of Ultrasonics

(a) Industrial application
(i) Non destructive testing

• Ultrasonic waves are used to detect surface and internal faults, such as
cracks, cavities , foreign objects in materials.
• They are also used to assess the continuity of composite materials such as
reinforced plastics etc.
• Using ultrasonics, deep seated defects in metals can be located.
• Even minute flaws, their location, nature and size can be determined.

(ii) Ultrasonic Welding(cold welding) Properties of some metals changes on heat-

ing and thus they cannot be welded by electric or gas welding. In such cases
metals can be welded together at room temperature using ultrasonic waves.
A hammer is made to vibrate ultrasonically. The tip of that hammer is made to
perss the two metal sheets very rapidly and the molecules of one metal diffuse
into other, and thus gets welded together without heating.
(iii) Ultrasonic Soldering This type of soldering is used in aluminium foil con-
densers, aluminium wires and plates without using any fluxes.
(iv) Ultrasonics are also useful in drilling holes in hard materials with high impact
brittleness such as glass, diamond, gems, ceramics etc. They can be used for
cutting or machining also.
(v) Ultrasonic cleaners are extensively employed for cleaning a wide range of ar-
ticles like parts of motors, airplanes, machines and electronic assemblies etc.
This sort of acoustic drying process is appreciably faster than infra red drying.
(vi) Many metals such as Iron, lead, Aluminium, Cadmium etc, which cannot be
alloyed in their liquid state can be brought together when subjected to high
intensity ultrasonic waves.
(vii) High frequency ultrasonic waves can be used to study surface structure and
their homogeneity with higher resolution
(viii) Acoustic holograms are used to study the surface structures of various Engi-
neering materials used for space applications.

(b) Communication
(i) Due to high frequencies of ultrasonics, and their capability to travel long dis-
tance (in narrow beams, with less absorption) through water or air, they are
used for direction signalling in submarines.
(ii) For depth sounding, echo sounding technique is used. This system is known
as SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) which is similar to RADAR in air,
which is described as follows.
2.34 Applied Physics

A beam of ultrasonic waves is directed towards the bottom of the sea from
where it is reflected back to a suitable receiver. The time taken by the waves
to go and come back is recorded. Knowing the velocity of ultrasonic waves in
water, depth of sea is calculated.

(c) Physical applications

(i) Adiabatic compressibility of liquids can be studied using ultrasonics
(ii) They are used to determine the grain size of an alloy or metal
(iii) Elastic constants (Y, n and K) and poisson’s ratio can be determined using lon-
gitudinal and transverse ultrasonic wave velocities in solids.

(d) Chemical applications

(i) They are used for forming stable emulsions of immiscible liquids like water
and oil.
(ii) They are used to remove gas or air bubble in liquid metals when they are con-
verted into fused metals.
(iii) They are used to improve the homogeneity and stability of photographic emul-
sions.
(iv) Proper acceleration is given to super saturated liquids during their crystallisa-
tion, using ultrasonics.

(e) Medical applications

(i) Ultrasonic blood flow meters are used to study the blood flow velocities in
blood vessels.
(ii) They are used in painless dental cutting
(iii) These waves are also used for guiding the blind who carries a walking stick
with ultrasonic transmitter and receiver.
(iv) They are also used for detecting tumors and abnormal growths in human body.
(v) Similarly twins or any defect in growth of fetus before delivery can be detected.
(vi) They are also used to remove kidney stones and brain tumors, selectively tissue
cut, without blood shed.
(vii) They are also used in treating diseases like bursitis, lumbago etc.

2.13 Acoustical Grating

When ultrasonic waves propagate in a liquid, due to their periodic vibration of the
transducer, pressure varies periodically resulting in density and hence refractive in-
dex variation. This is called Acoustical grating.
When monochromatic light is passed through such a grating diffraction takes
place. Measuring angle of diffraction, velocity of acoustical waves in liquids can be
measured.
 Technical Acoustics 2.35

In ultrasonic cell (glass cell) liquid under study is taken. Ultrasonic transducer is
fixed at one side wall inside the cell and ultrasonic waves are generated [Fig.11].

Ultrasonic cell

Laser

Transducer
Oscillator

Fig. 11

The waves travelling from the transducer get reflected from the opposite wall and
standing wave pattern is generated. The liquid particles align themselves accord-
ing to the wave pattern (ie) they reorganise as regions of maximum density (nodal
points) and regions of minimum densities (anti nodal points). Thus the liquid now
acts as a grating, in which the loci of nodal points act as opaque region and loci of
antinodal points acts as transparent region. Thus acoustic grating is formed. When
light falls on such an arrangement, through the liquid in a direction perpendicular
to the grating, diffraction takes place and an image is seen.
The angular separation between the direct ray and diffracted rays of different or-
der can be calculated by measuring the distance of diffracted beams from the central
beam.
Applying the theory of diffraction,
if d is distance between two adjacent nodes or antinodal planes

d sin θn = nλ

where
n - order of diffraction d
λ - wave length of light
θn - angle of diffraction for nth order. λa

λa - wavelength of ultrasonic waves

λa
But, d= (Fig.12) Fig. 12
2
2.36 Applied Physics

Hence
Diffraction
λa S* pattern
sin θn = nλ
2
Acoustic grating
2nλ
λa =
sin θn
Fig. 13
If N is frequency of ultrasonic waves
and v is Velocity of the waves in liquid, then,
v = N λa
from which velocity of ultrasonic waves can be calculated.

2.14 Sound Navigation and Ranging (SONAR)

Principle
It is based on the principle of ECHO-sounding. When ultrasonic wave is transmit-
ted through water, it is reflected by objects in the water and will produce an echo
signal. The change in frequency of the echo signal, due to doppler effect helps us to
determine the velocity and direction of object.

Timing Pulse
CRO
section Generator

Transducer Transducer
Object
(Transmitter) (Receiver)

Fig. 14

Description
It consists of a timing section which triggers the electric pulse from pulse generator.
This pulse generator is connected to the transducer (transmitter and receiver), so
that ultrasonics can be produced. The transducer is further connected to CRO for
display. The timing section is also connected to CRO display for reference of the
timing at which the pulse is transmitted as shown in the figure. The transducer is
mounted on the ship hull without any air gap between them.

Working
The timing at which pulse generated is recorded at the CRO for reference and this
electrical pulse triggers the transducer which is kept in the hull of chip to produce ul-
trasonic wave due to principle of inverse piezoelectric effect. These ultrasonic waves
 Technical Acoustics 2.37

are transmitted through the water in sea. On stricking the object the ultrasonic waves
(echo pulses) are reflected in all directions. These waves are picked by the receiver
(transducer) and is again converted into electrical pulse due to piezoelectric effect.
These pulses will be weak and hence amplified and are recorded in cathode ray os-
cilloscope.

Transmitted
pluse

Echo
pluse

Sea

Fig. 15

Hence both the transmitted pulse and echo pulse are recorded from the time in-
terval and from pulse height between the transmitted and received pulse, the posi-
tion, distance and direction of moving object can be calculated.

2.15 Phono Cardiography(PCG)

Acoustic events of heart are divided into (i) Heart sounds (ii) Murmurs.

(i) Heart sounds: These are due to the opening and closing of heart valves. They
have low frequency and high amplitude.

(ii) Murmurs: Noisy characters which are of longer duration, that is due to turbu-
lent flow of blood in the heart. They have high frequency and small amplitude.

We know that ECG(Electro Cardiography) in which the activity of heart such as

rhythmic disturbance of myocardial activity can be found with electric techniques.
But valvular defects cannot be identified by using ECG. Hence PCG can be used for
defecting these defects.

• Phono cardiograph records the sounds produced by pumping action of the

heart.

• It provides information on heart rate, blood pumping, valve action, etc.,

2.38 Applied Physics

Principle of working
The block diagram of PCG is as shown.
Condensor Band Bass CRT
Amplifier
microphone filer Display

ECG FM Tape
ECG
Electrode Recorder
Phono cardiography

Fig. 16

A condenser microphone is placed on the chest of the patient. Ultrasonic waves

are passed into the patient and reflected wave is received. The received sound sig-
nals are converted to electrical signals by microphone. These electrical signals are
amplified by the amplifier. The amplified signals are driven to band pass filter, which
separates the first, second, third and fourth heart sound. Each output is given to mul-
tichannel CRO display. Thus, different heart sounds are displayed on the CRO and
the sound can also be heard using F-M tape recorder. The received signals can be
compared with ECG by placing the electrodes on the limbs. These electrodes pick
up the electrical activity of the heart and ECG signals can be displayed along with
the PCG display as shown.

ECG

PCG

Fig. 17

Applications
1. It is used to discriminate normal and abnormal heart.

2. It can be used to identify the damage in heart valves.

3. It is also used to detect the heart murmur, there by regurgitation can be di-
agnosed [Regurgitation - backward flow of blood through a defective heart
valve].

4. Fetal heart beats and movements can also be monitored using PCG.
 Technical Acoustics 2.39

2.16 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) - Detection of

Flaw in Metals
Principle
Whenever there is a change in medium, the ultrasonic waves will be reflected. This
is the principle used in NDT. Since the flaws can be detected without destroying the
materials, it is called non-destructive testing.

Description
It consists of a piezoelectric transducer coupled to the upper surface of specimen
(metal) without any air gap between the specimen and the transducer. A frequency
generator is connected to the transducer to generate high frequency pulses. The
total set up is connected to the amplifier and to a cathode ray oscilloscope as shown
in block diagram.

Transducer
Specimen Ampifier
(Receiver)

Frequency Transducer
generator (Transmitter)

CRO

Fig. 18

Working
1. The pulse generator generates a high potential difference and is applied to the
piezoelectric transducer.

2. The piezoelectric crystals are resonated to produce ultrasonic waves.

3. The ultrasonic waves (pulse A) are recorded in CRO and is transmitted through
the specimen.

4. These waves travel through the specimen (metal) and is reflected back by the
other end.

5. The reflected ultrasonic waves (pulse B) are received by the transducer.

6. These reflected signals are amplified and is found to be almost the same as
that of the transmitted signals as shown in figure which shows no defect in the
specimen.

7. On the other hand, if there is any defect on the specimen like small hole (or)
pores, then the ultrasonic waves will be reflected by the holes (i.e.,) defects due
to change in medium.
2.40 Applied Physics

A B A z B

CRO CRO
Pulse Pulse
Generator Amplifier Generator Amplifier
Transducer Transducer
(Both transmitter & (Both transmitter &
receiver) receiver)
Specimen hole Specimen
(element) (element)
No defect With defect

Fig. 19

8. These defects give noise to another signal (pulse z) in between pulse ‘A’ and
‘B’. Similarly if we have many such holes, many z-pulses will be seen over
screen of CRO, as shown in figure.

9. From the time delay between the transmitted and received pulses the position
of hole can be found.

10. From the height of pulse received the depth of hole or defect can also be deter-
mined.

 Solved Problem 1

Find the sound intensity at 3 m from a speakers that is placed on the side wall of a
hall feeding sound evenly into a hemisphere in front of it. The sound power of the
speakers is 2 watts.
I Solution
Sound power
Sound intensity =
Area spread

Area of hemisphere = 2πr 2

= 2π × 32 m2 = 56.5 m2

Power
Sound intensity =
Unit area
2
= = 3.54 × 10−2 Watt/m2
56.6
 Technical Acoustics 2.41

 Solved Problem 2

If the intensity of a sound in watt/m2 is doubled, by how much is the dB level

changed.
I Solution

I
dB = 10 log10
I0

Let dB1 be the intensity level for I1

and Let dB2 be the intensity level for 2I1 = I2
dB2 − dB1
2I1 I1
= 10 log10 − 10 log10
I0 I0
I1 I1
= 10 log10 2 + 10 log10 − 10 log10
I0 I0
= 10 log10 2 = 3.01

 Solved Problem 3

The intensity of sound in a busy street is 8 × 10−5 Watt/m2 . Calculate the intensity
level in dB.
I Solution

I
Intensity level = 10 log
I0
8 × 10−5
= 10 log
10−12
= 79.031 dB

 Solved Problem 4

A hall has a volume of 12500 m3 and reverberation time of 1.5 sec. If 200 cushioned
chairs are additionally placed in the hall, what will be the new RT of the hall. Ab-
sorption of each chair 1.0 OWU m2 .
2.42 Applied Physics

I Solution
0.16 V
T =
ΣaS
0.16 × 12500
ΣaS = = 1375
1.5
0.165 V
T2 =
ΣaS + a1 S1
0.165 × 12500
= = 1.31 sec
1375 + 200

 Solved Problem 5

A window whose area is 1.4 m2 opens on a street where the street noise results in an
intensity level at the window of 60 dB. How much acoustic power enters the window
via the sound waves ?
I Solution
I
Intensity level = 10 log dB
I0

I
60 = 10 log
10−12
⇒ I = 10−6
Acoustic power = Intensity × Area
= 10−6 × 1.4
= 1.4 × 10−6 Watt

 Solved Problem 6
2
The minimum intensity of audibility of a source is 10−12 W/m . If the frequency of
the note is 1000 Hz, calculate the amplitude of vibration of air particles. Density of
3
air = 1.293 Kg/m . v = 340 m/s.
I Solution
I = 2π 2 n2 a2 ρ v
2
10−12 = 2π 2 (1000) a2 × 1.293 × 340
a = 1.073 × 10−11 m

 Solved Problem 7

Calculate the minimum intensity of audibility in watt/sq.m for a note of 1000 Hz if

3
the amplitude of vibration is 10−11 m. Assure the density of air = 1.3 Kg/m and
velocity of sound = 340 m/ sec.
 Technical Acoustics 2.43

I Solution

I = 2π 2 n2 a2 ρ v

2
= 2π 2 × 10002 × 10−11 × 1.3 × 340
−13 2
= 8.176 × 10 W/m

 Solved Problem 8

If the intensity is increased by a factor 20, by how many decibel is the sound level
increased ?
I Solution

Let
I
L1 = 10 log10
I0
 
20I
L2 = 10 log10
I0
   
20I I
∴ L2 − L1 = 10 log10 10 log10
I0 I0
 
20I I0
= 10 log10 ×
I0 I
= 10 log10 20 = 13 dB

 Solved Problem 9

Two trains are approaching each other with a speed of 36 km per hour. If the engine
of the train emits a note of 1000 vibrations, what will be the frequency of the note as
heard by a person sitting in the other train?
I Solution
Velocity of sound in air = 330 m/sec.
 
v − v0
n0 = n
v − vs

Given v = 330 m/sec

36 × 103
vs = = 10 m/sec
60 × 60
2.44 Applied Physics

v0 = −10 m/sec and n = 1000/sec

 
0 330 − (−10)
∴ n = 1000
330 − 10
340
= 1000 ×
320
= 1062.5 /sec

 Solved Problem 10

A quartz crystal of thickness of 0.001 meter is vibrating at resonance. Calculate the

2
fundamental frequency. Given Y for quartz is 7.9 × 1010 Newton/m and ρ for quartz
3
is 2650 kg/m .
I Solution
s
Y
v=
ρ
r
7.9 × 1010
= = 5461 m/sec
2650
For fundamental mode of vibrating thickness is λ/2.

λ = 2t = 2 × 0.001 = 0.002 m
v
Now, v = nλ ⇒ n =
λ
5461
= = 2730 kHz
0.002

Short Questions
1. Define reverberation time.

2. What are the characteristics of musical sound?

3. What is a relation between pitch and frequency

4. What do you mean by timbre?

5. State weber Feschner’s law.

6. Define intensity level and its unit ?

7. What do you mean by Doppler effect.

8. Explain the term ’sonic boom’.

 Technical Acoustics 2.45

9. What are the factors affecting the acoustics of buildings.

10. Define absorption coefficient of a material. Give its unit.

11. What is a decibel.

12. What is meant by sonar? Name two uses of it.

13. What do you meant by acoustics of buildings?

14. What are the requirement for good acoustics?

15. Define one phon and sone.

16. Distinguish between loudness and intensity of sound?

17. What is Echelon effect?

18. Distinguish between reverberation and echo.

19. Give any four applications of Doppler effect.

20. Distinguish between Mach Number and Reynold’s number.

21. Why should a hall or auditorium must have optimum reverberation?

22. Differentiate musical sound and noise.

23. What are ultrasonics.

24. List out the properties of ultrasonics.

25. Explain magnetostriction effect.

26. State piezo electric effect and its converse.

27. What do you mean by acoustic grating.

28. Explain why piezo electric generator is called as base tuned circuit.

29. Why a magnetostriction oscillator is called as collector tuned circuit.

30. List out some application of ultrasonic in engineering field.

31. Write down few medical applications of ultrasonics.

2.46 Applied Physics

Review Questions
1. What is reverberation time? Derive Sabine’s formula for reverberation time.

2. Describe with necessary theory a method of measuring of absorption coeffi-

cient of a material.

3. Discuss the factors affecting acoustics of building & and how these can be rec-
tified?

4. Derive an expression for the Doppler shifted frequency of sound waves there
is a relative motion between the source of sound and observes.

5. Discuss the phenomenon of Magnetostriction? How will you produce with

the help, high frequency sound waves? Mention the important application of
Ultrasonics.

6. What is piezoelectric effect? Explain with a neat circuit, the generator of ultra-
sonic using a piezoelectric oscillator.

7. What is acoustic grating? Using the principle of acoustic grating how do you
determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves in a liquids?

Exercise Problems
1. Find the velocity of the source when the frequency appears to be (a) double
(b) Half the original frequency to a stationary observer. (Ans: v/2; vv)
th
2. A locomotive whistle 256 vib/sec is moving towards you with a velocity 20 1

of that sound. What will be the frequency of the notes heard by you before and
after the engine passes you? (Ans: 269.5 vib/sec; 243.8 vin/sec
vin/sec)

3. A policeman on duty at a crossing challenges a car driver for crossing the speed
limit of 100 km/hr by detecting a change of 20 vib in the horn note of frequency
128 as the car passes him. Is he correct? Velocity of sound = 350 m/s.
(Ans: 99 km/hr; wrong
wrong)

4. A train approaching a railway crossing at a speed of 120 km/hr sounds a short

whistle at frequency 640 Hz. When it is 300 m away from the crossing. The
speed of sound in air is 340 m/s. What will be the frequency heard by a person
standing on a road perpendicular to the track through the crossing at a distance
of 400 m from the crossing. (Ans: 680 HzHz)

5. A vibrating tuning fork tied to the end of a string 1.988 m long is whirled round
a circle. If it makes two revolutions in a sound, calculate the frequencies of the
highest and the lowest notes heard by an observer situated in the plane of the
turning fork. Velocity = 350 m/sec. (Ans: 1.154
1.154)
 Technical Acoustics 2.47

2
6. Find the intensity level in dB of a sound of inensity 3.5 × 10 −2 watt/m . Zero
(Ans: 105.4 dB
2
intensity level is 10−12 watt/m . dB)

7. What is the resultant sound level when a 70 dB sound is added to an 85 dB

sound. (Ans: 85.13
85.13)

8. The sound from a drill gives a noise level of 90 decibels at a point a few meter
away from it. What is the noise level at this point when four such drills are
working at the same distance away? (Ans: 96.021 dB
dB)

9. The volume of a hall is 475 m3 . The area of wall is 200m2 , area of floor and
ceiling each is 100m2 . If absorption coefficient of the wall, ceiling and floor are
0.025, 0.02 and 0.55 respectively. Calculate reverberation time.
(Ans: 1.26 sec
sec)

10. Calculate RT of a hall of 1500m3 having seating capacity for 120 persons,

(i) When hall is empty

(ii) With full capacity of audience
(iii) Audience occupying only cushioned seats.

With following data

area (m2 ) a(owu)

Plastered walls 112 0.03
Wooden floor 130 0.06
Plastered ceilings 170 0.04
Wooden door 20 0.06
Cushioned chairs 100 1
Audience 120 4.7

(Ans: 2.08 s, 0.362 s, 0.42 ss)

11. What should be the total absorbtion in a hall of volume 10,000 m 3 if it is re-
quired to have a reverberation time of 1.4 sec.
(Ans: 1192.85 sabine
sabine)

12. A loud speaker emits energy in all directions at the rate of 1.5 J/sec. What is
the intensity level at a distance of 20 m. Standard intensity level of sound is
(Ans: 84.77 dB
2
10−12 W/m . dB)

13. The velocity of ultrasonics in steel is 500 m/s. An ultrasonic beam is used to
determine the thickness of a steel plate. It is noticed that the difference between
two adjacent harmonic frequencies is 60 KHz. Determine the thickness of the
steel plate. (Ans: 0.4166 m
m)
2.48 Applied Physics

14. An ultrasonic interferometer used to measure the velocity in sea water. If the
distance between two consecutive antinodes is 0.55 mm. Compute the velocity
of the waves in sea water. Frequency of crystal is 1.5 MHz.
(Ans: 1650 m/s
m/s)

15. Longitudinal standing waves are set up in a quartz plate with antinodes at op-
3
posite faces. The fundamental frequency of vibration is given by f = 2.87×10
t .
Calculate Young’s modulus and thickness of plate required for a frequency of
3
1300 KHz (ρ = 2660 kg/m ).
(Ans: 8.764 × 1010 N/m ; 2.207 × 10−3 m
2 2
m)
3.1 Introduction
Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) are optical phe-
nomena that are used in many fields, such as communication, 3D photography, data
processing, medical field etc. Significant feature of a laser is the enormous difference
between the character of its light of the light from other sources such as sun, flame
or incandescent lamp. Most striking features are

1. Directionality
2. High intensity
3. Extraordinary monochromaticity
4. High degree of coherence.

3.1.1 Directionality
• Conventional light sources emit in all directions (Due to spontaneous emission)
• Lasers, emit only in one direction (Due to stimulated emission)
Directionality of laser beams is usually ex-
pressed in terms of Full angle beam divergence,
d
which is twice the angle that the outer edge of the
beam makes with the axis of the beam. [Outer
2
edge of a beam is a point at which the strength of d
λ
the beam has dropped to 1/e times its value at the
Fig. 1
centre]
When a beam with planar wavefront radiates from an aperture of diameter d,
the beam propagates as a parallel beam for a distance of about d 2 /λ, which is some-
times called as Rayleigh range and begins to spread linearly with distance due to
unavoidable effects of diffraction.
λ
angular spread ∆θ =
d
3.2 Applied Physics

For laser beam ∆θ = 0.01 milliradian (i.e) it spreads only 0.01 mm about 1 m for
every 1 m of its travel.

3.1.2 Intensity
Laser gives out light into a narrow beam and its energy is concentrated in a small
region. This concentration of energy, both spatially & spectrally, accounts for the
great intensity of lasers. [Thus even 1 watt laser would appear many thousand times
more intense than 1000 watt ordinary lamp]. During focussing of laser radiation,
the energy density at the focal spot is enormously increased, resulting in increase in
radiation pressure also.

3.1.3 Monochromaticity
The light emitted by a laser is more monochromatic than that of any conventional
monochromatic source.
A laser light reveal no spreading at all.
[None including laser, can produce absolute Laser
monochromaticity. We can only seek better ap-
i
proximation to ideal] Normal
Degree of non monochromaticity ζ of a wave
is defined as its relative bandwidth and is given
∆ν
by ζ = l
ν0
For laser ζ = 10−12 and for ordinary light Fig. 2
source ζ = 10 . Thus lasers are strictly monochromatic than conventional light
−5

sources.

3.1.4 Coherence
Coherence is expressed in terms of ordering of light field (i.e.,) purity of spectral line.
Laser radiation is characterized by high degree of ordering of the light field than
the other sources. High coherence of laser emission makes it possible to realize a
tremendous spatial concentration of light power, such as 10 13 W in space with linear
dimensions of only 1 µm.

3.2 Laser - Basic Principles

When radiation is incident on matter, for interaction to occur, first of all the energy of
the interacting photon hν must match with energy difference between the two states
of the atoms involved in the interaction.
Under this condition, if the radiation interacts with atoms in lower energy state
say E1 , the atoms absorb the energy and get excited to higher energy E 2 by a process
called Induced Absorption (Fig.3(a)).
 Optics 3.3

Instead if the radiation interacts with atoms already in E 2 then de excitation of

those atoms to the lower energy state E1 occurs with emission of photon of energy
hν. This process is called Stimulated Emission (Fig.3(c)).
Another emission process called Spontaneous Emission is also possible where
in atoms in the excited state drop to tower energy state after they have stayed in
excited state for a short elevation of time called their Life Time (Fig.3(b)).
During this process also photon (E = hν) is emitted.
E2
hn
INDUCED ABSORPTION

E1
(a)

E2
hn
SPONTANEOUS EMISSION

E1

(b)

E2
hn
hn
STIMULATED EMISSION
hn
E1
(c)

Fig. 3

3.2.1 Einstein coefficients

In a collection of atoms, all the three transition processes occur simultaneously.
Let N1 be number of atoms / unit volume with energy E1 andN2 number of atoms
/ unit volume with energy E2 . Let n be number of photons / unit volume at fre-
quency ν such that hν = E2 − E1 .
Then energy density of interacting photons ρ(ν) is given by
ρ(ν) = nhν

When these photons interact with atoms, both upward (absorption) & downward
(emission) transitions occurs.

(a) Upward transition (Absorbtion)

When photons are incident, atoms from lower energy state move to higher energy
state.
3.4 Applied Physics

Stimulated absorption rate depends on the number of atoms available in the

lower energy state for absorption of these photons as well as energy of interacting
radiation

(i.e) R12 ∝ N1
∝ ρ(ν)
= N1 ρ(ν)B12 (1)

where B12 is constant of proportionality.

(b) Downward transition (Emission)

Once the atoms are excited by stimulated absorption, they stay in the excited state
for a short duration of time called lifetime of excited state. After this they move to
lower level, by emitting photons. So spontaneous emission rate
R21 (Sp) ∝ N2
= N2 A21 (2)

where A21 is constant of proportionality.

Before de excitation, if the atoms interact with photon, it results in stimulated
emission of photons.
∴ stimulated emission rate
R21 (St) ∝ N2
∝ ρ(ν)
= N2 ρ(ν)B21 (3)

where B21 is constant of proportionality.

During stimulated emission, the interacting photon (stimulating photon) and the
stimulated photon, are in phase with each other.
For a system in equilibrium

upward transition rate = downward transition rate

N1 ρ(ν)B12 = N2 ρ(ν)B21 + N2 A21

N2 A21
ρ(ν) = (4)
N1 B12 − N2 B21

Dividing numerator and denominator by N2 B21 in Eq.(4), we get

A21
B21
ρ(ν) = (5)
B12 N1
−1
B21 N2
 Optics 3.5

The population of various energy level of a system in thermal equilibrium is

given by Boltzman Distribution law
 
−Ei
Ni = gi No exp
kT

where

Ni - Population density of energy level Ei

No - Ground state population density at Temperature T .
gi - degeneracy of ith level
k- Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10−23 J/k)
So
−E1
N1 = g 1 No exp
kT
−E2
N2 = g 2 No exp
kT
 
N1 g1 E2 − E 1
(or) = exp
N2 g2 kT
(∵ E2 − E1 = hν)
 
g1 hν
= exp (6)
g2 kT

Substituting (3.6) in (3.5)

A21
B21
ρ(ν) =   (7)
g1 B12 hν
exp −1
g2 B21 kT

From Plank’s Radiation law,

!
8 π hν 3 1
ρ(ν) = hν
(8)
C3


exp kT −1

Comparing (3.8) & (3.7)

g1 B12
=1
g2 B21
⇒ g1 B12 = g2 B21 (9)

A21 8πhν 3
= (10)
B21 C3

Eq.(9) and Eq.(10) are known as Einstein coefficients.

3.6 Applied Physics

Case(i): Ratio of spontaneous emission rate to stimulated emission rate

From Eq.(2) and Eq.(3)

R21 (sp) N2 A21

=
R21 (st) N2 ρ(ν) B21
A21 1
= ×
B21 ρ(ν)

Substituting from Eq.(10) and Eq.(8)

8πhν 3 C3
 
hν
= × exp −1
C3 8πhν 3 kT
 
hν
= exp −1 which is >> 1
kT
R21 (sp)
(i.e.,) >1
R21 (st)
(or) R21 (sp) > R21 (st) (11)

Case(ii): Ratio of stimulated absorption rate & stimulated emission rate

From Eq.(3) and Eq.(1)
R21 (st) N2 ρ(ν)B21
=
R12 N1 ρ(ν)B12
N2
= (∵ B21 = B12 )
N1

∵ N1 > N2 (always)

R21 (st) < R12 (12)

From (3.11) and (3.12), when radiation is allowed to interact with matter. Stim-
ulated absorption is predominant and similarly photon is emitted only by sponta-
neous emission.
For Laser to emit,

R21 (st) > R12 which means

N2 > N 1

If this condition is satisfied then, stimulated emission will be predominant than

absorption.
∴ To achieve stimulated emission, population of excited state N 2 should be
made larger than population of lower state (N1 )and this condition is called Popula-
tion inversion
 Optics 3.7

Hence for amplifying the beam of light by stimulated emission we must

• Create population inversion

• Increase energy density of interacting radiation.

To achieve this, the following basic requirements are required for laser operation.

• Active Medium - To create population inversion

• Active centers - atoms that actually take part in population inversion
• Population inversion
• Resonance cavity - For optical feedback .
• Threshold inversion density - for emission of in phase photons satisfying char-
acteristics of Laser beam.

Method of increasing the population of higher energy level is known as pumping.

To achieve population inversion, various pumping mechanism are involved. Some
of them are :

• Optical pumping
• Inelastic atom - atom collision
• Chemical reaction
• Injection luminescence.

3.3 Ruby Laser

In solid substances used in laser devices, 4F Blue
Very fast
1
the active material is present in concentra- non radiative
decay
tion less than one percent. The bulk of the Green
4F2
material does not participate in the laser ac-
}
2A
tion. It only acts as the host. For laser ac- 0.42µm 2E
0.55µm

)
tion to be possible, the ions of the active µm 2E
1 43
material will have to be excited to proper (0
.6 R2(0.6928µm)
upper level which is usually accomplished R1
4A2
by optical pumping.
Fig. 4
Ruby is crystalline Al2 O3 doped with
chromium. The triply ionised chromium
ions, which replaces some of Al 3+ ions, gives the otherwise transparent crystal, a
pink red colour depending upon its concentration.
Energy levels of Cr 3+ ions in Al2 O3 lattice.
There are 2 main pump bands 4F1 and 4F2 centered around 0.42µm 0.55 µm
respectively.
3.8 Applied Physics

Construction

Flash lamp Ruby rod

Coolant

Power
supply
Fig. 5

One centimeter cube of Pink ruby with a concentration of about 0.05% of C r is

used. Ruby is in the form of cylinder 4 cm in length and 0.5 cm in diameter. Its ends
are grounded and polished plane and parallel. One end is silvered to give complete
reflecting surface with about 10% transmission. A helical photographic flash lamp
filled with Xenon, provides white light in the form of a pulse which last for about
one thousandth of a second. Above a certain critical light intensity, an inversion of
population is achieved and the laser oscillations starts. An intense beam of red light
emerges from the end of the rod. The beam divergence is about half a degree and
the emerging beam is spatially coherent.
The power during the output pulse is nearly 10 Kilowatts.

Pumping method
The pumping method used here is the optical pumping, where photons are used for
excitation. Since solids are characterised by energy bands of small energy separation,
photons of near equal frequencies are used for pumping.

Working
When the material is radiated with green light at λ ∼ 5500A ◦ , chromium ions are
excited to 4F2 state.
The excited chromium ions quickly lose some of their energy via phonon assisted
non radiative transition to a pair of levels associated with 2E state. This state slowly
decays by emitting a sharp doublet with components.

R1 (6943A◦ ) and R2 (6928A◦ )

Under very intense excitation, the population of metastable state can become
greater than that of the ground state. In this situation the initial spontaneously emit-
ted fluroscent photons would travel in all directions, but those travelling parallel
to the axis would be reflected to and fro between the reflectors and so would pass
 Optics 3.9

many times through amplifying medium and would stimulate upper state atoms to
radiate, thus causing amplification via stimulated emission. The laser action is thus,
actually initiated by spontaneous emission.
Actually, laser action can be obtained on both 2A → 4A2 and 2E → 4A2 transi-
tions. However, usually it occurs on 2E → 4A2 transition (R1 line).

Spiking
Output of a pulsed ruby laser, if examined
Intensity
with a photo cell or oscilloscope is found to
consist of a series of pulse of duration of a
few microseconds which is called spiking
(Fig.6).
Duration of exciting flash light is of the
order of millisecond & may be sufficiently Time (milliseconds)
intense to build up an inverted popula-
Light output of a ruby laser
tion very rapidly. As soon as a sufficiently
Fig. 6
large population has been produced in up-
per level, laser action starts producing a pulse. This has the effect of depleting the
upper level population more rapidly than it can be restored by flash light. Laser os-
cillation then ceases for a few microseconds. Because the flash lamp is still active,
it again builds up population inversion causing another spike, and the sequence is
repeated. Peak Power radiated - 1012 times as radiated by the sun.

3.4 Energy level diagram of He-Ne laser

The main drawback of ruby laser is that the output beam is not continuous. Hence
for continuous beam, gas lasers ar used. In gas lasers vapours of metals are em-
ployed, as active media. Main Advantages of gas lasers are exceptional monochro-
maticity, most pure spectrum & high stability of frequency.

Construction

It consists of a fused quartz tube with diameter of about 1.5 cm and 80 cm long. This
tube is filled with a mixture of N e &He under a pressure of 0.1µm of Hg & 1 mm of
Hg respectively. There are majority of He atoms & minority N e atoms.
At one end of the tube, there is a perfect reflector while on the other end there is
a partial reflector.
The active material is excited by means of high frequency generator with a fre-
quency of several tens of MHz and an input of about 50 Watt.
3.10 Applied Physics

He Ne

Quartz tube

He + Ne

Gen.
Perfect reflecting Partial reflecting
mirror mirror

Fig. 7

Pumping method

The pumping method used here is inelastic atom atom collision, where electrons
are used for excitation. Since gases are characterised by discrete energies, photons
(optical pumping) cannot be used. Here a mixture of two gases having near equal
excited energy levels are taken. Readily reactive atoms goes to higher energy level
and by resonance transfer of energy, these excited atoms collide with other atoms in
ground state and excites them, there by deexciting themselves.

Working

He-Ne Laser

Helium Energy transfer through Neon

atomic collisions
E6
F3
3.39mm
E5
E4
F2

1.15mm 6328 A°
E3

Spontoneous
emission (6000 A°)
Energy

Excitation
by collisions with
electrons E2
Deexciation
by collision

F1 E1

Fig. 8
 Optics 3.11

When a discharge is passed through the gas mixture, He atoms are excited to
energy levels (F2 , F3 ), through collisions with acceleration particles. These levels
are meta stable states from which there are no allowed transitions. The excited He
atoms then collide inelastically with neon atoms still in ground state and transfer the
energy to them. Now the He atoms return to ground state.

Transition level Wavelength Range

E6 → E 5 33900 A◦ Far IR
E6 → E 3 6328 A◦ Red (visible)
E4 → E 3 11500 A◦ IR

The higher neon states E6 and E4 are metastable states and have longer lifetime
than E3 .
(ie)
He∗ + N e → N e∗ + He

Hence an inversion of population at E6 , E4 × E3 results in.

When an excited Ne atom passes spontaneously from metastable states E 6 , E4 to
state E3 , it emits a photon. This photon travels through the gas mixture.
If the photon is moving parallel to the axis of the tube, it is reflected back & forth
by the mirror ends & it stimulates an excited Ne atom, resulting in laser transition.
This process continues till a beam of coherent radiation builds up.
Laser Radiation are
To get 632.8 nm output, the laser tube windows are made up of glass or quartz
that absorb 1.15µm & 3.39 µm.
There occurs a collection of atoms at metastable E2 level of Ne, after a fast decay
from E3 levels.
To avoid this, the discharge tube diameter is kept small so that the atom collides
with the walls of the tube and comes to ground state. The output is polarised and
output power is about 0.5 mW to 100 mW.

3.5 CO2 Laser

It comes under the category of molecular lasers. It is capable of generating contin-
uously and high power of 10 KW. The active medium is CO2 + N2 + He. Besides
electronic energy level, molecules have various vibrational & rotational levels. The
reason is that the constituent atoms of the molecule can vibrate in relation to each
other and molecule as a whole can rotate. Due to transitions between vibration -
rotation levels of the molecules, molecular laser oscillations are produced.
3.12 Applied Physics

}j
=2
}j =1
}j =0
E1, E2 - Electronic energy levels
E2 Quantum No. - vibrational levels
}j Quantum No. j - rot ational levels
=1
}j
=0
E1

Fig. 9
Types of molecular lasers
There are two types of molecular lasers.
Type 1 : Transition between vibrational states of same electronic states
Type 2 : Transition between the vibrational level of different electronic states.
CO2 laser comes in the category of Type 1

3.5.1 Vibrational modes of CO2

CO2 is a linear molecule with carbon at the center and oxygen at the ends. There are
three different modes of vibrations of CO2 molecules.
(i) Symmetric stretching mode
The carbon atom is fixed in its position and
each oxygen atom vibrate in opposite direc-
tion symmetrical to the central carbon atom Fig. 10
along a straight line and it is known as symmetric stretching mode and the corre-
sponding frequency is called symmetric stretching frequency

(iii) Asymmetric stretching mode

All the three atoms will vibrate. The oxygen
atoms vibrate in the opposite direction to the vi-
bration direction of carbon atom. i.e two oxy-
Fig. 11
gen atom vibrate asymmetrical to the central car-
bon atom. The corresponding frequency is called
C
asymmetric stretching frequency.
(ii) Bending mode
The atoms will not be linear. The oxygen
atom and the carbon atom may vibrate at right
angles to the line passing through the centre
of gravity. This is known as bending mode of
vibration and the corresponding frequency is O O
called bending frequency. Fig. 12
 Optics 3.13

Design of CO2 laser

It consists of a discharge tube of 2.5 cm in diameter and 5 cm long. Discharge is
produced by means of d.c. excitation (Fig.13).

He N2 Co2
To vacuum
pump
Brewster’s
window

Mirror PS

Fig. 13
Brewster windows are used at the ends. Near confocal silicon mirrors coated with
aluminium forms resonance cavity. First nitrogen molecules are allowed to enter
the area of discharge. Here they become excited by collision with the electron of
discharge. These excited nitrogen molecules then flow into the laser volume, where
they mix up with unexcited CO2 molecules. N2 imparts its energy to CO2 molecules
by resonant energy transfer.

Pumping method
Here also inelastic atom atom collision method is used for pumping. The electrons
excite N2 atoms to their higher energy level. They in turn collide with CO 2 molecules
in their ground state, transfer their energies, excite CO 2 to higher level and deexcite
themselves to ground state.

Energy level diagram of CO2 laser

Energy transfer (001) S B A

through collision Assymetric
E5
Sym Bend Asym
10.6mm

9.6mm (100)
hg E4 Symmetric
Energy

Bending E3
(020)

Bending E2
(010)

E1 (Role of helium)

Nitrogen Co2

Fig. 14
3.14 Applied Physics

Upper laser level state is (001) and lower laser level are (020) and (100).
Transition between (001) → (100) corresponds to wavelength of 10.6 µm and the
transition (001) → (020) corresponds to wavelength of 9.6 µm.

Function of He
The levels, (100), (020), & (010) being very close, soon reach thermal equilibrium.
Hence the decay from lowest level (010) to ground state should be very fast, oth-
erwise, there would be accumulation of molecules in this level, which would spoil
the population inversion.
To avoid this, the temperature of CO2 must be low. He, is used for this purpose,
because it has high thermal conductiv

3.6 Nd: YAG Laser

Nd - Neodymium; YAG - Yittrium Aluminium Garnet

Introduction
Nd-YAG laser is a doped insulator laser (Solid State Laser). It is a four level laser.
Y3 Al5 O12 commonly called YAG is an optically isotropic crystal and it acts as an
active medium. The laser is used to generate high power intense beam of light.

Principle
The term ‘Doped insulator laser’ refers to the active medium YAG doped with Nd +3 .
The Neodymium ion has many energy levels. Due to the optical pumping these ions
are raised to excited states. The released LASER beam has a wavelength of 1.064µm
(IR region)

Construction

Fig. 15
 Optics 3.15

Fig (15) shows a typical design of the laser. The Nd3+ ions normally occupies
the Y3+ ions in YAG and provides the energy levels for both lasing transition and
pumping. This rod is placed inside a highly reflecting elliptical cavity.

Elliptical reflector arrangement

Fig (16) consists of an elliptically cylindrical re-
flector arrangement. It has laser rod at one focus
and krypton flash lamp at other focus. The light
emerging from one foci after reflection passes
through other foci so that the light energy is com-
pletely utilised for the excitation of electrons. An Fig. 16
optical source like krypton flash lamp is placed near rod in such a way that most of
the radiations from the flash tube passes through the Nd-YAG due to the elliptical
cavity. The two ends of the rod are polished and silvered and constitute the opti-
cal resonator where one end (M1 ) is 100% reflecting and other end (M2 ) is partial
reflector. It is used to increase the efficiency of the output wave.

Working
i) The Krypton flash lamp is switched on and the light is allowed to fall on Nd-
YAG rod
ii) The intense white light excites the ground state Nd3+ ions to higher states
iii) The excited Nd3+ ions quickly make, downward transitions from the upper
energy bands. So the metastable state E3 will be rapidly populated. This state
is called upper laser level
iv) The lower laser level E2 is far above from the ground state and hence it cannot
be populated by Nd3+ ions. Therefore, the population inversion is achieved
between E3 and E2 levels.

Fig. 17 Energy level diagram

v) Hence pulsed form of laser beam of wavelength 1.06 µm is emitted during
transmission.
vi) The cooling arrangement is made further by blowing air (or) circulating water
over the crystal to avoid the heat produced by the lamp
3.16 Applied Physics

Characteristics of Nd-YAG Laser

Type - Doped insulator laser (Solid State)
Active medium - Yittrium - Aluminium Garnet (Y3 Al5 O12 )
Active centre - Neodymium (Nd3+ ions)
Pumping method - Optical pumping
Pumping source - Xenon flash lamp
Optical resonator - Ends of the rods polished with silver and two
mirrors (one of them is totally reflecting and
other is partially reflecting)
Power output - 2 × 104 watts
Nature of output - pulsed
Wave length Emitted - 1.06 µm

3.7 Semi Conductor Laser

Active medium : P-N junction diode
Active center : Recombination of electron & holes
Pumping process : Direct pumping
Optical resonator : Junction of diodes polished

Introduction
The most compact of all lasers is the semiconductor diode laser.

Laser materials used

There are two types of semiconductors
(i) Direct band gap
(ii) Indirect band gap
In direct band gap, there is a huge possibility for direct recombination of holes
& electrons which leads to emission of a photon. In indirect band gap semiconduc-
tor, no direct recombination is possible, and the recombination does not result in a
photon. Hence direct band gap semiconductors are used in the construction of lasers
and the wavelength of emitted light depends on the band gap of the material.

Principle
The electron in conduction band combines with a hole in the valence band & hence
the recombination of electron and hole produces energy in the form of light. This
photon, in turn may induce another electron in conduction band to valence band
and thereby stimulate the emission of another photon.
 Optics 3.17

Construction
The active medium is a PN junction diode made from galium arsenide in which P
region is doped with Ge and N region with tellurium. The thickness of PN junction
layer is very narrow so that the emitted laser radiation has large divergence. The
junction of ‘P ’ & ‘N ’ are well polished and are parallel to each other. Since the re-
fractive index of GaAs is high, it acts as optical resonator so that the external mirrors
are not needed. The upper and lower electrodes fixed in ‘P ’ and ‘N ’ region helps for
the flow of current to the diode while biasing. se
r
La

Working
Population inversion in PN junction is achieved P
by heavily doping the material. If the junction FB

PN
is forward biased with an applied voltage, di-
rect conduction takes place. Due to high cur- N

rent density, active region is generated near

the depletion region. At this junction, if a radi-
ation of frequency ν is made to incident, then
photo emission takes place. Further the emit- Fig. 18
ted photons increase the rate of recombination
of injected electrons from ‘N ’ to ‘P ’ region. Hence emitted photons are in phase and
has same frequency & will amplify to get intense beam of laser.

Output wavelength
Bang gap of GaAs = 1.44 eV
hc hc 6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
Eg = hν = ⇒λ= = = 8628A◦ (IR)
λ Eg 1.44 × 1.6 × 10−19

3.8 Applications
1. It is used to drill hole in thick metal sheets.
2. Lasers are used for non destructive testing of metals.
3. They are used in molecular fusion, to accelerate chemical reaction, to cut and
weld metals.
4. Semiconductor lasers are used in communication, to produce laser diodes and
LED’s.
5. Due to its low attenuation, CO2 laser is used in open air communication.
6. Lasers (He N e) are used to produce holograms and to determine size of tiny
particles.
7. Lasers are used in LIDAR, remote sensing etc.
8. Lasers are also used in neurosurgery, microsurgery, treatment of liver, lungs
and bloodless operations.
3.18 Applied Physics

9. They are also used in elimination of moles and tumours on the skin surface.
10. They are also used in plastic surgeries, and in opthalmology etc.

3.8.1 Application of laser in CD - ROM

Optical disks have much higher recording densities than conventional magnetic disks.
A compact disc read only memory (CD ROM) is prepared by using a high power
laser to burn one million (10−6 m) holes in a master disk. From this master a mold is
made. This mold is used to make copies on plastic disks. A thin layer of Aluminium
is then deposited on the surface, followed by a transparent plastic layer for protec-
tion. The holes are called pits and the unburned areas between the pits are called
lands. They are distinguishable by their differences in reflectivity. The operation of
all optical storage devices depends on laser technology.
A CD-ROM is a rigid plastic platter about 1.2 mm thick and 12 cm across with a
centre spindle hole that is 1.5 cm is diameter. Data is written to the disk by burning
pits in the recording surface with a carefully focussed loser. Each bit is roughly 0.12
mm micrometre deep and about 0.6 micrometers is diameter. CD-ROM tracks are
1.6µm apart for a track density of 16,000 tracks/inch. The floppy disk has a track
density of 96 tracks/inch. Data begins at the continuous spiral and it has 2,70,000
data blows for a total capacity of 553 megabytes. The spiral track is divided into
blocks of the same size as shown in fig. A high intensity laser beam is used to store
the data, while a low intensity laser beam is used to read the data.
B

S
M

Block
L1

L2 L3

Land Light
pit sensor

Fig. 19 Data out

3.8.2 3D Profiling
Definition
The process of recording and analysing three dimensional character of a particu-
lar object using laser scanner and computer software is known as 3D Profiling.
 Optics 3.19

Principle
When an object is illuminated by laser beam, each point on the object acts as a
source of secondary waves. These waves spread in all directions and form inter-
ference pattern. This interference pattern characterises the object and it is recorded
using suitable method. The recorded image is again illuminated by using another
coherent laser source. This results in reproduction of the original object in 3 dimen-
sion. The recording medium records not only the amplitude distribution but also the
phase of the electromagnetic wave scattered from the object.
The set up consists of

i) Laser source
ii) Detector array
iii) Detector scanner
iv) Computer

Detector Array
Laser source

Object

Laser source
Reflected ray

Detector Machine or
Computer
scanner design tool

Fig. 20 Shows the designing of 3D profile using laser and computer

i) Laser source
A laser source having high monochromaticity, intensity, coherence and direc-
tionality is used as a source to get the 3D images of a particular object. The
object is placed at the centre of the orbit of the laser source and it is fixed one.
The source is movable on circular scale and it can be positioned at any angle
over 360◦ . Thus, the reflected light rays spread in all directions.

ii) Detector array

It is a collection of sensing diodes. These diodes are known as detectors. When
the light from object is reflected and falls on these diodes, they sense and pro-
duce an equivalent analog pulse.
3.20 Applied Physics

iii) Detector scanner

It is going to scan the object in all three planes with the help of received signals
from Detector Array. These signals are converted into its equivalent digital
from using an analog to digital convertor which is attached to the scanner. The
received signals contains both amplitude and phase variation which reflects
the nature of the object.

iv) Computer

The scanner signals (digital) are supplied into a computer to stimulated the
parallel signals. These signals or data are processed with suitable software and
the commands are given to machine by the computer.

Working

The object is placed at centre of the orbit and the laser source is switched on. The
laser source will revolve in a circular orbit so that light falls on all parts of the object.
The object reflects the light rays and these rays are incident on the detector array. The
diodes in the detector array convert the optical signal into electrical signal. These sig-
nals are scanned by detector scanner in all the three planes. The digital information
about the object from the scanner is given as input to the computer. Now the com-
puter converts these in the form of matrix. Optical signal processors in the computer
reconstruct the image of the object in 3-Dimensional mode and the image is stored in
the form of digits. In this way we are able to get the 3D image by using laser and the
computer. The commands from the computer are given to the respective machine in
order to design the given object.
Comparison of types of lasers

Ruby He-Ne CO2 Semiconductor

Laser
(Ga - As)
Type Solid state Gas Molecular gas Semiconductor
Ruby He + Ne in ratio CO2 + N2 + He P - N junction
Active medium
(Al2O3_Cr2O3) 10:1 diode
Active center Chromium Neon CO2 Recombination of
e -n and holes
Pumping method Optical pumping Electrical pumping Electric Direct pumping
discharge method
Ends of rods Pair of Mirrors coated Junction of
Optical resonator concave mirrors
polished with silver with Al diodes polished
Power output 4 5
10 - 10 Watts 0.5-50 mW 10KW 1mW

Nature of output Pulsed Continuous Continuous or pulsed Continuous

o o
Wave length 6943 Ao 6943 Ao 9.6 & 10.6 mm 8400 A - 8600 A
 Optics 3.21

Fiber optics
Fiber optics deals with light propagation through this glass fibres. Fibre optics plays
an important role in the field of communication. The transmission of light via a di-
electric wave guide structure was first proposed of investigated at the beginning of
twentieth century. A transparent dielectric rod, typically of silica glass with refrac-
tive index 1.5, surrounded by air, proved to be an impractical wave guide due to its
unsupported structure of excessive losses at any discontinuities of glass air interface.
Nevertheless, interest in the application of dielectric optical wave guides in such ar-
eas as optical imaging & medical diagnosis led to proposal of clad, surrounding the
glass.
Light energy travels in both the core of
Sheath
cladding allowing the associated fields to
decay to a negligible value at the cladding Cladding
air interface. Loss is about 100 dB/km. Core 50mm 150mm
Tremendous efforts to reduce the attenu-
ation by purification of the materials in 125mm
which loss was about 4.2 dB/km. Most
of this work was focussed on 0.8 to 0.9 µm
Fig. 21
wavelength band, because the first genera-
tion optical sources fabricated from galluim Aluminium Arsenide operates in this
region. However, as silica fibers, were investigated at longer wave length (1.1 to 1.6
µm) resulted in lower losses of reduced signal dispersion. Around 1.55 µm, fiber loss
=0.2 dB/km. Recent regions Mid IR (2 to 5 µ m) and IR (8 to 12 µm).
For transmission mechanism of optical fibers with dimension approximate to
those of a human hair, it is necessary to consider it as a cylindrical glass fiber. Such
fiber acts as an open optical wave guide, which may be analysed utilizing simple
say theory. Discussion of light propagation in optical fibers using ray theory ap-
proach is essential in order to develop some of fundamental parameters associated
with optical fiber communication.

3.9 Ray Theory Transmission

3.9.1 Total internal reflection
To consider propagation of light it is necessary to take account of refractive index
of dielectric medium. Refractive index is defined as ratio of the velocity of light in
vacuum to velocity of length of light in medium. Light travels much slower in denser
medium rather than rarer medium.
Consider a ray travelling from a medium of refractive index n 1 to a medium of
index n2 , such that n1 > n2 Fig.22. Let the angle of incidence be φ1 and angle of
refraction be φ2 . As it enters the second medium, it bends away from the normal. If
the value of φ1 is increased, the refracted ray still bends away from the normal. For
a particular value of φ1 , the angle of refraction will become 90◦ . For any value above
3.22 Applied Physics

this value of φ1 , the ray comes back to the same medium. This mechanism is called
total internal reflection.
n1>n2 n1>n2

Ref. Ray
At critical angle
n2 n2
φ2

φ1 φC
n1 n1
Partial
I. Ray reflection

n1>n2

n2

φ> φC

φ φ
n1

Fig. 22

From Snell’s law

n1 sin φ1 = n2 sin φ2 n2 Cladding
sin φ1 n2 φ φ φ φ
=
sin φ2 n1 Core axis
n1 Core
at φ1 = φC ; φ2 = 90 ◦
n2 Cladding
sin φC n2
= Fig. 23
sin 90 n1 n2
sin φC =
n1
n2
φC = sin−1 (13)
n1
where φC is called critical angle defined as the angle of incidence at which the angle
of refraction is 90◦
This is the mechanism by which light at a sufficiently low angle, may be con-
sidered to propagate down an optical fibers with low loss. Transmission of light in
optical fibre cable is via series

3.9.2 Acceptance angle

A meridional say A at critical angle φC , enters the fiber at an angle θa , to the fiber
axis is total internally reflected at air core interface before transmission core cladding
interface at φc .
 Optics 3.23

Any ray which is in- A

cident into fiber core at
an angle greater than θa θa
will be transmitted to core Acceptance
cone n1 Core
cladding interface at an an-
n2 Cladding
gle less than φC .
B
Thus for rays to be
transmitted by total inter- Fig. 24
nal reflection, within the
fiber core, must be incident on the fiber core with an acceptance cone defined by
conical half angle θa .
Hence acceptance angle is the maxi- n2
mum angle to the axis at which light may n1
θ1 A C
enter the fiber in order to be propagated,
θ2
within core region and to suffer total inter- φφ
nal reflection at core cladding interface. no
B
Consider a ray entering the fibre at θ1
Fig. 25
and let the fibre be placed in a medium of
index n0 . The core index is n1 and that of cladding is n2 (Fig.25). Applying Snell’s
law for air core interface n0 sin θ1 = n1 sin θ2
Now; in ∆ABC
π π
φ= − θ 2 . ⇒ θ2 = − φ
2 2
π 
n0 sin θ1 = n1 sin − φ = n1 cos φ (14)
2
We know, sin2 φ + cos2 φ = 1 ⇒ cos φ = (1 − sin2 φ)1/2
1
n0 sin θ1 = n1 (1 − sin2 φ) 2 (15)

Applying the condition, when θ1 = θa ; φ = φC to Eq.(15)

1
n0 sin θa = n1 (1 − sin2 φC ) 2 (16)

Substituting from Eq.(13)  2 ! 12

n2
n0 sin θa = n1 1− (17)
n1
1
n21 − n22 2

= n1
n21

1
n21 − n22 2
n0 sin θa = n1
n1

1
n1 − n22 2
2
sin θa = (18)
n0
3.24 Applied Physics

sin θa is called Numerical Aperture (NA) which defines the light collecting ability
of a fibre and is an inherent property of a fibre.
For air n0 = 1

21
N A = sin θa = n21 − n22

Fractional refractive index change (∆)

The fractional difference ∆ between the refractive indices of the core and cladding is
known as fractional refractive index change.

∆ = (n1 − n2 )/n1

Types of rays propagating through optical fibres

Meridional ray Skew ray

Light rays passing through the fibre axis are Rays that are transmitted without passing
known as meridional rays. through the fiber axis.
It follows zig zag path It follows a helical path.
They propagate only in step index fibre They propagate through graded index fibre.
Small acceptance angle and NA Larger acceptance angle and NA

3.10 Modes of Propagation

Features Single mode Multi mode
Diameter of core 2 to 8 µm 50 mm
No. of modes 1 >1
Band width wide narrow
Output Faithfully follows input distorted output
√ !2
dn1 2∆
Number of modes 1 N = 4.9
λ
Signal degradation Less More
Fabrication Difficult Easier

For standard fiber the core is about 50 µm. As this dimension is very large in com-
parison with wave length of light, there are many possible modes (ways) of electro
magnetic field. Thus light will follow a number of paths through the fiber. Optical
power is distributed among several modes with different velocity. Two modes of
propagation are allowed, single mode and multimode.
 Optics 3.25

3.11 Fiber Materials

Three material systems are usually used.

1. High content silica glass

2. Multi component glass
3. Plastic

Requirements of a good fibre material

1. It must be possible to make long thin flexible fibers from the material
2. Material must be transparent at a particular wavelength to guide light effi-
ciency
3. Physically compatible materials having slightly different reflective indices should
be available.

Glass fibers GeO2

1.47
Basic material used : Silica (SiO2 ) at n = 1.458 at P2O5
850nm 1.46
n
Dopants used: B2 O3 , GeO2 or P2 O5 1.45
P2 O5 or GeO2 increases the materials index fluorine B2O3
1.44 F
or B2 O3 decreases the material refractive index.
Using the above, various core clad materials can be
Dopant addition %
prepared.
Fig. 26
e.g.,

1. GeO2 − SiO2 as Core ; SiO2 as Cladding

2. SiO2 as Core 0 B2 O3 − SiO2 as Cladding

Fluoride glass can be used which has extremely low transmission losses at 0.2 to
8 m wavelength. Recently Halide glasses can also be used which are mainly made
of heavy metal fluoride glasses as main component.
(e.g) ZBLAN ZrF4 − 50%; BaF2 ; 20%; LaF3 − 45%; AlF3 − 3.5%, N aF − 18%
Core : ZBLAN Cladding: Z4 F4 replaced by HaF4
Plastic fibers
Silica and its polymer can be used in case of plastic fibers.
(e.g)
1. Silica as core and silicone resin as cladding (n = 1.405 at 850 nm)
2. Polyester core (n = 1.60) and Methyl methacrylate cladding (n = 1.4)
3.26 Applied Physics

3.12 Step Index Fiber and Graded Index Fiber

Based on refractive index profile, two types of fibers are available:

Step Index Fibre Graded Index Fibre

1. Refractive index of core is uniform throughout Refractive index of core is made to vary in the
and undergoes an abrupt or step change at the parabolic manner (i.e.,) maximum along the cen-
core cladding interface. ter of the core and decreases towards interface
and becomes equal to that of cladding at the in-
terface.
2. Diameter of core Multimode ≈ 50 µm
Multimode : ≈ 50 − 200 µm
Single mode : ≈ 10 µm

3. Light travels in the form of meridional ray. Light travels in the form of skew rays.(i.e.,) Ray
(i.e.,) Ray will cross the fibre axis during every will not cross fibre axis at any time but propa-
reflection at the interface and are propagating in gate around the fibre axis; propagates in helical
a zig zag manner. or spiral manner.

4. Refractive index profile Refractive index profile

( (
α
n1 r<a n1 (1 − 2∆ ar )y2 r<a
n(r) = n(r) =
n2 r≥a n1 (1 − 2∆)y2 r ≥ a ≈ n2
where α is refractive index profile

5. Signal distortion is more in multimode step Signal distortion is low because of self focussing
index fibre effect

6. Bandwidth Multimode
Multimode ≈ 50M Hz 200 - 600 MHz
Single mode ≈ 1000M Hz

7. Both single and multimode are possible Only multimode propagation is possible

8. Attenuation more for multimode; very less for Attenuation is less

singlemode

9. NA NA is less
Multi mode - more
Single mode - less

10.
r
r

n(r) n1
n(r) n1
n2
n2
Refractive index

n1
n2 n1
n0 c - core n2
cl - clad n(r) n0
c cl a a - air
c cl au
Distance from
fibre axis
 Optics 3.27

3.13 Optical Fibers as Wave Guides

A wave guide is one of the components in a communication system and is used for
effective transmission of the signals with any attenuation. Thus it guides the signal
properly so that the signal can be received at the receiver end without much loss.
A wave guide should have the following properties:

1. It should transmit the signal without any loss and any overlap.
2. It should have the ability to propagate at desired frequency.
3. There should not be any electromagnetic interference, mode conversion, mix-
ing, noise or cross talk.
4. There should not be any leakage and proper security should be ensured.
5. It should have high bandwidth, flexible and light weight.

An optical fiber can satisfy the above properties and hence they can function as
optical wave guides.

3.14 Sensors
Optical techniques are widely used for non contact measurements. Optical fiber
sensor technology is very important in the field of instrumentation, due to their high
reliability, security and immunity to electro magnetic interference.
If the guided light in the fiber gets modulated by the variable to be measured
and demodulated, then they are intrinsic or active sensor. If modulation takes place
outside the optical fiber and merely transmitted, then they are extrinsic or passive
sensors.

3.14.1 Intensity modulated temperature sensor (IMT)

Light source Steel

Transmitting fibre Brass

Detector

Receiving fibre
Bimetallic
element
Fig. 27
3.28 Applied Physics

It is based on reflective concept. Here the bimetallic

strip acts as the sensing element. It consists of steel and
brass welded together in the form of a strip. Since linear
O/P
expansion of brass is more than steel, the strip bends in (volts)
the form of an arc. Metal with higher linear expansion
will be outside of the arc when heated.
T ( ºC )
The strip is attached to a bifurcated reflective fibre
optic probe. Strip is designed to move continuously and Fig. 28
its movement is directly proportional to temperature.
The amount of light reflected is converted into voltage by a photo diode. Fig.24
shows linear response of the sensor. Amount of light reflected decreases with in-
crease in temperature, so that the output of the photodiode decreases with increase
in temperature.

3.14.2 Phase modulated temperature sensor (PMT)

Here, Phase shift produced in the sensing fibre relative to reference fibre is a function
of temperature.

Sensing fibre
Laser Display

Transducer

Fibre Fibre
coupler coupler
(split) Reference fibre (combine)

Fig. 29

Light source is a semiconductor laser. A coupler splits the beam which travels
through sensing and reference fibre. Another coupler combines these two beams
and on display, alternate bright and dark bands appear. A change in phase of light
in sensing fibre due to change in refractive index with respect to temperature with
reference to phase of light in the reference fibre appears as a displacement fringe
pattern. A phase change of 2π radians causes a displacement of the fringe pattern. By
counting the fringe displacement the magnitude of temperature can be determined.

3.15 Application of Optical Fibre

Endoscope
It is a tubular optical instrument. An endoscope is used by physicians to view the
internal parts of the human body. This imaging can help surgeons decide the proce-
dure tobe followed for treating the patients.
 Optics 3.29

Construction and working

A typical endoscopy is shown schematically in Fig.30.

Fig. 30

Usually in the endoscope, there are two fibres namely inner fibre and outer fibre.
The outer fibre is used to collect the reflected light from that area and using this we
can see the inner structure of the object. The inner fibre is used to illumisate the
inner structure of the object under study. The ends of the two fibres are provided
with suitable optical components to transmit and receive images.
The two fibres together form the endoscopy tube. One end of the endoscopy tube
remains outside and the other end is sent into human body.
There is an optical light source at the end of the outer fibre for transmitting light
to illuminate the internal part of the body.
The light collecting and image viewing optical arrangements are placed at the
respective ends of the inner fibre. So, the other fibre transmits the image of the part
of the body to an imaging system coupled outside.
Different types of commonly available endoscopes

Type Range of use Diagnostic problems

(1) Opthalmoscope Eye defects Rectinal detachment
(2) Gastroscope Stomach Gastritis, gastric ulcer, tumours
(3) Cardioscope Heart cavities Spetal defects, valvular defects
(4) Cystoscope Urinary blad- Small stones, inflammation, tu-
der mours etc.

 Solved Problem 1

Prove that laser action is not possible in optical frequencies under thermal equilib-
rium. (λ = 5000 A◦ ; T = 300K)
3.30 Applied Physics

I Solution
We know
Rsp
= ehν/kT − 1
Rst

6.625 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

 
= exp −1
5000 × 10−10 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300
= 5.02 × 1041
⇒ Rsp > Rst

∴ It is not possible.

 Solved Problem 2

A CO2 laser source emits light at a wavelength of 9.6 µ m and has an output power
of 10 KW. How many photons are emitted in each hour by this laser while operating?
I Solution

c 3 × 108
ν= = = 3.125 × 1013 Hz
λ 9.6 × 10−6
E = hν = 6.62 × 10−34 × 3.125 × 1013
= 2.07 × 10−20 J
Energy emitted = 10 kW = 10 × 103 W
= 104 J/s = 104 × 60 × 60 J/hr
104 × 60 × 60
∴ No. of photons = = 1.739 × 1027 ph/hr
2.07 × 10−20

 Solved Problem 3

The first line of the principal series of sodium D line is at 5890 A ◦ . This corresponds
to a transition from the first excited state to the ground state. What is the energy in
electron volts of the first excited state?
I Solution
hc
E =hν =
λ
6.625 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
=
5890 × 10−10
3.374 × 10−19
= = 2.106 eV
1.602 × 10−19
 Optics 3.31

 Solved Problem 4

Calculate the total number of guided modes propagating in multimode step index
fiber having diameter of 60 µm and NA of 0.25 operating at a wavelength of 2.7 µ m.
I Solution

 2
d × NA
Nstep = 4.9
λ
 2
60 × 10−6 × 0.25
= 4.9
2.7 × 10−6
≈ 151 nodes

 Solved Problem 5

A step index fibre has a NA of 0.26, a core refractive index of 1.5 and a core diameter
of 100 µ m. Calculate

(a) Cladding refractive index

(b) Acceptance angle

(c) Maximum no of modes with a wavelength of 1µm that the fibre can carry.

I Solution
(a) NA = n21 − n22
p
p
0.26 = 1.52 − n22
⇒ n2 = 1.4772
(b) Acceptance angle
NA 0.26
sin θa = = = 0.26
n0 1
⇒ θa = 15.07◦

(c) No. of modes

 2
d × NA
N = 4.9
λ
 2
100 × 10−6 × 0.26
= 4.9
1 × 10−6
≈ 3312 modes.
3.32 Applied Physics

Short Questions
1. Write the characteristics of lasers.
2. Distinguish spontaneous and stimulated emission
3. What are Einstein coefficient.
4. State the principle of laser action.
5. Define population inversion.
6. What do you mean by pumping process.
7. Why population inversion is done only by artificial process.
8. What do you mean by active medium, active centre and active material.
9. List out various pumping method.
10. What do you mean by optical pumping.
11. Explain inelastic atom atom collision.
12. Optical pumping cannot be used in the case of gas lasers - Why?
13. Why direct band gap semiconductor are used in manufacturing of laser diodes?
14. List out some application of lasers.
15. Explain the role of He in CO2 lasers.
16. Explain the role of He in He-Ne lasers.
17. Discuss the three modes of vibration of CO2 lasers.
18. Give the characteristics features of optical fibers.
19. What is the principle used in light propagation through fibers.
20. What is total internal reflection.
21. Define acceptance angle.
22. Define numerical aperture.
23. What is fractional index change. Write the expression for it.
24. List out of types of optical fibers.
25. State the differences between single mode and multi mode fiber.
26. What is step index fiber.
27. What is graded index fiber.
28. State the differences between step index fiber and graded index fiber.
29. What is extrinsic sensor.
30. What is intrinsic sensor.
31. Write a note on optical fiber materials.
 Optics 3.33

Review Questions
1. Describe the construction and working of Ruby laser with neat diagrams.
2. Describe the construction and working of He-Ne with necessary theory and
diagrams.
3. Giving necessary theory, obtain an expression for Einstein coefficients
4. Discuss the various method employed to activate population inversion.
5. With neat diagram explain the different modes of vibration of CO 2 molecule.
Explain the construction and working of CO2 laser and give its application.
6. Explain the construction and working of semiconductor laser and give its ap-
plication.
7. Using Einstein’s A and B coefficients, justify that population inversion and
stimulated emission process are required for laser action.
8. Classify the optical fiber on the basis of materials modes of propagation and
refractive index differences. Explain them in detail.
9. Explain the propagation of light through optical fiber.
10. Derive an expression for numerical aperture and angle of acceptance of a fiber
in terms of refractive indices of the core and cladding.
11. Explain the applications of optical fiber as waveguide and sensors.
12. Explain the working of PMT sensor and IMT sensor.

Exercise Problems
1. Calculate how many photons are emitted in each minute in a He Ne laser
source, which emits light at wavelength of 6328 A◦ . The output power of this
source is 3 mW. (Ans: 5.732 × 1017 ph/min
ph/min)

2. Examine the possibility of MASER action at thermal equilibrium at wavelength

of 10 cm and T = 300 K, using Einstein’s relations.

3. Determine the numerical aperture of a step index fibre when the core refractive
index n1 is 1.5 and cladding refractive index n2 is 1.48. Find the acceptance
angle. (Ans: 14.13◦ )

4. Estimate NA, when the core index is 1.48 and relative refractive index is 2%.
Also calculate the critical angle. (Ans: 0.296, 78.52◦ )

5. A fibre has a diameter of 6µm and its core refractive index is 1.47 and for
cladding it is 1.43. How many modes can propagate into the fibre if the wave-
length of the laser source is 1.5µm. (Ans: 9 )

6. Calculate the refractive indices of the core and cladding of a fibre from the
following data: NA = 0.27; ∆ = 0.015. (Ans: 1.558, 1.534
1.534)
CHAPTER

4 Modern Physics

X-ray Instrumentation
In 1895 Conrad Rontgen, a German physicist discovered a previously unknown type
of radiation while experimenting with gas discharge tube. He found that this type
of radiation could actually penetrate through opaque objects and provide an image
of their inner structures. These rays are called X-rays.
Soon after the discovery of X-rays, their importance as a tool for medical diagno-
sis was recognized. Later it was found that X-rays could also be used for therapeutic
purpose. Both applications of X-rays are the domain of the medical speciality known
as radiology.

4.1 Generation of X-rays

X-rays are generated when fast moving electrons are suddenly decelerated by im-
pinging on a target. An X-ray tube is basically a high vacuum diode with a heated
cathode located opposite a target anode. This diode is operated in the saturated
mode with a fairly low cathode temperature so that the current through the tube
does not depend on the applied anode voltage.
Electrons Target

Heater
Connector Anode

Glass
envelope

X rays
4.2 Applied Physics

The intensity of X-rays depends on the current through the tube. The current can
be varied by varying the heater current which in turn controls the cathode tempera-
ture. The wave length of the X-rays depends on the target material and the velocity
of the electrons hitting the target. It can be varied by varying the target voltage of the
tube. X-ray equipment for diagnostic purposes uses target voltages in the range of
30 to 100KV while the current is in the range of several hundred milliamperes. These
voltages are obtained from high voltage transformers that are often mounted in oil
filled tanks to provide electrical insulation. When an ac voltage is used the X-ray
tube conducts only during one half wave and acts as its own rectifier. Other wise
high voltage diodes are used as rectifiers. For therapeutic X-ray equipment where
even higher radiation energies are required, linear or circular particle accelerators
have been used to obtain electrons with sufficiently high energy.
When electrons strike the target only a small part of their energy is converted
in to X-rays most of it is dissipaled as heat. The target therefore is usually made of
tungsten which has a high melting point. It may also be water or air cooled, or it
may be in the form of motor driven rotating cone to improve rotation of heat. The
electron beam is concentrated to form a small spot on the target. The X-rays emerge
in all directions from this spot.

High voltage Xray tube

supply

Patient

evice
ag ing d
X- ray im

4.2 X-rays
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of shorter wavelength ranging from 10 Åto 0.5 Å.
The longer wavelength of the X-ray spectrum is known as soft X-rays and shorter
wavelength as hard X-rays.
X-Rays are produced when the fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped by a
solid target
 Modern Physics 4.3

Properties

i) They travel in straight line with the velocity of light.

ii) X-rays are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. This indicates that
X-rays do not consist of charged particles. This property distinguishes X-rays
from cathode rays.
iii) They affect photographic plate.
iv) On passing through gas, X-rays ionise the gas.
v) X-rays produce fluorescence in many substance like barium platinocyanide,
cadmium, tungsten etc,
vi) X-rays are highly penetrating. They can pass through many solids which are
opaque to ordinary light like wood, flesh, paper, etc,
vii) They exhibit the wave nature in a manner similar to light i.e., they undergo
reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarisation.
viii) They produce photo electric effect.

4.3 Bragg’s Law

When monochromatic X-rays strike the atoms in a crystal lattice, each atom acts as a
source of scattering radiation of the same wavelength. The crystal acts as a series of
parallel reflecting planes. The intensity of the reflected beam at certain angle will be
maximum when the path difference between two reflected waves from two different
planes is an integral multiple of λ.

2d sin θ = nλ

Where,
d is inter planar distance, θ is the glancing angle and λ is the wavelength of spec-
trum.

Derivation
Consider a set of parallel planes in a crystal spaced by d, let a narrow monochromatic
X-ray beam of wavelength λ be incident on the first plane at a glancing angle θ.
Consider ray ‘Q’ incident on the second plane and Q0 R0 is the reflected ray.
To determine path difference between the two rays P QR and P 0 Q0 R0 , draw nor-
mals from the point Q to the lines P 0 Q0 and Q0 R0 . Let the normals be QT and QS.
The path difference between these two rays P QR and P 0 Q0 R0 is

path difference = Q0 T + Q0 S
4.4 Applied Physics

In the triangle QT Q0 ⇒ sin θ = Q0 T /QQ0

Q0 T = QQ0 sin θ
Q0 T = d sin θ

Similarly from triangles QQ0 we can write

Q0 S = d sin θ

∴ The path difference is

Q0 T + Q0 S = 2d sin θ
Hence the rays will reinforce each other and produce maximum intensity when the
path difference is an integral multiple of λ
P
R
P1 R1

q Q q

q q
d
T S

4.3.1 Bragg X-ray spectrometer

L
S1 S2
S3

R
E
 Modern Physics 4.5

where,
S1 , S2 , S3 - Lead slits
R - Radial arm
C - Crystal
T - Turn table
E - Electrometer
The construction of Bragg x-ray spectrometer is similar to an optical spectrometer. It
consists of
i) Source of x-rays
ii) A crystal held on a circular table which is graduated and provided with vernier
and
iii) A detector (ionisation chamber).
X-Rays from X-ray tube, limited by two narrow lead slits S 1 and S2 are allowed
to fall upon the crystal. The crystal is mounted on the circular table T, which can
rotate about vertical axis and its position can be determined by vernier V. The table is
provided with a radial arm (R) which carries an ionisation chamber. The chamber is
connected to an electrometer (E) to measure the ionisation current. We can measure
the intensity of diffracted beam of X-ray beam along chamber. In practice, the crystal
table is geared to the ionisation chamber so that the chamber turns through 2θ when
crystal is turned through an angle θ.

A1
A2
A3

Intensity

q1 q2 q3
x
Glancing angle

The glancing angle θ for the incident beam is kept very small. The chamber is
adjusted to receive the reflected beam till the rate of deflection is maximum. The
glancing angle θ and intensity I of the diffracted beam are measured and correspond-
ing ionisation current is noted. The graph is called X-ray spectrum. The prominent
peaks A1 , A2 , A3 refer to X-rays of wavelength λ and the corresponding glancing
angle θ1 , θ2 , θ3 for 1, 2, 3rd orders of same wavelength.
The wave length of X-rays is determined by using the equation 2dsin θ = nλ. The
glancing angle θ is experimentally determined for known order. If d is known, λ can
be calculated.
4.6 Applied Physics

4.4 Compton Effect

When a beam of monochromatic X-rays incident on a material having low atomic
number like carbon they suffer a change of frequency on scattering. The scattered
beam consists of two components; one has same wavelength as that of incident X-ray
and the other one has slightly higher wavelength. The change of wavelength is due
to loss of energy of the incident X-ray beam. This effect is called compton effect.
Compton effect was explained on the basis of quantum theory of radiation. The
whole process is treated as a particle collision between x-ray photon and a loosely
bound electron of the scatterer. In this process both momentum and energy are con-
served. In the photon-electron collision, a portion of the energy of the photon is
transferred to the electron. As a result, the X-ray beam proceeds with less than the
original energy
'
hn
=
E'

The incident photon with an energy hν and momentum hν/c strikes an electron
at rest. The initial momentum of the electron is zero and its initial energy is only
the rest mass energy mo c2 (i.e before collision). After collision, the scattered photon
of energy hν 0 and momentum hν 0 /c moves at an angle θ w.r.t the original direction.
The electron acquires a momentum mv and energy mc2 moves at angle θ with the
direction of incident photon

Before collision After collision

X-ray photon Energy hν Energy hν 1
hν hν 1
Momentum Momentum
c c
Electron Energy mo c2 Energy mc2
Momentum 0 Momemtum mv

According to principle of conversation of energy

Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision

hν + mo c2 = hν 0 + mc2 (1)
 Modern Physics 4.7

Along x-axis

Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision

hν hν 0
+0= cos θ + mv cos θ
c c
hν hν 0
= cos θ + mv cos φ (2)
c c
Along Y-axis

T.M before collision = T.M after collision

hν 0
0= sin θ − mv sin φ (3)
c
From (2)

hν = hν 0 cos θ + mvc cos φ

mvc cos φ = h(ν − ν 0 cos θ) (4)

From (3)

hν 0
sin θ = mv sin φ
c
hν 0 sin θ = mvc sin φ (5)

Eqs.(4)2 + (5)2

(mvc cos φ)2 + (mvc sin φ)2 = (h(ν − ν 0 cos θ))2 + (hν 1 sin θ)2
m2 v 2 c2 = h2 (ν 2 + ν 12 cos2 θ − 2νν 0 cos θ) + h2 ν 12 sin2 θ
m2 v 2 c2 = h2 ν 2 + h2 ν 12 cos2 θ − 2h2 νν 0 cos θ + h2 ν 12 sin2 θ
m2 v 2 c2 = h2 ν 2 + h2 ν 12 (1) − 2νν 0 h2 cos θ
m2 v 2 c2 = h2 (ν 2 + ν12 − 2νν 0 cos θ) (6)

From (1)

hν + mo c2 = hν 0 + mc2
mc2 = hν + m0 c2 − hν 0
mc2 = (h(ν − ν 0 ) + m0 c2 )

Squaring on both sides

(mc2 )2 = (h(ν − ν 0 ) + m0 c2 )2
m2 c4 = (h(ν − ν 0 ))2 + m20 c4 + 2h(ν − ν 0 )m0 c2
m2 c4 = h2 (ν 2 + ν 12 − 2νν 0 ) + m2o c4 + 2h(ν − ν 0 )m0 c2 (7)
4.8 Applied Physics

Eqs. (7) − (6)

m2 c4 − m2 v 2 c2 = h2 (ν 2 + ν12 − 2νν) + m20 c4 + 2h(ν − ν 0 )m0 c2
h2 (ν 2 + ν12 − 2νν 0 cos θ)
m2 c2 (c2 − v 2 ) = −h2 .2νν 0 + m20 c4 + 2h(ν − ν 0 )m2o c2 + 2νν 0 h2 cos θ
m2 c2 (c2 − v 2 ) = 2h ν − ν 2 m0 c2 − 2h2 νν 0 + 2h2 νν 0 cos θ + m2o c4

m2 c2 (c2 − v 2 ) = −2h2 νν 0 (1 − cos θ) + m20 c4 + 2h (ν − ν 0 ) m20 c2 (8)

From Einstein’s mass-relativistic equation, we can write
m0
m= r (9)
v2
1− 2
c
2
 
v
m2 1 − 2 = m2o
c
m c − v 2 = m2o c2
2 2

Similarly by c2 on both sides,

m2 c2 c2 − v 2 = m2o c4 (10)

Use (10) in (8),

(8) =⇒ m20 c4 = 2h2 νν 0 (1 − cos θ) + m20 c4 + 2h (ν − ν 0 ) m0 c2
2h2 νν 0 (1 − cos θ) = 2h (ν − ν 0 ) m0 c2
h (1 − cos θ) ν − ν0
=
m0 c 2 νν 0
h (1 − cos θ) 1 1
= 0−
m0 c 2 ν ν
Multiply by ‘c’ on both sides
c c h (1 − cos θ)
− =
ν0 ν m0 c
h (1 − cos θ)
λ0 − λ =
m0 c
h
dλ = (1 − cos θ) (11)
m0 c
The above equation gives the change in wavelength of the scattered x-ray photon.
Case 1: when θ = 0;
dλ = 0. This means that there is no change in wavelength
Case 2: when θ = 90◦ ;
h 6.634 × 10−34
dλ = =
m0 c (9.1 × 10−3 ) × (3 × 108 )
dλ = 0.024Å
 Modern Physics 4.9

This is known as compton wavelength

Case 3: when θ = 180◦ ; cos 180 = −1
2h
dλ =
m0 c
dλ = 0.048Å

The above equation gives the maximum value of change in wavelength.

4.5 Introduction to Nucleus

The atomic nucleus was discovered by Rutherford in 1911. He showed that the atom
consists of a very small nucleus. (= ×1014 m diameter).
All atomic nuclei are made up of elementary particles called protons and neu-
trons. A proton has a positive charge of the same magnitude as that of an electron. A
neutron is electrically neutral. The proton and the neutron are considered to be two
different charge states of the same particles which is called a nucleon.
A species of nucleus, known as nuclide, is represented schematically by z X A
where z, the atomic number indicates the number of protons, A mass number, total
number of protons plus neutrons and X is chemical Symbol of the Species.
N = number of Neutrons = A − Z

Isotopes
Isotopes are nuclei with the same atomic number z but different mass numbers A.
The nuclei Si28 , Si29 , Si30 and Si32 are all of isotopes of silicon. All Isotopes of an
element have identical chemical behaviour and differ, physically only in mass.

Isobars
Those nuclei, with the same mass number A, but different atomic number Z, are
called Isobars, (Example) 8 O16 , 7 N 16 ... .

Isotones
Nuclei with an equal number of neutrons, that is, with the same N , are called Iso-
tones. (Example) 6 C 14 , 7 N 15 , 8 O16 ... .

Isomers
There are atoms, which have the same Z and A, but differ from one another in their
nuclear energy states and exhibit differences in their internal Structure. These nuclei
are distinguished by their different life times. Such nuclei are called Isomers.
4.10 Applied Physics

General Properties of Nucleus

Nuclear size

Rutherford’s α-scattering experiment showed that the mean radius of an atomic nu-
cleus is of the order of 10−14 to 10−15 m while that of the atom is about 10−10 m.
Thus the nucleus is about 10000 times smaller in radius than the atom.
The empirical formula for the nuclear radius

R = r o A1/3

Where A mass number,

ro = 1.3 × 10−15 m = 1.3F

(1 Fermi = 10−15 m)

Nuclear mass

Nucleus consists of protons and neutron. Then assumed nuclear mass = Zm p +N mn

where mp and mn are the respective proton and neutron masses and N is the neutron
number. It is measured accurately by mass spectrometers.
Real nuclear mass < Zmp + N mn
Difference in masses
Zmp + N mn real mass = ∆m is called mass defect.

Nuclear density

The nuclear density ρN can be calculated

Nuclear mass AmN mN 1.67 × 10−27

ρN = = = =
Nuclear volume 4/3πR 3 3
4/3πro 4/3π(1.3 × 10−15 )3
(When mN = 1.67 × 10−27 kg, R = ro A1/3 )
= 1.816 × 1017 kgm3

This high value shows that the nuclear matter is an extremely compressed state.

Nuclear charge

The charge of the nucleus is due to the protons in it. Each protons have a positive
charge = 1.6 × 10−19 C.
∴ nuclear charge is ze,
where z - atomic number.
 Modern Physics 4.11

Atomic Mass Unit (AMU)

1 amu is taken as one - twelth (1/12) of the mass of carbon atom 6 C 12 Roughly it
is the mass of a proton or a neutron. They are expressed in amu carbon of atomic
weight 12 and atomic number 6 has a mass equal to 12 amu.

The mass of proton = 1.007277 amu

The mass of neutron = 1.008665 amu
1 amu = 1.66 × 10−27 kg.

Energy can be calculated in electron volt (ev), when a mass equal to 1 amu is
converted in to energy

E = mc2
m = 1 amu = 1.66 × 10−27 kg
c = 3 × 108 m/s
E = 1.66 × 10−27 × (3 × 108 )2 J

But 1 ev of energy = 1.602 × 10−19 J

1.66 × 10−27 × (3 × 108 )2

E= J
1.602 × 10−19
= 931 × 106 ev
E = 931 M ev

Binding Energy
The difference between the sum of the masses of the individual nucleons and the
mass of the nucleus is called mass defect. In the process of nuclear formation energy
is given out, therefore the actual mass of the nucleons reduces. The disappeared
mass is converted to energy. The minimum energy need to break the binding force
that exists between the nucleons is called binding energy. The energy equivalent of
the mass defect is called the binding energy of the nucleus.

B.E = [zmp + (A − z)mn −z mA ] c2

Where,
z - no.of protons
(A − z) - no. of neutrons
mp - mass of protons
nn - mass of neutron and
zM
A
- Experimental mass of final nucleus.
4.12 Applied Physics

Nuclear forces
The nucleus consist of positively charged protons and neutrons. According to Coulomb
law, protons must repel each other with a very large force, when clustered together
and hence the nucleus must be broken. But this does not happen because some other
force which overcome the electrostatic repulsion between protons and binds the pro-
tons inside the nucleus. This force is called nuclear force.
Properties
1. The nuclear force is attractive in nature and is the strongest of all the basic
forces.
2. Nuclear force is charge independent. It is the same for all the 3 types of pairs
of nucleons (n-n), (p-p) and (n-p).
3. Nuclear force is a short range force.
4. Nuclear forces have saturation property.

4.6 Model of the Nucleus

Liquid Drop Model
This model was proposed by Niels Bohr. He suggested that some of the properties of
the nucleus is analogous in certain aspects to the charged liquid drop. The following
analogies hold between a small liquid drop and the nucleus.

1. The liquid drop is spherical in shape due to surface tension. Nucleus is also
assumed to be spherical in shape due to nuclear forces.
2. The density of the nucleus is independent of its volume (2.305 × 10 17 Kg/m3 )
and the density of the liquid is also independent of the volume.
3. The molecules of the liquid drop interact over short ranges. Similarly, nucleon
in the nucleus also interact only with their immediate neighbouring nucleons.
4. The molecules of the drop leave the drop during evaporation when the tem-
perature is raised and it gains energy in this process. Similarly, when a nucleon
in the nucleus gains energy, it will leave the nucleus.
5. When a drop of water is allowed to oscillate, it breaks up into two smaller
drops of nearly equal size. The process of nuclear fission is similar to thus and
the nucleus breaks up into two smaller nuclei.

The process of nuclear fission has been successfully explained on the basis of the
liquid drop model.

Shell Model and Magic Numbers

The shell model explains the behaviour of a nucleon in the nucleus. According to
this model, the protons and neutrons are grouped in shells in the nucleus similar to
 Modern Physics 4.13

extranuclear electrons in various orbits outside the nucleus. The shells are regarded
as “filled’ when they contain a specific number of protons or neutrons or both. In-
ert gases have their shells filled with maximum possible electrons and are stable.
Similarly, certain nuclei have been found to be lightly.
In the extranuclear shells only one type of particle (i.e., electrons) is to be ar-
ranged in different orbits and Pauli’s exclusion principle is applied. In the case of
nucleus, there are two types of particles (protons and neutrons) and the shell ar-
rangement is only empirical and it is based on the study of the stability and interac-
tions of the nucleides which are known.
A nuclei is stable if it has definite number of either protons or neutrons of the
combination of both. These numbers are known as Magic numbers. If a nucleus has
protons and neutrons other than the magic number, it is less stable.
The magic numbers are 2, 8, 20,50, 82, 126 and semi-magic numbers are 6, 14,
28, 40. The nuclei having 2, 8, 20, 50, or 82 protons or neutrons are stable. All
other nuclei having protons or neutrons other than magic or semi-magic number are
comparatively less stable.
For example tin (z = 50) having 50 protons, have stable isotopes. This agrees with
shell model because 50 is magic number. Stable nucleides are abundant in nature.
It is found that nuclei having a number of neutrons equal to magic number, can-
not capture a neutron because shells are closed and they cannot contain an extra
neutron.

4.7 Bohr Wheeler theory

Bohr and Wheeler successfully explained the phenomenon of nuclear fission using
liquid drop model. According to this theory, when an external force is applied on liq-
uid drop, its original spherical shape due to symmetrical surface tension may change
into an ellipsoid. If the external force is sufficiently large, the ellipsoid may change
into a dump bell shape and may even break at the narrow end into two portions.
The analogy may be extended to a nucleus which behaves like a liquid drop.
When a nucleus absorbs neutron, it forms a compound nucleus which is highly en-
ergetic. The extra energy possessed by it comes usually from the binding energy of
the neutron which is absorbed by it. The extra energy will initiate a series of oscilla-
tions in the spherical nucleus shown as ‘A’ in the diagram.

unstable
Ellipsoid
+ +
C D E
A B

As a result of these oscillations, the shape of the nucleus may change into ellip-
soid as in ‘B’. If the applied extra energy is large, oscillations may be violent and that
stage ‘C’ and ultimately stage ‘D’ may be approached. The nucleus is now dumb-bell
4.14 Applied Physics

shaped (stage D). Each bell of the dumb-bell is accumulated with a positive charge
and repulsion takes place. This results in fission as shown in stage ‘E’.
The nuclei that results from fission are called fission fragments. Usually fission
fragments are of different size. A heavy nucleus undergoes fission when it acquires
enough excitation energy to oscillate violently. Certain nuclei like 92 U 235 are suffi-
ciently excited by the mere absorption of an neutron.

4.8 Nuclear Fission

The process of breaking up of a single heavy nuclei atom into two (more or less
equal) fragments with the release of large amount of energy is known as Fission.

Example
When uranium is bombarded with neutrons, the uranium nucleus captures a slow
neutron forming an unstable compound nucleus. The compound nucleus splits into
two nearly equal parts. Some neutrons and energy are released in this process. The
fission equation is as follows:-
235
+0 n1 →92 U 236 → X + Y + Neutrons + Energy
∗
92 U

Here 92 U 236 is highly unstable and x and y are the fission fragments. Typical
fission reactions are
→56 Ba141 +36 kr92 + 3 0 n1 + Q
235 1 236∗
92 U +0 n →92 U
→54 Xe140 +38 Sr94 + 2 0 n1 + Q
The fission products X and Y have different mass numbers and atomic numbers.
[92 U 236 → Highly unstable]
∗

N2 x N3 x
N1 x
x 235 u
u y
u y
y x
N U x
u 235
u
y x x y
y x
u 235
u
y u
y
y
x
x
235
u u
y
y

N1 - 3 neutrons
N2 - 9 neutrons
N3 -27 neutrons
The chain reaction proceeds as above.
 Modern Physics 4.15

Multiplication factor (k)

It is defined as the ratio of the secondary neutrons produced to the original neutrons.
Number of Neutrons produced in one generation
K=
Number of Neutrons produced in preceeding generation
If k = 1, The chain reaction is steady, controlled (or) critical.
If k > 1, The chain reaction is ‘supercritical’ and uncon-
trolled.
If k < 1, The chain reaction will slow down and fission stops.
It is ‘subcritical’ state.
4.8.1 Energy released per fission
The process is which a heavy nucleus splits up into two or smaller nuclei of nearly
comparable masses is called Nuclear Fission. More energy is released during this
process, which is equivalent to the mass defect.
Example
Uranium, when bombarded with a neutron, is converted into unstable nucleus which
splits up into two nuclei of atomic masses, Barium (z = 56) and krypton (z = 36). The
reaction is as follows.
235
+0 n1 →92 u236 →56 Ba141 +36 Kr92 + 3 0 n1 + Energy − (∗ − unstable)
∗
92 U

Mass of 92 U 235 = 235.045733 amu

Mass of 0 n1 = 1.008665 amu
* Total Initial mass = 236.054398 amu
Mass of Barium = 140.9177 amu
Mass of krypton = 91.8854 amu
Mass of 3 neutrons = 3.025995 amu
* Total Initial mass = 235.829095 amu
Difference = 0.2253 amu
Since 1 amu = 931 Mev
Energy released = 0.2253 × 931 Mev
= 200.4443 Mev
Thus, in the process of fission of one nucleus of uranium, about 200 Mev is re-
leased.

Energy released by 1 gram of uranium

Number of atoms in 1 mole of uranium = 6.023 × 1023

6.023 × 1023
Energy produced by 1 gram of uranium during fission = × 200 Mev
235
4.16 Applied Physics

∴ E = 5.128 × 1023 Mev

But we know 1 Mev = 1.602 × 10−19 J
∴ E = 5.128 × 1023 × 1.602 × 10−13 joules
As 1 kilowatt hour = 103 × 3600 Joules
5.128 × 1023 × 1.602 × 10−13
∴ E=
103 × 3600
E = 2.26 × 10 kilowatt hour
4

Thus, the disintegration of 1 gm of uranium produces energy = 2.26 × 10 4 kwh. Due

to this reason, atomic energy is being used for the generation of electricity.

4.9 Chain Reaction

It is a self-propagating process in which number of neutrons goes on multiplying
rapidly in geometrical progression during fission till the whole fissile material is
completes disintegrated. For example, consider the chain reaction process in U 235 .
When U 235 is bombarded with a slow neutron, fission takesplace and 3 neutrons
are produced along with release of energy (200 Mev). These neutrons further cause
fission by reacting with the same element (U 235 ) of different mass. This process con-
tinues till the entire U 235 nuclei is completely disintegrated. This self-propagating
process is called Chain Reaction. If this process is allowed to proceed in an un-
controlled manner disintegration takesplace in no time and enormous magnitude of
energy is released.

Types of chain reaction

Chain reaction can be classified into two types

1. Controlled chain reaction and

2. Uncontrolled chain reaction.

A chain reaction becomes self propagating only if the number of fission producing
neutrons are kept constant. This reaction is known as “controlled chain reaction”. It
is used in nuclear reactors.
Ba141
56
235 236
U U
92 92 1
n1 on 1
o n1 n
o o
1
on
92
Kr
36
If the number of neutrons is allowed to multiply indefinitely and the entire en-
ergy is released with in a very short period, it is known as uncontrolled chain reac-
tion. Ex: Atom bomb.
 Modern Physics 4.17

These conditions can be conveniently expressed in terms of multiplication factor

(or) reproduction of the system.
The following figure shows the bombardment of neutron with uranium and the
fragments with the release of neutrons.
The fission products fall into two groups:

1. Heavy Group, with mass number between 130 and 155 and
2. Light Group, with mass number between 80 and 110.

Critical size
It is defined as the minimum size for which the numbers of neutrons produced in
fission process, just balances those lost by leakage and non-fission capture.
The mass of the fissionable material at this stage is called critical mass. It is the
size less than which chain reaction is not possible.

4.10 Atom Bomb

It is based on the principle of nuclear fission. Here uncontrolled chain reaction takes
place and a enormous amount of energy is released in a short time. Natural uranium
is not suitable for sudden release of energy because U 238 is fissionable by fast neu-
trons (high energy) only. It is essential in a bomb that U 235 or P u239 should be used
with slow (low energy) neutrons.

Movable U235
cylinder
Sub critical
masses

U235

Remote control
chemical explosive

An atom bomb consists of two pieces of U 235 or P u239 , each smaller than the
critical size and a source of neutrons. The two subcritical masses of U 235 in the form
of hemispheres are kept apart as shown in the figure.
When the bomb has to be exploded, a third well fitting cylinder of U 235 is pro-
pelled so that it will fit in or fuse together with the other two pieces. Now, the total
quantity of U 235 is greater than the critical mass. Hence an uncontrolled chain reac-
tion takes place resulting in a terrific explosion.
The explosion of an atom bomb releases tremendous amount of energy in the
form of heat, light and radiation. The temperature of the order of 10 9 C and a pres-
4.18 Applied Physics

sure of millions of atmospheres are produced thereby all the objects and living crea-
tures within a region of several miles are completely destroyed.

4.11 Nuclear Reactor

These are two types of nuclear reactors

1. Homogeneous Reactors:- In this reactor, heavy water (D2 0) is the moderator.

Uranium can be in the form of a solution of Urany sulphate a very small parti-
cles of uranium can be suspended in D2 0.
2. Heterogenous Reactors:- Here graphite is the moderator. Rods of Uranium are
distributed through graphite in a regular way, forming lattice.
A nuclear reactor is a system where nuclear fission is produced in a controlled,
self sustaining chain reaction. The following are the essential features of nu-
clear reactors.

(1) Fissionable material called Fuel (4) Cooling system and

(2) Moderator
(3) Neutron Reflector (5) Safety and control system

(1) Fissionable Substance:- The commonly used fissionable materials are

(a) Uranium isotopes U 233 , U 235
(b) Thorium isotopes T h232 , and
(c) Plutonium isotopes P u239 , P u240 and P u241 .
(d) Natural uranium, containing 99.28% of U 238 and 0.72 % of U 235
(2) Moderators:-
(a) The function of moderator is to slow down the high energetic neutrons
produced in the process of U 235 to thermal energies.
(b) Ideally moderators have low atomic weight and low absorption cross
section for neutrons.
(c) Heavy water (D2 0), Graphite, beryllium oxide or beryllium, water etc.,
are used as moderators.
(3) Neutron Reflector:-
(a) By using reflectors on the surface of reactors, leakage of neutrons can
be reduced very much and the neutron flux in the interior can be in-
creased.
(b) Materials having high scattering cross section and low absorption cross
section are good reflectors.
(c) Since moderator has good reflecting properties, it also acts as a reflector.
(d) Reflectors are made of Nickel, Thorium or other materials.
(4) Cooling system:-
 Modern Physics 4.19

(a) The cooling system removes the heat evolved in the reactor core.
(b) The heat is evolved from K.E. of the fission fragments when they are
slowed down in the fissionable substance and moderator.
(c) The coolant or heat transfer agent is pumped through the reactor core.
(d) Then through a heat exchanger, the coolant transfers heat to the sec-
ondary thermal system of the reactor.
(e) Water, heavy water, air, CO2 , He, liquid metal such as sodium are com-
monly used coolants.
(5) Safety and Control system:- The chain reaction and energy output are
controlled by control rods. This is done by pushing control rods into re-
actor core. These rods are of material like Boron or Cd, having a large
neutron - absorption cross section. These rods absorb neutrons and hence
reduce the reaction. By pushing the rods in, the operation of the reactor
can be stopped. The safety system protect the space surrounding the reac-
tor against intensive neutron flux and gamma rays existing in the reactor
core. This is achieved by surrounding the reactor with massive walls of
concrete and lead which would absorb neutrons and gamma Rays.

4.12 Power Reactor

The heat generated in a nuclear reactor is used for producing power in a nuclear
power plant. The figure shows the essential components.

1. Fuel Elements (Uranium) 6. Turbines

2. Moderator (graphite block) 7. Generator

3. Coolant (water, gas or liquid alloys) 8. Pump

4. Control rods (Boron, steel or Cd) 9. Condenser

5. Heat exchanger 10. Reactor Reflector

5
4 6
7

10

1 8
2
9
3
 4.20 Applied Physics

(i) A quantity of enriched uranium in the form of pure metal (or) solution of a solu-
ble salt in water constitutes the center of the heat energy source.

(ii) More heat is produced during fission process.

(iii) The cadmium rods regulate the temperature to a pre determined value.

(iv) If it is desired to bring down the temperature, the rods are pushed down further
to absorb more neutrons.

(v) If the temperature is to be raised, the rods are pulled up a little.

(vi) A fluid is circulated through the shielded reactor and heat exchanger.

(vii) The hot fluid, while passing through heat exchanger, converts water into steam.

(viii) The steam produced runs the conventional turbines to produce electricity.

4.13 Breeder Reactor

The breeder reactor is important because it uses U 238 which is a easily obtainable
fuel.
If a thermal reactor core with U 235 fuel is surrounded by a blanket of a fissile
material like U 238 , U 238 can be converted into fissile fuel. Reactors of this type are
called Fuel Producing Reactors. The reaction is as follows:
238
92 U +0 n1 → 92 U
239
+γ
This is followed by
239 239
92 U → 93 N p +β
93 N p
239
is also radioactive. It distinguishes and the reaction is given as below.
239 239
93 N p → 94 P u +β+γ
This process of producing one type of fissionable material (P u 239 ) from a non-
fissionable material (U 238 ) is called ‘Breeding’ and the reactor used for this purpose
is called “Breeder Reactor”.

4.14 Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is the process in which two lighter nuclei combine together to form a
heavier and stable nuclei.
The fusion process will result in the liberation of energy. Since the reacting nuclei
are positively charged particles, a repulsive force acts between them. To overcome
the electrostatic repulsion between them during fusion, a high amount of energy is
required. This energy is given in the form of heat. Therefore, before fusing the nuclei,
the mass of the single nucleus formed is always less than the sum of the masses of the
 Modern Physics 4.21

individual lighter nuclei. The difference in mass is converted into energy according
to Einstein’s relation E = mc2 .
Energy released in fusion process
Based on the mass defect method, the amount of energy released during a nuclear
fusion process is calculated by actual mass before fusion.
The mass of two deutron atoms = 2 × 2.01478 amu = 4.02956 amu
Actual mass after the fusion
Mass of He atom = 4.00388 amu
Mass of deuterium atoms = 4.02956 amu
Decrease in mass = 0.02568 amu

∴ The energy released = 0.02568 × 931 MeV = 24 MeV

Thus, the energy released during in fusion is 24 MeV which is much less than the
energy produced in the fission of U 235 which is about 200 MeV. But energy released
per unit mass during fusion of the lighter nuclei is much greater than the fission of
U 235 .

4.15 Thermonuclear Reactions as a Source of Steller

energy
It is established that the stellar energy is due to the process of fusion of light nuclei
to form a heavy nucleus. The temperature of the sun is very high (3 × 10 7◦ C) and
it radiates a large amount of energy in the order of 3.6 × 10 6 J/s. The origin of such
tremendous amount of energy is due to the nuclear fusion reaction.
Actually sun’s matter mainly consists of hydrogen and helium. Nuclear fusion
reactions are continuously taking place in the sun. Thus, the energy released from
the sun and other stars are mainly due to fusion of the hydrogen nuclei into helium
nucleus.
Bethe suggested that the fusion process takes place under the following two dif-
ferent cycles.

(i) Proton - Proton cycle (P-P chain)

(ii) Carbon - Nitrogen cycle (C-N chain)

(i) P-P cycle

This P-P cycle starts with the combination of two protons and hence it is known as
P-P cycle. When 2 protons fuse together, the resultant products are deutron, positron
and neutrino.

1H
1
+1 H 1 →1 H 2 + e0 + eν (1)
4.22 Applied Physics

Deutron then combines with another proton to yield He3 .

1H
2
+1 H 1 →2 He3 + γ (2)

The two 2 He3 are fused to produce He4 .

2 He
3
+2 He3 →2 He4 + 21 H 1 (3)

In the P-P cycle, four protons are fused together to produce one Helium atom.
Therefore, the net effect of the reaction is

41 H 1 →2 He4 + 21 e0 + 2ν + 2γ (4)

The total energy is released in the above reaction is 26 MeV (approx).

(ii) C - N cycle
In this cycle, carbon acts as catalyst. In the first step, hydrogen atom interacts with
C 12 nucleus with the release of fusion energy as,

6C
12
+1 H 1 →7 N 13∗ + γ (1)
7N
13∗
→6 C 13 0
+1 e + ν (2)
6C
13
+ 1 H →7 N 1 14
+γ (3)
7N
14
+ 1 H →8 O 1 15∗
+γ (4)
8O
15∗
→7 N 14 0
+1 e + ν (5)
7N
15
+ 1 H →6 C 1 12
+2 He 4
(6)

The reaction cycle is essentially the following reaction,

41 H 1 →2 He4 + 21 e0 + 2ν + 3γ + Q (7)

The C-N cycle is illustrated in figure.

1 1 1
H
1
H H H
1 e
+
1 1 e
+
1
13 13 14 15 15
N C N O N
7 6 7 8 7

C
12 g g
12
6 C
6

The loss in mass is calculated as

41 H 1 = 4.031300 amu
2He4 = 4.002603 amu
11 e0 = 0.001098 amu
 Modern Physics 4.23

∴ Loss in mass = 0.02756 amu

∴ Energy released = 0.02756 × 931 = 26 MeV
It is found that in one million years the sun loses about 10 −7 of its mass by the
above process. Taking mass at the sun as 2 ×1030 kg and its present age as 1010 years,
it is estimated that C-N cycle may keep going for another 30 billion years.

4.16 Hydrogen Bomb

In a hydrogen bomb fusion of lighter nuclei takes place and tremendous amount of
energy is released. In hydrogen bomb fission - fusion process is applied.
In this bomb hydrogen is the core. The fission bomb produces a very high tem-
perature at which thermonuclear reactions start resulting in the fusion of hydrogen
to form helium. Greater energy per unit mass is obtained from a hydrogen bomb
than from a nuclear fission bomb (atom bomb).
There is no limit to the size of the bomb because there is no necessity for critical
mass in this process.

Differences between nuclear fission and fusion

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
1. Heavy nucleus splits into two nuclei. Two lighter nuclei are fused
together to form a single nu-
cleus.
2. This reaction is initiated by neutron. This reaction is initiated by
proton.
3. This process occurs even at room temper- This process occurs only at
ature. very high temperature in the
order at 107 to 109 k.
4. The energy released during fission is 200 The energy released during
MeV. But, the energy released per nucleon fission is 26 MeV. But, the en-
is 0.85 MeV ergy released per nuclear is
6.75 MeV.
5. Fission equation: Fussion equation:
235
92 U +0 n1 →56 Ba141 +36 Kr92 +30 n1 +Q 1 1
1 H +1 H →2 He + Q
4

Short Questions and Answers

1. What are X rays?
X rays are a type of radiation which could actually penetrate through opaque
objects and provide an image of their inner structures.
They were discovered by a German physicist Conrad Rontgen in 1895.
4.24 Applied Physics

2. What is Radiology?

The medical speciality where X rays are used for diagnosis and therapeutic
purpose is known as radiology.
3. How are X ray generated?

When fast moving electrons are suddenly declerated by impinging on a target

X rays are produced.
4. How are X rays used as diagnostic tool?

The use of X ray as a diagnostic tool is based on the fact that various com-
ponents of the body have different densities for the rays. When X ray from a
point source penetrate a body section the internal structure of the body absorbs
varying amounts of the radiation. The radiation that leaves the body, therefore
has a spatial intensity variation that is an image of the internal structure of the
body.
5. What factors determines the efficiency of the X rays?

The anode voltage and the target material determine the efficiency of the X
rays.
6. Mention the use of Aluminium filters in X ray machine?

The emitted X rays contain a broad range of frequencies. Aluminium filters

absorb lower X rays frequencies and hence the in tensity of low frequency X
rays incident on the patient is reduced.
7. What is the use of collimator?

Collimator which is placed between the patient and aluminium filter restricts
the beam falling on the patient.
8. Mention the use of bucky grid?

Some of the X rays entering the body of a patient are actually scattered and
causes a blurring of the image. This effect can be reduced using buckey grid.
9. What is an image intensifier?

Some of the X rays are lost by means of a Bucky grid and hence the density of
the image in the film is reduced and the image resolution is also reduced there-
fore to improve the density and resolution of the image the image intensifiers
are user.
10. What is flouoroscopy?

In fluoroscopy the patients condition is viewed on a fluorescent screen which

convert X rays into visible light by scintillations.
 Modern Physics 4.25

11. Discuss some differences between radiography and fluoroscopy?

Radiography Flouroscopy
i. X ray image is developed on a Viewed directly on a
photo sensitive film Flourescent screen.
ii. Patient dose is low Patient dose is high.
iii. Efficiency is more Efficiency is
iv. High resolution Low resolution.

12. How is a contrast media used in X rays?

When some organs and soft issues show very little difference in X ray absorp-
tion, it is necessary to fill them with a contrast media in order to make their
outline visible on the X ray image.
13. Define one Rontgen?
One Rontgen is the unit of exposure of ionizing radiation and is defined as the
quantity of gamma rays or X rays required to produce 1.61 ×1012 pairs of ions
in one gram of dry air at standard condition of temperature and pressure.
14. Give four properties of X rays?

i. Travels with speed of light

ii. Produce ionization in gases
iii. Affects photographic films
iv. Penetrates through material
15. Define REM?
REM is Rontgen equivalence man which is defined as the unit of dose of any
ionizing radiation which produces the same biological effect as a unit of ab-
sorbed dose of ordinary X rays.

Review Questions
1. Explain the generation of X rays using a next diagram?

2. Explain the instrumentation for diagnostic X rays?

3. Explain with neat diagram the working of image intensifiers?

5.1 Magnetic Materials
Introduction
The materials which gets magnetised when placed in external magnetic field are
known as magnetic materials. These materials play a vital role in modern technol-
ogy. They are widely used in electrical machines, computers, television tube, trans-
ducers, audio devices, meters etc. These materials actually play an important role in
storage devices.
Among the many types of magnetic materials, diamagnetic, paramagnetic, fer-
romagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic are the most important, from the
point of view of principal applications. In order to understand the magnetic be-
haviour of different materials mentioned above, a thorough knowledge of such ma-
terial is very essential.
Let us first consider a few terms and definitions used in magnetism.

5.1.1 Terms and Definitions in magnetism

1. Magnetic poles
Two opposite ends of a bar magnet are known as magnetic poles. They are called as
north pole and south pole. The north and south poles are separated by a distance l
form a magnetic dipole.

2. Magnetic moment (M)

Magnetic moment of a bar magnet is defined as the product of its pole strength (m)
and length of the magnet (2l).
M = m × 2l (1)

unit of M is wb − m.
5.2 Applied Physics

3. Magnetic field
The space (or) region around the magnet where the influence of magnetism is felt is
known as magnetic field.

4. Magnetic lines of force

It is a line along which a unit north pole (compass needle) is free to move. The
direction of magnetic field at any point is given by the tangent drawn at that point.
The existence of a unit north pole is imaginary.
A magnetic field is represented in picture by drawing number of lines of force
using a compass box. These lines are known as the lines of magnetic induction.
For a strong magnetic field, the lines of the force are close together and for a weak
magnetic field, the lines of forces are far apart.
For a magnet, the lines start from North pole and terminate or enter at the south
pole.

5. Magnetic flux (φ)

A collection of magnetic lines of force (or) lines of magnetic induction is known
magnetic flux and is represented by φ.
Unit of magnetic flux (φ) is weber (or) wb.

6. Magnetic induction (or) Magnetic flux density (B)

It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force (flux) passing through unit area
of a material (or) medium kept perpendicular to the direction of lines of force.

Magnetic flux density (or)

Number of magnetic lines of force
Magnetic induction (B) =
Area of crosssection
φ
B= (2)
A

unit of B is wb/m2 (or) Tesla (T)

Hence Magnetic flux φ = BA (3)

7. Magnetic field intensity (H)

Magnetic field intensity at a point in a magnetic field (produced by a magnetic ma-
terial) is the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at that point. It is repre-
sented by H.
Unit of H is Ampere turns per meter (or) AT/m.
 Material Science 5.3

But the existence of unit north pole is imaginary.

F Force experienced by unit north pole in magnetic field

H= =
m pole strength
(or) F = mH (4)

8. Magnetic permeability (µ)

It is a measure of the amount of magnetic lines penetrating through the material (or)
it is the easiness of a material (or) medium to allow the magnetic lines through it.
It is found that the magnetic flux density (B) is directly proportional to the field
strength (H) that is
B∝H

B =µH (5)

B
µ= (6)
H

where µ is a constant of proportionality and is known as the permeability (or)

absolute permeability of the medium.
Magnetic permeability (or) absolute permeability (µ) of a medium (or) a material
is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction (B) in the sample to the applied field
(H).
Unit of magnetic permeability (µ) is Henry/metre.

9. Magnetic permeability of free space (or) air (µ0 )

If the flux density (or) magnetic induction is established in air (or) in a non-magnetic
material by keeping it in a magnetizing field of strength H then

B0 = µ 0 H (7)

B0
µ0 = (8)
H

where B0 = magnetic induction (or) flux density in air (or)vacuum.

µ0 = permeability of free space (or) air.

magnetic permeability of free space (µ0 ) is defined as the ratio of the magnetic
induction (B0 ) in air (or) free space to the magnetic field (H).
Unit of µ0 is Henry/metre.
5.4 Applied Physics

10. Magnetic Relative permeability (µr )

It is defined as the ratio of the absolute permeability of a medium (µ) and the per-
meability of free space (µ0 ) that is

µ
µr = (9)
µ0

µr is a dimensionless quantity. It is only a ratio and has no unit.

Also

µ BH B
µr = = = (10)
µ0 B0 H B0

Hence relative permeability of a medium (µm ) can also be defined as the ratio of
magnetic flux density B established in the medium to the magnetic flux density B 0
established in air.

11. Intensity of magnetisation (I)

The term magnetisation represents the process of converting a non magnetic material
into a magnetic material. The intensity of magnetisation of a magnetic material is a
measure (or) degree of its magnetisation.
Intensity of magnetisation of a material is defined as the magnetic moment (in-
duced magnetisation) per unit volume. It is represented by I,

magnetic moment
I=
volume of the material

M
I= (11)
V

Unit of I is wb/m (or) wbm1 .

If A is the area of cross section 2l is the length and m is the poles length of a
magnet (magnetic material) then

M m × 2l
I= = sin M = m × 2l
V A × 2l

m
I= (12)
A

Hence the intensity of magnetisation of a material can also be defined as the ratio
between its pole strength and area of cross section (or) pole strengths per unit area
kept right angles to the direction of magnetisation.
 Material Science 5.5

Significance: when the same amount of magnetic field is applied to different

magnetic substances like iron, steel alloys etc, they get magnetised to different extent.
Hence the intensity of magnetisation is a measure (or) degree of magnetisation of a
specimen.

12. Magnetic susceptibility (χ)

This term represents the easiness with which a material gets magnetised. Actually it
represents the magnetic response of a magnetic material to get magnetised.
Ex: If χ is +ve, the material can be magnetised. If χ is −ve, the material cannot
be magnetised.
Definition: Magnetic susceptibility of a material is defined as the ratio of in-
tensity of magnetisation (I) to the magnetic field strength (H). It is represented by
χ
I
χ= (13)
H
χ is a dimension less quantity. It has no unit (since I and H are having same
units).
Relation between µr and χ is

µr = 1 + χ (14)

5.2 Different types of magnetic materials and their

properties
Classification of magnetic materials
5.2.1 Introduction
All materials made up of atoms. In an atom, the electrons are revolving round the
nucleus in various shells. Moving electron (moving charges) produces electric cur-
rent, which in turn produces a magnetic field. Electron has both orbital motion a
round the nucleus and spin motion about its own axis. Orbital motion of electron
produces orbital magnetic moment. Similarly spin motion of electron produces spin
magnetic moment. Hence an atom of a material can be considered as atomic magnet
whose magnetic moment is given by the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic
moments. The magnetic moment (or) magnetic dipole of the atoms in a material will
decide the nature of magnetism in that material.

5.2.2 Classification
Magnetic materials are broadly classified into two categories (types)
5.6 Applied Physics

1. Magnetic materials not having any permanent magnetic moment.

Example: Diamagnetic materials.

2. Magnetic materials having permanent magnetic moment.

Examples:

(a) Paramagnetic materials.

(b) Ferromagnetic materials.
(c) Antiferromagnetic materials.
(d) Ferrimagnetic materials.

Let us now discuss briefly the five types of magnetic materials mentioned above.

Diamagnetic materials
These materials when placed in an external magnetic field get feebly magnetised
in a direction opposite to the external field. Because of this, when a diamagnetic
material is suspended in a uniform magnetic filed, they at once turns in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of external field (Resultant of external and internal
fields is in perpendicular direction).

Explanation
An electron moving round the nucleus produces a magnetic moment. Due to differ-
ent orientations of various orbits in an atom, the net magnetic moment of a diamag-
netic material is zero. When an external magnetic field is applied on these materials,
there is a change produced in the motion (speed of electrons) in the orbits which
produces an induced magnetic moment in a direction opposite to the external field.
That is why a suspended diamagnetic material turns perpendicular to external field.

Properties
1. Direction of alignment: (turning)
In a uniform external magnetic field: when a diamagnetic material is suspended
in a uniform magnetic field, it at once turns perpendicular to the direction of external
field.
In a non uniform field: it turns from a stronger field region to a weaker field
region.

2. Effect on the magnetic lines of force

Diamagnetic materials repel the magnetic lines of force. Hence when they are brought
near an electromagnet, they are repelled.
 Material Science 5.7

N N S S

Fig. 1 Magnetic lines are passing away from the diamagnetic material

3. Magnetic moment
There are no permanent dipoles. Hence the magnetic effects are small.

4. Magnetisation
Magnetisation in a diamagnetic material is directed opposite to the direction of ex-
ternal magnetic field.

5. Susceptibility (χ)
Diamagnetic materials have negative susceptibility. The absolute value of suscepti-
bility is of the order f 10−6
Eg: For Al2 O3
χ = 5 × 10−5

6. Dependence of susceptibility on temperature

The magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic materials is independent of temperature.

7. Dependence of susceptibility on applied field

The susceptibility of diamagnetic materials is independent of strength of the applied
field. (Susceptibility value is a constant for a particular diamagnetic material and
will not vary with temperature and strength of the applied field).

8. Relative permeability (µr )

Relative permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than unity (µ r < 1).

a. The magnetisation in weak magnetic field

The magnetisation of diamagnetic material is a linear function of the magnetic field,
when the field is not so strong.
Examples of diamagnetic substances

Sb, Bi, Zn, Ag, Au, Pb, Al2 O3

5.8 Applied Physics

a. Paramagnetic materials
These materials when placed in a uniform external magnetic field, they get mag-
netised in the direction of the external field. Because of this, when a paramagnetic
material is suspended in an external field, they at once turns in the same direction of
the applied field.

Explanation:
Paramagnetic materials possess permanent magnetic moments. This magnetic mo-
ments in a single atom of the material is due to (a) orbital motion of electrons around
the nucleus producing orbital magnetic moment, and (b) spin motion of electrons
producing spin magnetic moment.
The orbital magnetic moments disappear due to the electric field of neighbouring
charges but spin magnetic moments remain unaltered due to this field.
In the absence of external field, because of random orientation of magnetic mo-
ments under thermal fluctuations, the net magnetic moment in the material is zero.
When the external field is applied, the magnetic moments tend to line up with the
external field. Since the magnetisation produced in the materials is in the same di-
rection of external field, they set themselves in the direction of applied field.

Properties
1. Direction of alignment in external magnetic field
When a paramagnetic substance is suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it at once
turns along the direction of the external field.
In a non uniform field, it turns from a weaker field region to a stronger field
region.

2. Effect on the magnetic lines of force

N N S S

Fig. 2 Magnetic lines are pulled towards the paramagnetic material

The diamagnetic materials attracts the magnetic lines of force. Hence when they
brought near an electromagnet, the lines of forces due to electromagnet are pulled
towards the paramagnetic materials.
 Material Science 5.9

3. Magnetic moment
Paramagnetic materials possess permanent magnetic dipole moment.

4. Magnetisation
Magnetisation in a paramagnetic material is directed along the direction of external
magnetic field.

5. Susceptibility (χ)
Paramagnetic materials have a positive magnetic susceptibility (very low). The sus-
ceptibility is of the order of 10−6 .

Examples: χ for Al = 2 × 10−5 .

6. Dependence of susceptibility on temperature

Susceptibility paramagnetic
substance greatly depends
on temperature. As the tem-
perature increases, suscepti- c
c=C/T 1/c

bility decreases. according

to Curie law
1
χ∝ T T
T (a) (b)
C
χ= Fig. 3
T

where C is curie’s constant.

T = temperature in kelvin.
At low temp, Curie-Weiss law can be used.
The relation is
C
χ=
T −θ
where θ = A constant known as permagnetic Curie temperature.
Graph gives the relation between χ and T as per Curie law.
Graphs between χ & T , 1
χ and T the shown in Figs.3.

7. Dependence of susceptibility on applied field

Paramagnetic susceptibility is independent of applied magnetic field and it will not
vary with applied field.
5.10 Applied Physics

8. Relative permeability (µr )

Relative permeability of paramagnetic materials is slightly greater than unity (1)

(µr > 1) lines of forces due to external field are attracted towards the material and
penetrate through it.
Eg: µr for Al = 1.00002.

Since µr = 1 + χ where χ has a value 0.00002 = 2 × 10−5 .

9. Variation of magnetisation under weak external magnetic field

The magnetisation is a linear function of the external field (H), when the field is not
so strong.
Examples: Pt, Al, Cr, Mn, CuSo4 , liquid oxygen and solutions of salt of iron and
nickel.

b. Ferromagnetic materials
These materials when placed in a uniform external magnetic field, they get strongly
magnetised in the direction of the applied field. Because of this, when a ferromag-
netic material is suspended in an external field they quickly turns along the direction
of the applied field.

Explanation

A ferromagnetic material has a spontaneous magnetic moment naturally even in the

absence of external field that is the net magnetic moments due to the atoms in the
material is not zero. This net intrinsic magnetic dipole moment which is primarily
due to the spin of the electrons. There is a strong interaction between the neighbour-
ing atomic magnetic dipoles. It is known as spin exchange interaction and this
exchange interaction align the neighbouring magnetic dipoles parallel to each other
and this spread over a very small region (1 - 0.1 mm across) called domain. The
domains are oriented in different directions and there is a net magnetic moment in
the material which the vector sum of the magnetic moment of domains.
In the absence of external field, the magnetic moment of domains are not aligned.
When the external field is applied, the domains that are aligned in the direction of
field, increase in size at the expense of other. In a very strong magnetic field, all the
domains are lined up providing highly observed magnetism. Since the magnetisa-
tion produced inside the material is in the direction of external field, the material
quickly turns along the direction of applied field.
 Material Science 5.11

Properties
1. Direction of alignment in external magnetic field
When a ferromagnetic material is suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it quickly
turns along the direction of the external field.
In a non-uniform field, it turns from a weaker field region to a stronger field
region quickly.

2. Effect on the magnetic lines of force

Ferromagnetic material strongly attracts the magnetic lines of force. The field lines
are crowded in to the material, as shown in Fig.4.

N S

Outer ring is made up of Lines of forces are rowded into the

ferromagnetic material ferromagnetic material

Fig. 4
3. Magnetic moment
Ferromagnetic materials have permanent dipole moment. Hnece they attract field
strongly.

4. Magnetisation
They exhibit magnetisation even in the absence of external magnetic field. This prop-
erty is known as spontaneous magnetisation.
In the external field, the magnetisation produced is directed along the applied
field.

5. Susceptibility (χ)
Ferromagnetic materials have positive magnetic susceptibility. The value of suscep-
tibility is very high and is of the order of 106 .
Eg: χ for pure Fe = 2 × 105 .

6. Dependence of susceptibility on temperature

Ferromagnetic susceptibility greatly depends on temperature. Each ferromagnetic
material has a characteristic temperature called ferromagnetic curie temperature
5.12 Applied Physics

(θC ). When T < θC , they show ferro-

magnetic property. They obey curie law,
χ = TC−θ . When T > θC , they show param-
agnetic property. c
Graph between χ and T is shown in Fig.5.
q =TC
C
χ= (χ is very large)
T −θ T
Fig. 5
7. Dependence of susceptibility on applied field
Because of non linear relationship between B (magnetic induction) and the applied
field, susceptibility of a ferromagnetic material does not have a constant value. The
graph between χ and H is similar to the graph bwetween µr and H.

8. Relative permeability (µr )

Relative permeability of ferromag-
netic materials is very high (posi- mr
tive value) and is of the order of -1
(Wb A m )
-1

106 .

Eg: µr for Fe = 2 × 105 .

0 200 400 600 800 1000
-1
Because of non linear relation be- Magnetic intensity H (A m )

tween magnetic induction (B) and Fig. 6

applied field (H). The permeability of a ferromagnetic material does not have a con-
stant value.

9. Variation of magnetisation with applied field

A
B
Magnetic
induction
B (Tesla)

-1
0 Magnetic field (H) (A m ) H

Fig. 7 (0A represents the initial magnetisation curve)

Magnetisation of a ferromagnetic material does not vary linearly with the applied
field H. It has a very complex function with the applied field.
 Material Science 5.13

10. Hysteresis: Y

Ferromagnetic material exhibits hysteresis. In- B

ternal magnetisation (B) lags behind the external
field. Because of this property, there is a resid-
ual magnetisation left after the external field is -X
0
X
H
switched off.
Eg: Fe, Co, Ni.

c. Antiferromagnetic materials -Y

These materials are magnetised parallel to the di- Fig. 8 Hysteresis loop
rection of external magnetic field. When a antiferromagnetic material is suspended
in a uniform (strong) magnetic field, it turns slowly along the direction of applied
field.
Explanation
Antiferromagnetic materials are crys-
talline solids, which exhibit a small
positive susceptibility of the order of Fig. 9 Dipole magnetic moments are equal
10−3 to 10−5 . Since the distance be-
tween interacting atoms is small in
an antiferromagnetic material, the magnetic interaction between any two dipoles
align themselves anti-parallel to each other and all the dipoles have equal mag-
netic moment in the absence of external field. Hence the resultant magnetisation is
zero. But when an external field is applied, the dipoles align themselves in the di-
rection of the external field, (since the magnetic induction produced in the material
is in the same direction of the external field).

Properties
1. Direction alignment is external magnetic field
When a antiferromagnetic material is suspended in a uniform magnet field, it turns
along the direction of applied field.

2. Magnetic moment
Antiferromagnetic materials have permanent magnetic moment.

3. Alignment of dipoles
Since the distance between interacting atoms is small, the dipoles align in opposite
directions. This is due to an exchange interaction. Actually electron spin of neigh-
5.14 Applied Physics

bouring atoms are aligned antiparallel. But magnitudes of magnetic moments of

dipoles are equal.

4. Magnetisation
Magnetisation in antiferromagnetic material is directed along the direction of the
external field.

5. Susceptibility (χ)
Susceptibility (χ) of antiferromagnetic materials is very small and is positive. It is of
the order of 10−3 to 10−5 .

6. Dependence of susceptibility on temperature

The susceptibility of antiferromagnetic materials increases with temperature and
reaches a maximum at a temperature called Neel temperature T N . With the further
increase in temperature susceptibility decreases showing paramagnetic properties.
Relation between χ and T is

C
χ=
T +θ
C = curie constant
θ = paramagnetic curie temperature

The variation of susceptibility (χ) of a antiferromagnetic material with tempera-

ture (T) is shown in Fig.10.

12

c
3
(c 10 ) 8 1/c

0 100 TN 200 300

T (k) T (K)

Fig.10
Variation of 1
χ with T is a straight line.

7. Permeability (µr )
Permeability (µr ) of antiferromagnetic materials is slightly greater than 1
 Material Science 5.15

since µr = 1 + χ

Examples: Salts of transition elements.

d. Ferrimagnetic materials
These materials are magnetised parallel to the direction of external magnetic field.
When a ferrimagnetic material is suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it turns
quickly along the direction of the applied field.

Explanation
In a ferrimagnetic material the magnetic inter-
act on between any two dipoles is such that they
align themselves antiparallel to each other.
But the magnitudes of any two adjacent
dipoles moments are not equal. Hence the ma- Fig.11 Dipole magnetic moments
terial possess a net magnetic moment. Hence if are not equal
we apply a small external magnetic field, it will
produce a large value of magnetisation of specimen along the direction of external
field. Hence the material turns along the direction of external field. But above a curie
temp TC , similar to Neel temperature in antiferromagnetic materials the inherent
magnetic moment disappears due to random arrangement of dipoles under thermal
agitation.

Properties
1. Direction of alignment in external magnetic field
When a ferrimagnetic material is suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it turns
quickly along the direction of the applied field.

2. Magnetic moment
Ferrimagnet materials have permanent magnetic moment.

3. Alignment of dipoles
Since the distance between neighbouring atoms is very small, the dipoles align in
opposite directions. This is due to exchange interaction. But the magnitudes of
magnetic moments of dipoles are not equal. Hence the material possess a net
magnetic moment. That is why ferrimagnetic materials are referred as uncompen-
sated magnetic materials.
5.16 Applied Physics

4. Magnetisation
Magnetisation in a ferrimagnetic material is parallel to the direction of external mag-
netic field.

5. Susceptibility (χ)
Susceptibility (χ) of ferrimagnetic materials is very large and is positive but not so
high as ferromagnetic materials.

6. Dependance of susceptibility on temperature

0 TC T

Fig. 12

The susceptibility of magnetic materials decreases externally with the increase of

temperature (T ) as shown in Fig.12.
Relation between χ and T is
χ
χ=
T +θ

7. Relative permeability (µr )

Relative permeability of ferrimagnetic materials is very large and is positive.
Relation between µr and χ is, µr = 1 + χ.

Examples: Ferrous ferrite, nickel ferrite, Ni - Zn composite ferrite.

Advantages:
Ferrimagnetic materials are widely used in high frequency applications (where fer-
romagnetic materials cannot be used).
 Material Science 5.17

5.2.3 Comparison of dia, para and ferro magnetism

 5.18

Sl.No Particulars Diamagnetism Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism

8. Nature of graph between c C C
and T c c= c
T T-TC

T-TC
T T
Tc = curie temp
Applied Physics

9. Dependance on magnetisa- Varies linearly in -ve Varies linearly having Varies linearly having
tion with external field. direction small +ve slope larger +ve slope
(When the field is not so y
y y
strong) B
(flux B B
density)
x x
H
H x
(ext.field) 0 H

10. Magnetic Relative mr is less than unity (mr < 1) mr is slightly grater than mr is very large and is of
permeability (mr) 5
unity (mr > 1) the order of 10
11. Hysteresis (lagging of Does not exhibit Hysteresis Does not exhibit Exhibit Hysteresis
internal magnetisation with Hysteresis (There is a residual
the external field magnetism in the material
after the external field is
switched off.

12. Presence of Domains (A Presence of large number

group of atomic dipoles of domains
oriented in a particular
direction)
13. Examples: Sb, Bi, Zn, Ag, Au, Pb Pt, Al, Cv, Mn, CuSoY Fe, Co, Nl
liquid oxygen
 Material Science 5.19

5.2.4 Domains theory of ferro magnetism

Weiss proposed the concept of domains in order to explain the properties of ferro-
magnetic materials and their hysteresis effect.
Ferromagnetic materials are very strongly magnetic. A, ferromagnet has a spon-
taneous magnetic moment that is a magnetic moment even in zero applied field.
The atoms (molecules) of ferromagnetic materials have a net intrinsic (internal)
magnetic moment which is mainly due to the spin of electrons. The spin mo-
tion of electrons produces a current and in turn has a magnetic moment. Hence
atoms of the materials are considered as atomic magnetic poles. The interaction be-
tween the neighbouring atomic magnetic dipoles is very strong. This interaction
is known as spin exchange interaction and is present even in the absence of an
external magnetic field. This exchange interaction aligns (makes) the neighbouring
magnetic dipole moments parallel to one another and this spread over a small re-
gion [(1 − 0.1mm across) some times 10−6 m size (or) larger] of the bulk material.
This small volume of the bulk is known as domains. In each individual domain, the
magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned in the same direction. Thus domain is a
region of the ferromagnetic material in which all the magnetic moments of the atoms
(magnetic dipoles) are aligned to produce a net magnetic moment in one direction
only. Hence each domain acts as a tiny magnet having a magnetic moment & axis
(points in a direction). A bulk material consists of many domains. The direction of
spontaneous magnetisation (Net magnetic moment) vary from domain to domain.
The total magnetic moment of the material is given by the vector sum of magnetic
moment of all the domains present in it. Since the domains are randomly oriented,
the resultant magnetisation of material may be zero or nearly zero. This happens in
the absence of external field.
The boundaries separating the domains are
called domain walls (or) Bloch walls. The
domain walls are similar to grain boundaries in
a polycrystalline material but domain walls are
thicker than grain boundaries. Like grain
growth, domain size also grow due to the move-
ment of domain walls. Domains in a ferromagnetic material

In an unmagnetised piece of Ferro magnetic Fig. 13

material, the magnetic moment of the domains themselves are not aligned in a par-
ticular direction.
When an external field is applied there are two ways of alignment of a ran-
dom domain as given below.

a) By motion of domain walls

The volume of the domains that are
oriented (magnetised) in the direc- Fig. 14
5.20 Applied Physics

tion of external field increases in size at the expense of the others by the movement
the walls of domains towards unfavourably oriented with respect to external field.

b) By rotation of domains

As the magnetic field is increased to a larger value (near saturation) further domain
growth becomes impossible. Therefore most favorably oriented and fully growth
domains tend to rotate so as to be in complete alignment in the direction of exter-
nal field.
A typical magnetisation curve (B-H curve) of a pure ferromagnetic material is
shown in Fig.15.
4 B
Saturation
Rot. of domain

3
Rotation of domain

H 2 Growths of favorable
Domain
domains & shrinkage
Domain magnetisation growth of unfavorable domains
1
by rotation A

Fig.15

c) Effect of temperature
C
If a ferromagnetic material is heated to a high c
c=
T-TC
temperature, the thermal vibrations become so
strong enough to offset the alignment of mag-
netic moments of dipoles with in the domain.
At a particular temperature, the material loses TC T
its ferromagnetic property and behave like a Fig. 16
paramagnetic material. The temperature above which a ferromagnetic material be-
comes paramagnet is called as curie temperature given by the relation χ = T −T C
C
.
Where χ is the magnetic susceptibility of the material variation of χ with respect to
temperature (T) is shown in Fig.16.

Heisenberg’s quantum theory of ferromagnetism (or) Heisen-

berg’s criteria on internal field
Ferromagnetic materials have a large internal magnetic field even in the absence of
an external magnetic field. The first theoretical explanation of the large internal field
(weiss field) in ferromagnetic materials was proposed by Heisenberg, in 1928. He
pointed out that the magnetisation of ferromagnetic materials arises due to electron
spin than due to orbital motion. It has been proved that it is impossible to explain an
internal field of strength lying in the range of 106 to 107 oersted by classical dipole
interaction. Hence Heisenberg interpreted (suggested) that such high value of inter-
 Material Science 5.21

nal fields can be explained in terms of quantum exchange interactions between

the electrons.
An exchange force is essentially caused by a static coulombic interaction which
is purely electrostatic is nature and its magnitude can be much larger than the mag-
netic interaction. This exchange force appears in the form of spin-spin interaction
because orbital states of electrons naturally impose a limitation on the spin states
according to pauli’s exclusion principle.
The strength of interaction depends on the inter atomic separation and it may
change its sign as the separation is varied. It can be predicted that as the two un-
paired electrons (spins in the same direction ↑↑) approach each other, the electron
spins of unpaired electrons in each atom assume parallel orientation.
According to Heisenberg, if the spins of the electrons are parallel, the exchange
interaction between the electrons in different quantum states leads to a lower energy.
If the interatomic separation decreases more and more, the exchange force decreases
until they pass through a zero value and an antiparallel spin is favoured. (↑↓)
Let us consider two electrons in a magnetic field, rab is the interatomic separation
and r0 is the orbital radius of electron of any material, and if rrab 0
> 3, then the
exchange energy is negative and hence it is minimum for parallel interaction. Such
a material exhibit ferromagnetic properties. For example ferromagnetic materials
like Fe, Co, Ni and Gd have rrab
0
ratio 3.26, 3.64, 3.94, and 3.12 respectively.
If the ratio rrab
0
< 3, then the materials are found to be non ferromagnetic. For
example, non ferromagnetic materials like Cr and Mn have rrab 0
ratio 2.60 and 2.94.
Thus Heisenberg explained the large value of the intermolecular field successfully
and gave theories for ferro, antiferro and ferrimagnetic materials on the basis
of exchange interaction between spins.
Conclusion: Hence it is possible to combine two materials with unfavourable ratio
of rrab
0
(< 3 and > 3) to form a new compound whose ratio of rrab
0
> 3 and thus make it
ferromagnetic. This is the usefulness of Heisenberg’s interpretation discussed above.
With the help of this theory, one can fabricate a new material with desired properties
required for electromagnetic applications.

5.2.5 Hysteresis
The lagging of flux density (B) (magnetisation) behind the magnetising field H
(external magnetic field) in the case of a ferromagnetic materials is known as Hys-
teresis. The hysteresis graph represents the variation of flux density B with the
change in the external magnetic field strength (H) in a ferromagnetic material.
Consider an unmagnetised specimen of ferromagnetic material subjected to an
external magnetic field. When the magnetic field strength (H) is gradually increased
from zero (point 0), the flux density (B) also increases rapidly upto a point A in the
graph. It is observed that if the magnetic field strength (H) is increased further, the
5.22 Applied Physics
 
dB
rate of increase of flux density slope is reduced and finally becomes zero
dH
(slope) and the value of flux density reaches a saturation shown by the curve PC.
When the magnetic field strength (H) is re-
B
versed and slowly decreases to zero then P
C
the flux density (B) decreases not along CO,
D
but along CPD and the flux density (B) B
not becomes zero when the external field Bh A
E
strength (H) is zero. A certain amount H
-H 0 J
of flux density represented by OD in the HC
Br = Retentivity
graph is still left with the material even G HC = Coercivity
F
when the external field strength is zero
and is known as residual magnetism (or)
retentivity and its represented in the Fig. 17
graph as Br . Thus retentivity of a speci-
men is defined as the magnatisation (or) flux density retained by the specimen when
the magnetising field is reduced from saturation value to zero. Its magnitude is rep-
resented as Br in the graph.

If the external magnetic field (H) is decreased (or) increased in the negative di-
rection, the flux density varies along DE and at E, the magnitude of flux density
becomes zero. Hence there is no residual magnetism in the specimen at this stage.
Hence in order to make the flux density left with the material to zero, a certain
amount of external magnetic field represented by OE is applied in reverse direction.
This negative value of the magnetic field causes demagnetisation of the specimen
and it is called as the coercive force (or) coercivity. Hence coercivity of a spec-
imen is defined as the amount of reverse external magnetic field required to make
the residual magnetism zero (flux density B=0) (or) complete demagnetisation. Its
magnitude is represented as Hc in the graph.

It is observed that the field strength (H) is decreased further (increased in nega-
tive direction) the flux density B, increases rapidly along the curve EF, until a nega-
tive saturation is reached at F. If the field is increased towards positive direction, we
get a curve FGJC and the cycle is completed, the enclosed area of the curve CPDE-
FGJC is called as hysteresis loop. It may be noted from the figure, that the flux
density (B) always lags behind the magnetic field strength (H) and this phe-
nomenon is known as magnetic hysteresis.

The work done on the ferromagnetic specimen gives an energy loss known as
Hysteresis loss. The hysteresis loss is defined as the loss of energy in taking a fer-
romagnetic material through a complete cycle of magnetisation and the
magnitude of loss is represented by the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop.
Actually domain structure changes during the hysteresis.
 Material Science 5.23

5.2.6 Hard & Soft materials

Based on hysteresis loss, the magnetic materials can be classified into two types
namely hard and soft materials. Hard magnetic materials have large hysteresis
loss and hence the area of hysteresis loop (loop of B-H curv) is large. Eg: carbon,
steel, tungsten, steel chromium steel and Al-Ni-Co alloys (Alnico). Copper
nickel iron alloys (cunife) and Copper nickel cobalt alloys (cunico).
Soft materials have low hysteresis loss and hence the area of hysteresis loop is
small. Eg: Iron-silicon alloys, ferrous nickel alloys, Iron cobalt-alloys (Fer-
rites) and Garnets. Hard materials are used for the production of permanent
magnets used in magnetic detectors, microphones, flux metres, voltage regu-
lators & damping devices and magnetic separators. Soft materials are used in
electromagnetic machinary and transformer cores. They are also used in switch-
ing circuits, microwave isolators and matrix storage of computers.

5.2.7 Explanation of hysteresis on the basic of domain

theory
The phenomenon of hysteresis can be successfully explained on the basis of domain
theory. The increase in value of the resultant magnetic moment (magnetisation)
of the specimen under the action of the applied field can be due to (1) the motion
of domain walls and (2) the rotation of domains.
When a weak magnetic field is applied the domains which are aligned paral-
lel to the external field and in the easy direction of magnetisation (inclined to the
direction of magnetiasation) grow in size at the expense of less favourably oriented
domains by expanding the walls of domains. When the weak field is removed, the
domains reverse back to their original state and size. This reversibility of wall
movement is possible in the region OA of B-H curve.
When the external field becomes stronger, the movement of Block wall con-
tinues and the movement becomes irreversible. This behaviour is indicated by the
portion of the curve AB of the B-H graph. The phenomenon of hysteresis (lagging of
B behind H) is only due to this irreversibility under stronger magnetic field and at
the point B, all domains have magnetised along their easy direction of magnetisation
(still not along the direction of external field).
Application of still higher fields, the process of rotation of domains takes place
and now all the domains are made to align in the direction of external field, which
may be away from their easy direction thereby storing anisotropy energy. When
once the domain rotation is complete the specimen is saturated. This process is
represented by the part ep of the B-H curve. Now all the domains align in the
direction of external field.
On removal of the field the specimen try to attain the original configuration by the
movement of block walls. But this movement is related to impurities latice imperfec-
tions etc. Hence more energy is required to reduce the magnetisation of specimen to
5.24 Applied Physics

zero. The amount of energy spent in this process (reverse back to original condition)
is known as Hysteresis loss and this loss enclosed by the represented by the area
of hysteresis loop of B-H curve.
Bohr magneton is the magnetic moment produced by one unpaired electron in
an atom. It is the basic (quantum) unit of atomic magnetism, represented by µ B

1µB = 9.27 × 10−24 Am−2

5.2.8 Energy product of a magnetic material

For a permanent magnet, we require a hard material with a high saturation mag-
netisation, high residual magnetism (remanence) and high coercivity. For such a
material, the area of hysteresis loop is also large (B-H curve). The area of the hys-
teresis loop between Br and HC represents the energy required to demagnetise a
permanent magnet. The maximum value of this area, that is the product B r × HC is
called as the energy product. The area of the loop of B-H curve second quadrant is
often used to measure the effectiveness of the material as a permanent magnet. The
area must be as large as possible for permanent magnets.

1.4
D 1.2 1.2
1 B (wbm) B (wbm) 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
Br
0.4 0.4
-48 -32 -16 0.2 0.2 BH max

-H E HC H BH
0 4 8 12 16 20
3 4 3
X 10 A/m (X 10 B/m )

(a) Graph between B & H (b) Graph between B and BH

Fig. 18

Discussion
The second and fourth quadrant of B-H curve, the loop represents the demagnetis-
ing curves of the material and is related to the energy required to demagnetise the
magnet. It is conventional to represent the second quadrant of B-H curve as the de-
magnetising curve. The energy product BH versus magnetic induction B curve for a
hard material is shown in figure.
It is seen from the graph that the energy product is zero at the points D and E and
it attains maximum at an intermediate point. Known as the maximum energy prod-
uct BHmax . Actually the maximum energy product of a hard material is given by
the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a demagnetising curve.
 Material Science 5.25

Application
The energy product should be as large as possible for permanent magnets. Hence the
materials with higher values of energy product can be used as a magnetic recording
materials and these materials can be selected by drawing graph between B and BH
(product of B and H).

5.2.9 Ferrites and their application

Ferrites belong to soft magnetic materials and they are also called as ferrimagnetic
materials. They are complex compounds of different metals and oxygen and they
exhibit the property of ferromagnetism.
The general chemical formula of ferrite molecule’s MOFe 2 O3 (or) MFe2 O4 (in
ionic form M+2 Fe+3
2 O4 ). It is a mixture of MO and Fe2 O3 , where M represents a
−2

divalent metals (having two electrons in the outermost shell) like Fe, Co, Mn, Zn, Ca
and Mg.
Since the oxide contains ions, the magnetic properties can be predicted with some
good approximation each Fe+2 ion corresponds to 4 Bohr magneton (unit of measur-
ing atomic magnetism) and each Fe+3 corresponds to 5 Bohr magneton. A material
such as Fe+2 Fe+3
2 O4 exhibits a saturation magnetisation which amounts to 4 Bohr
−2

magneton. If all the ions are lined up in parallel, we can except 4 + (2 × 5) = 14

magneton per molecule (4µB for Fe+2 , 10µB for 2Fe+3 ). This difference in the esti-
mation of atomic magnetism can be accounted on the basis of arrangement of atoms
in ferrites.
+2 +3
Fe Fe
B site
(Octahedral)
4mB 5mB 5mB

A site
(Tetrahedral)
+3
Fe

Fig. 19 Schematic arrangement of Fe+2 and Fe+3 ions magnetite.

The oxygen ions in a ferrite form a close packed face centred cubic structure
(FCC). It is found that for every four O−2 ions, there are two octahedral holes sur-
rounded by six O−2 ions and 1 tetrahedral hole surrounded by four O−2 ions. The
metal ions are distributed over tetrahedral sites (A site) and octahedral sites (B site).
Thus octahedral sublattice has twice as many sites as in tetrahedral one. There are
two Fe+3 ions and one Fe+2 ion per molecule of Fe3 O4 , Fe+3 magnetic moments just
cancel each other (5 − 5 = 0) and hence the net magnetic moment per molecules of
ferrite is 4µB. This is in good agreement with experiment. The behaviour of other
ferrites may be explained in a similar manner.
5.26 Applied Physics

Applications
1. Ferrite rods used in radio receiver to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of
the receiver.
2. Ferrites are used as cores in audio and T.V. transformers.
3. Ferrites are used in digital computers, data processing circuits and digital data
storage devices.
4. Ferrites are used to produce low frequency ultrasonic waves in magnetostric-
tion method.
5. Ferrites are widely used in non reciprocal microwave devices like Gyrator, cir-
culator and isolator.
6. Ferrites are used in power limiting and harmonic generation devices.
7. They are used in the design of ferromagnetic amplifiers of microwave signals.
8. Hard ferrites are used to make permanent magnets which are used in galvano
meters, ammeters, voltmeters, speed meters, wattmeters and recorder.
9. Ferrite core can be used as bistable element.
10. Rectangular ferrite cores can be used as a magnetic shift register.

5.3 Dielectrics
5.3.1 Introduction
Dielectrics are essentially insulating materials. Dielectric materials are used to
store electric energy. The basic function of an insulating material is to resist the flow
of electric current and at the same time the dielectric material stores electric energy.
For a material to be a good dielectric, it must be an insulators. Hence any insulator
is a dielectric.
They are non metallic materials having high specific resistance and nega-
tive temperature coefficient. In a dielectric, all the electrons are bound to their
parent molecules and there are no free charges, electrons are not released under nor-
mal voltage applied or thermal energy supplied.

5.3.2 Description of dielectric in terms of band theory of

solids
The property of dielectric can be explained in terms of band theory (structure) of
solids. The energy band diagram of an insulating materials (dielectric) is shown
in Fig.20. There is a wide energy gap which is of the order of 3eV more between
conduction band and valence band.
This energy gap is so wide that at ordinary temperature, electrons cannot jump
from valence band to conduction band. As a result of this, no conduction takes place
at ordinary temperature. But as the temperature increases, the resistance of dielectric
decreases.
 Material Science 5.27

Conduction band
(Energy)

Forbidden band
(wide energy gap)

Valence band

Fig. 20
The common examples of dielectric are rubber, bakelite, mica, glass etc.

5.3.3 Application
1. Dielectrics are widely used as insulating materials. Some examples are given
below.

(a) Copper (or) Aluminium wires are used as conductors in electrical cir-
cuits but they are insulated with a outer jacket of plastic (or) rubber (di-
electric).
(b) In heater coils (filament) dielectric like ceramics beads are used to avoid
short circuiting.
(c) In electric iron box, mica (or) asbestos are used to prevent the flow of
electric current to outer body.
(d) In transformer and generator winding, varnished cotton is used as in-
sulator to prevent short circuit.
(e) In electrical transmission lines porcelain structures are used as insula-
tors between points of different potential.

2. Another important application of dielectric materials is their use as storage

capacitors.

Depending up of the type of dielectric used and application, they are classified in to
the following groups.

(a) Capacitors with air (or) vacuum, or inert gas as dielectric (gas
dielectric)
When the values of these capacitors are not so large, the dielectric losses are very less.
They are used in radio frequency circuits and low frequency measuring circuits.

(b) Capacitors with mineral oil as dielectric (liquid dielectric) and

electrolytic solution as dielectric
These capacitors have a very large value of capacitance. But dielectric losses are
not so small. They are used in high voltage applications (power pack and filtering
circuits).
5.28 Applied Physics

(c) Capacitors with solid dielectric

In these capacitors, the dielectric materials like mica, paper glass etc can be used.
Also dielectric constant does not vary with temperature. They have high value of
dielectric constant and high insulating resistance.
They are used as standard capacitors in the laboratories and in electrical circuits.

(d) Capacitors with both solid and liquid dielectric

In this type of capacitors combination of solid dielectrics like paper, glass, mica, thin
films of synthetic materials etc and liquids like mineral oil, silicon oil and castor oil
etc are used. These capacitance have high value of capacitance.
They are used in electrical power distribution systems to provide power factor
correction.

5.3.4 Fundamental definitions

1. Electric field and electric lines
_
of force +

The space ground a charge, where the in-

fluence of electricity is felt (or) in which it
Fig. 21
exerts a force on another charge. The elec-
tric field is assumed to consists of electric lines of force. These lines of force start
from positive charge and end on the negative charge. It is a line along which a unit
positive charge is free to move.
The tangent at any point on the electric line of force gives the direction of electric
at that point.

2. Electric field strength (or) electric field intensity (t)

Electric field strength at a point in an electric field is the force experienced by a unit
positive charge placed at that point. It is represented by the letter E.
If q is the magnitude of charge in coulomb and F is the force experienced by the
charge in Newton, then
F
Electric field strength E=
q
V
Also E=
d

V = Voltage applied
d = Distance between the plates
unit E is N/C (or) V /m.
 Material Science 5.29

3. Electric flux (ψ)

It represents the total number of electric lines of force starting from a positive charge.
It is numerically equal to the charge. It has the same unit as charge.
Unit of ψ is coulomb.

4. Electric flux density (or) electric displacement vector (D)

Electric flux density at a point is defined as the flux (ψ) (or) electric lines of force
passing normally through the unit area of cross section at that point. It is represented
by the letter D.
If ψ is the total flux in coulombs
A = Area of cross section in metre2

then Electric flux density

ψ
D=
A
unit of D is c/m2 .

5. Permittivity ()
It represents the effectiveness (or) easiness of a medium (or) substance to allow the
electric flux through it. It is defined as the ratio of electric displacement (D) in a
dielectric medium to the applied field strength (E). Permittivity is represented by
the latter , D
Permittivity  =
E
Permittivity can also be defined as the degree up to which a medium can restrict the
flow of charge through it and it is always greater than 1.

If 0 = absolute permittivity of free space

= 8.854 × 10−12 F/m and
r = Relative permittivity (or) dielectric constant of a medium

then permittivity  of a medium is given by

 =  0 × r

unit of  is Farad/metre (F/m).

6. Dielectric constant (r )

The dielectric characteristic of a material can be determined by the dielectric constant
(or) relative dielectric constant (r ) of the material.
5.30 Applied Physics

It is defined as the ratio of the permittivity of the medium () to the permittivity
of free space (0 ) and is represented by r

Dielectric constant (or) relative permittivity r = .
0
Since it is ratio, it has no unit. It also gives the measure of polarisation (alignment
of charges) in the dielectric material under external electric field.

7. Dipole
Two charges of equal magnitude but of opposite polarity separated by a small dis-
tance form a dipole. It is represented in the following figure

← d →
•
−q +• q

8. Dipolemoment (p)
The product of either charge (one of the charge) on the dipole and distance between
the charges is defined as the dipole moment represented by µ and it is directed from
−q to +q.
The dipolemoment µ = q × d
unit of dipolemoment is coulomb − metre (C − m).

9. Electric polarisation (→
−
p ) (or) polarisation vector

The dipolemoment (µ) per unit volume of dielectric material is known as polarisa-
tion. It is represented by the letter P
µ
P = where V = volume of dielectric in m3 .
V

If →
−
µ is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the number of molecu-
lar per unit volume then
→
−
P = N→ −µ

Explanation
+ + + + + + + +
Consider an atom of dielectric material placed _ _ _ _ _ _
inside an electric field. The centre of positive Dielectric E E0
charge is displaced along the direction of elec- + + + + + +
tric field (+ve polarity to −ve polarity) and the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

centre of negative charge is displaced in op-

posite direction. Thus a dipole is produced. Fig. 22
Hence when a dielectric material is kept in an electric field, dipoles are created in
 Material Science 5.31

all the atoms of the material. The process of producing electric dipoles in an elec-
tric field which are oriented along the field direction is known as polarisation in
dielectrics. But the field produced in dielectric (E) is opposite to the applied field
(E0 ).

_
+ +
Centre of -ve charge

Nofield Applied field

Fig. 23

10. Polarizability (α)

When a dielectric material is kept in an electric field and if the strength of electric
field is increased the strength of induced dipoles also increases. Thus the induced
dipolemoment (µ) is directly proportional to the strength of the applied field (E).
that is µ × E
µ=αE

Where α is a constant of proportionality known as polarizability

µ Induced dipole moment
α= =
E Strength of applied field

Unit of α is F/m2
Relation between P, 0 , r and E is
P = 0 (r − 1)E

11. Electric flux (D) in terms of field strength

Since the electric flux density (D) of a dielectric material is directly proportional to
the field strength (E), then D can be written as
D =  0 r E (15)

Since polarisation measures the additional field density in the presence of mate-
rial as compared to the vacuum, D can be written as
D = 0 E + p

Sub for D form (15), we have

0 e E =  0 E + P
∴ P =  0 r E −  0 E
5.32 Applied Physics

P = 0 (r − 1)E

Hence flux density (D) is similar to the magnetic induction (B).

12. Electric susceptibility (χe )

Since polarisation vector p is proportional to the applied field E and is in the direc-
tion of E, the polarisation vector →
−
p can be written as

p =  0 χe E
p
∴ χe =
0 E

Sub for p
0 (r − 1)E
χe =
0 E

χe =  r − 1

It is a measure of a substance to get electrified.

5.3.5 Measurement of dielectric constant (or) relative

permittivity (r )
The polarisation (or) dielectric constant (r ) of a dielectric can be measured by using
a parallel plate capacitor.
First the parallel plates of a capacitor are separated by vacuum and if a voltage
V is applied to the capacitor, a charge is developed on each plate (equal magnitude).
Measure the capacitance C using a L-C-R meter and C can be written as

0 A
C= (16)
d

where A = area of one of the plates.

Now if a dielectric material is introduced between the plates, it will increase the
charges on the plates due to polarisation in the material. Again capacitance C 1 us
measured by using L-C-R metre then

0 r A
C1 = (17)
d
C1
∴ = r (18)
C
C1
The ratio gives the value of dielectric constant of dielectric material.
C
 Material Science 5.33

5.3.6 Various polarisation mechanism (processes) in

dielectric
We know that the net charge within a neutral atom is zero. Further more, the centre
of negative charge of electrons coincides with centre of positive charge of nucleus
and hence the net dipole of an atom is zero.
Electron E
cloud Centre of
+ Atomic _ + +ve charge
nucleus
Centre of
-ve charge
_ +
Centre of +ve and centre
of -ve charge coincides P induced
In the absence of In the presence of
applied field applied field

Fig. 24

When an atom is placed in an external field, an induced dipole moment is de-

veloped. The electrons, being much lighter than the positive nucleus, are easily dis-
placed by the field, which results in the separation of centre of negative charge and
centre of positive charge. Hence a dipole is created.
The seperation of negative and positive charges and the resulting dipolemoment
are termed as polarisation. An atom is said to be polarised, if it has effective
dipolemoment.
Polarisation occurs due to several mechanisms. When a dielectric material is
placed inside d.c.electric field, the polarisation takes place due to four types of proce-
sses mentioned below.
(a) Electronic polarisation
(b) Ionic polarisation
(c) Orientation polarisation
(d) Space charge polarisation.

(a) Electronic polarisation (or) induced polarisation (pe )

This polarisation is due to the displacment of positively charged nucleus and the
negatively charged electrons (electronic cloud) in the opposite direction under the
external electric field. As a result a dipolemoment is created with in each atom. The
extent of this shift (displacement) is proportional to the field strength.
The dipolemoment is given by the product of the charge and shift distance (q×d).
But induced dipolemoment is proportional to the strength of external field E.

∴ µe α E

µe = α e E (19)
5.34 Applied Physics

where αe =electronic polarizability.

But the dipolemoment per unit volume is known as electronic polarisation
represented by pe

pe = N µ e (20)
pe = N α e E (21)

where N = Number atoms/m3 .

This electronic polarisation occurs in all dielectrics for any state of arrangement.
It sets over a very short period of time, of the order of 10−14 to 10−15 sec (fermi sec-
ond). It is independent of temperature. The process of polarisation is already repre-
sented in Fig.

Calculation of electronic polarizability (αe )

A simple classical model of an atom is shown in Fig.25. Here a nucleus of charge Ze is
surrounded by an electronic cloud of charge −Ze. This electronic charge distributed
over a sphere of radius R.
No field In the presence of
external field

+ _ +

Centre of
Centre of
Centre of +ve and +ve charge
-ve charge
centre of -ve charge
coincides

Fig. 25
Then the charge density of electron cloud is
charge
P =
volume of space (atom)
−Ze −3Ze
P = 4 3 = (22)
3 πR 4πR3

where an external field of intensity E is applied, the nucleus (with the charge Ze)
and electron (with the charge −Ze) experiences a Lorentz force of magnitude,

F =Eq where q = Ze
F = Ze E (23)

The Lorentz forces on nucleus and electron act in opposite direction. Hence nucleus
and electron are pulled a part (A dipole is created).
When they are separated, there is a coulombic force of attraction developed be-
tween them. This force opposes the displacement produced by Lorentz force (which
 Material Science 5.35

separates them) when these fores are equal and opposite, an equilibrium is reached
and x be the displacement between centre of positive charge (nucleus) and centre
of electronic charge (electron cloud). Since nucleus is much heavier (1836 times of
electron) than electron cloud, it is assumed that the electron cloud is displaced under
external field.
∴ Lorentz force = Eq = −E(Ze) q = −Ze for electron
= −Ze E
−(Ze) × charge enclosed in a sphere of radius
Coulombic force = (24)
4π 0 x2
4
charge enclosed = π x3 P
3
Sub. for P from (22)
 
4 −3Ze
charged enclosed (Q) = π x 3
3 4πR3
3
−Ze x
Q=
R3
Sub for Q in (24)
−Ze x3
 
Ze
∴ coulombic force =
4π 0 x2 R3
2 2
−Z e x
coulombic force = (25)
4π 0 R3
In the equilibrium position
Lorentz force = coulombic force
−Z 2 e2 x
−Ze E =
4π 0 R3
4π 0 R3 E
x= (26)
Ze
The displacement of electron cloud is proportional to the strength of applied field
E. The two electric charges Ze and −Ze separated by a distance x under the action of
external field form an induced electric dipole producing induced dipole moment.
Induced dipolemoment µe = one of the charge × dist. between them
Induced dipolemoment µe = (Ze) × x (27)
Sub. for x
(4π 0 R3 E)
Induced Dipole moment µe = Ze
Ze
µe = 4π o R3 E (28)
µe = α e E (29)
5.36 Applied Physics

where αe = 4π 0 R3 E is known as electronic polarizability.

The dipolemoment per unit volume is called as electronic polarisation repre-
sented by Pe
∴ Pe = N µ e (30)
Sub for µe electronic polarisation is given by

Pe = N α e E (31)

But Pe = E 0 (r − 1) = N αe E
Eq.(31) represents

0 (r − 1)
electronic polarizability αe = (32)
N

(b) Ionic polarisation (Pi )

Ionic polarisation is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite di-
rections and takes place in an ionic solid, suppose an electric field is applied in the
positive x direction. The positive ions move towards right by x 1 , and negative ions
move towards left by x2 . Assuming that each unit cell certain one cation and one
anion, the resultant dipolemoment per unit cell due to ionic displacement is given
by

µi = ex1 + ex2
where e = magnitude of charge of each ion.
µi = e(x1 + x2 ) (33)

Let β1 , β2 represent the resoring force constants and F is the force due to the applied
(external) field in Newton. Since the displacement of ions is proportional to the
applied field, then force is given by

F = β 1 x1 = β 2 x2 (34)
F
x1 = (35)
β1
F
x2 = (36)
β2
The restoring force constants (β1 , β2 ) depends on (1) mass of the ions and (2) angular
frequency of molecule (ω0 ) in which ions are present, then

Lorentz force = centripetal force

Ee = m ω02 x1
Ee
∴ x1 = (37)
m ω02
 Material Science 5.37

Ee
similarly x2 =
M ω02
where m = mass of cation
m = mass of negative ion
 
eE 1 1
∴ Resultant displacement = x1 + x2 = 2 + (38)
ω0 M m
Resultant dipolemoment µ = e(x1 + x2 )

Sub for x1 + x2 from (38)

e2 E
 
1 1
µi = 2 + (39)
ω0 M m
But µi α E

µi = α i E (40)

where αi = Ionic polarizability

e2
 
µi 1 1
αi = = 2 +
E ω0 M m
e2
 
1 1
αi = 2 + (41)
ω0 M m

where 1 1 −1 Mm
is called as reduced mass of ionic molecule.


M + m = M +m

Here ionic polarizability is (a) directly proportional to the square of the

charges of ions and (b) inversely proportional the square of the natural frequency
of the ionic molecule. The process of ionic polarization is given in Fig.26.

No field _
+

In the field
_ +
_
+
x2 x1
P1 P2

Fig. 26 Electric field is applied between plates P1 & P2

Ionic polarisation (Pi ) is given by

Pi = N α i E (42)
5.38 Applied Physics

(c) Orientation polarisation (P0 )

The orientation polarisation is due to the existence of a permanent dipolemoment in
the electric medium. For example in methane (CH4 ) molecule, the centre of positive
charges coincides so that there is no permanent dipolemoment on the other hand, in
CH3 Cl, the centre of positive charge and the centre of negative charge do not coin-
cide. Since the electronegativity (tendency to pull the electrons towards it self in a
hetro nucleus molecule) of chlorine atom is more than that of hydrogen, the chlorine
atom pulls the bonding electrons nears itself more strongly than hydrogen. Hence
even in the absence of an electric field, this molecule carries a dipolemoment.
When an electric field is applied, the molecules having permanent displacement
align themselves in the direction of the applied field. The polarisation due to such
alignment in the presence of applied field is known as orientation polarisation and it
depends on temperature. As the temperature increases, the orientation polarisation
(P0 ) decreases. Since thermal energy tends to produce random arrangement there
by disturbing the alignment. This orientation polarisation occurs when the fre-
quency of applied field is the range of audio frequencies of the order of 20 KHz.
The orientation polarisation P0 is given by
P0 = N →
−
µ (43)
2
→
− µ E
where µ = (44)
3KT
N µ2 E
P0 = (45)
3KT
But P0 = N α0 E (46)

where α0 = orientation polarizability

P0
∴ α0 = (or) comparing equation 45 & 46 (47)
NE
µ2
we get α0 = (48)
3KT

The α0 is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. The process is as shown

in Fig.27.
+ _

_ _ _ _
+ + + + + +
_ _
+
_
_ + _ _ _ _ +
+ + +
_ _ +
+
No field Applied field
Dipoles are randomly oriented Dipoles are oriented partially
in the direction of the field

Fig. 27
 Material Science 5.39

(d) Space charge polarisation (Ps )

This polarisation occurs due to the accumulation of charges at the electrodes or in-
terfaces in multi phase material. The ions diffuse over appreciable distances in the
presence of the applied field, giving rise to a redistribution of charges in the dielectric
medium.
The space charge polarisation (Ps ) occurs, when the frequency of applied field
is in the range of power frequencies (about 50-60 Hz). It depends on temperature.
It increases with the increase in temperature. It also depends on the applied field
strength (E) also.
The space charge polarisation is given by

Ps = N α s E

Where αs =space charge polarizability.

Since αs is very small when compared with other polarizabilities, and it can be
neglected. The process of polarisation is shown in Fig.28.
+ + + + + + + + +
_ __
_ _ _
_ _ _
_
+ + + + + + ++ +

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
No field With field

Fig. 28
Total polarisation (P )
The total polarisation (P ) of a material under the influence of applied field is given
by the sum of the contribution of the electronic, Ionic, orientational and space charge
polarisation discussed above.

∴ Ptotal = Pe + Pi + Po + Ps (49)

Since space charge polarizability αs is very small when compared with other
types of polarizabilities, the term Ps = N αs E can be neglected.

∴ Total polarisation is given by

Ptotal = Pe + Pi + Po (50)

Total polarizability is given by

α = α e + αi + αo
5.40 Applied Physics

Sub for αe , αi , & αo , we get

e2 µ2
 
1 1
3
α = 4π0 R + 2 + + (51)
ω0 M m 3KT

Hence total polarisation of a material is given by

Ptotal = N α E

Sub for α 
e2

1 1

µ2

PT = N E 4π0 R3 + 2 + + (52)
ω0 M m 3KT

Equation (52) is known as Langevin-Debye equation.

5.3.7 Effects of frequency and temperature on polarisation

and dielectric constant
1. Effect of frequency of the applied field on polarisation and dielec-
tric constant
The polarisation and consequently dielectric constant depends on the frequency
of the applied field. This phenomenon is called dielectric dispersion. On the
application of an electric field on a dielectric material, a polarisation takes place as a
function of time. The polarisation P (t) as a function of time is given by
 −t

P (t) =P 1 − e Tr
where P =The maximum polarisation (polarisation amplitude)
attained in a time t.
Tr =The relaxation time for a particular type of polarisation
process.

Polarisation
Space charge
G H
Orientation
E F
Ionic
C D
A Electronic B

Electrical frequencies Optical

Power Audio Radio visble
I.R
3 Frequency
50 - 60 Hz (20×10 15
Hz) 10 Hz
13
10 Hz

Fig. 29
 Material Science 5.41

The relaxation time is measure of the time scale of a polarisation process.

Relaxation time (tr ) is defined as the time taken for a polarisation process
to reach 0.63 of maximum value. It is a constant for a particular process and is
different for different polarisation process.
The variation of polarisation with the frequency of the applied field is shown in
Fig.29.

Discussion
(a) Electronic polarisation
The electronic polarisation is extremely rapid (fast) and is essentially complete at
the instant the voltage is applied. It occurs at all frequencies. It occurs even when
the frequency of the applied voltage is very high of the order of optical frequencies
(∼ 1015 Hz) and it occurs during every cycle of applied voltage (Range AB in graph).

(b) Ionic polarisation

Ionic polarisation is slower than electronic polarisation, Ionic polarisation is due to
the displacement of ions through a distance in the external field. Since ions are heav-
ier than electron cloud,the time taken for the displacement is larger and hence it is a
slower process than electronic polarisation. The frequency with which ions are dis-
placed is of the same order of the latice vibrational frequency (10 13 Hz). Hence these
ions do not respond to optical frequency that is, the time for required for latice vi-
bration is 100 times more than the period applied voltage at optical frequency. If the
frequency of the applied voltage is less than 1013 Hz, ionic polarisation will
takes place. At 1013 Hz, both electronic and ionic polarisation take place. (Range
CD in graph).

(c) Orientation polarisation

It is even slower than ionic polarisation. The relaxation time for orientation po-
larisation in a liquid dielectric is less than in a solid dielectric. For example for liquid
propyl alcohol, the relaxation time is 10−10 s where as for solid ice it is 3 × 10−6 s.
Orientation polarisation takes place when frequency of the applied voltage is in the
range of audio frequencies (about 20 KHz) (Range EF in graph).

(d) Space charge polarisation

It is the slowest polarisation process among the four polarisation process. Since
it involves the diffusion of ions over several interatomic distances, it takes a longer
relaxation time than other process. Its relaxation time is related to the successful
jump of ions under the influence of the applied field of frequency 100 Hz. Hence
space polarisation takes place at machine (power) frequencies (about 50 - 60 Hz).
(Range GH in the graph).
5.42 Applied Physics

Conclusion

1. Hence we can conclude that the electronic polarisation occurs at optical fre-
quencies (1015 Hz). Ionic polarisation at 10+13 Hz along with electronic po-
larisation. For frequencies 106 to 1010 Hz, orientation polarisation takes place
along with ionic and electronic polarisation. At 100 Hz (power frequencies)
space charge polarisation takes place.

2. It has been observed from the graph as the frequency increases, dielectric con-
stant of material decrease. (That is polarisation decreases as frequency as in-
creases). Thus at low frequencies, the value of polarisation (coordinate in the
graph) is very high and at high frequencies its value small.

2. Effect of temperature on polarisation and dielectric constant

It has been observed that

(a) The electronic polarisation is independent of temperature.

(b) The ionic polarisation is also independent of temperature.
(c) The orientation polarisation decreases with the increase of temperature.
It is because of the fact that the thermal energy tends to randomize (disturb) the
alignment of dipole moment. Hence as the temperature increases, dielectric
constant of materials decreases (since polarisation decreases).
(d) The space charge polarisation increases with the increases of tempera-
ture. It is because of the fact that the thermal energy may aid in overcoming
the activation barrier for the orientation (alignment) of polar molecules in
the direction of the applied field. Hence dielectric constant increases with
the increase of temperature. (since polarisation increases with the increase
of temperature)

5.3.8 Expression for Internal field (Lorentz method) and Clau-

sius - Mosotti equation
Consider a dielectric material (a slab) placed between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor. Let an external electric field is applied across the plates of the capacitor.
Let us imagine a spherical cavity is formed around the atom A inside the dielec-
tric slab. It is also assumed that the radius (size) of the cavity is large when compared
to the radius (size) of the atom.
The internal field at the atom site A can be considered to be made up of four com-
ponents of electric field intensities namely E1 , E2 , E3 and E4 which are discussed as
follows:
 Material Science 5.43

Electric field
E

+ + + + + + + + + + + +
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Polarisation
++ + +
charges
+
_ +
_
Dielectric _ _ _A_
Induced
+ + + + + + + + + + + + charges Applied
Cavity field
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Fig. 30

(a) Electric field intensity E1

This field intensity E1 at A is due to the charge density on the plates of capac-
itor (across which an external field is applied).
From theory we can write
D =  0 E1 (53)

where D =Electric flux density in vacuum (due applied field)

0 =permittivity of air (or) vacuum,
D
∴ E1 = (54)
0
But D =D + 0 E (55)

When the polarisation takes place additional flux density (P) arises due to the
presence of dielectric material along with air or free space.

Hence P = Flux density due to dielectric material present.

0 E = Flux density in vacuum (or) air.

Sub for D in (54)

P + 0 E P
E1 = = +E
0 0
P
E1 = E + (56)
0

(b) Electric field intensity E2

This field intensity E2 at A is due to the charge density induced on two sides of
the dielectric material (kept between plates of a charged capacitor).
P
Hence E2 = − = (P = flux density in the slab)
0
5.44 Applied Physics

Negative sign shows that this field is opposite to external field (E) [acts up] in
Figure.

(c) Electric field intensity E3

This field intensity at A is due to the other atoms present in the cavity. If we
assume a cubic structure, E3 = 0 due to the symmetric structure (fields due to atoms
surrounding the considering atom cancel each other).

(d) Electric field intensity E4

This field intensity E4 at A is due to the polarisation charges on the surface
of cavity around the atom A. This can be calculated by Lorentz method as given
below.
In the Fig.31 if dA is the surface area of the sphere of radius r lying between θ
and θ + dθ. Where θ is the angle made by the element of sphere with reference to the
applied force (field E).

sq
co
+

P
+ +
R

+ +
E
Q

+ dq + q
r

+ q + P
_ A P _
_ _
_ _
_ _ _

Fig. 31 Enlarged view of cavity around the atoms

Circumference of element of sphere(in the form of circle of radius P Q.

= 2π (P Q)
Surface area of the element = circumference × thickness
dA = 2π(P Q) × (QR) (57)
PQ
In fig sin θ =
r
P Q = r sin θ (58)
QR
dθ =
r
QR = r dθ (59)

Sub in (57)

dA = 2π × r sin θ × r dθ
 Material Science 5.45

dA = 2πr 2 sin θ dθ (60)

If dq is the charge on the element and is equal to the product of the normal compo-
nent of the polarisation (P ) by the surface area.

dq = P cos θ × dA (61)

Sub for in (61) from Eq.(60)

dq = P cos θ × 2πr 2 sin θ dθ

dq = P × 2πr 2 sin θ cos θ dθ (62)

The field due to this at A is denoted by d E4 in the direction θ = 0 is given by

By coulomb’s law
q1 × q 2
d E4 =
4π 0 r2

where q1 = dq cos θ
q2 = 1
dq cos θ × 1
dE4 = (63)
4π 0 r2

Sub for dq
dq

P × 2π r 2 sin θ cos θ dθ × cos θ q

dE4 =
4π 0 r2 dq cosq
P × 2π r cos2 θ sin θ dθ
2
dE4 = (64)
4π 0 r2
The total field E4 due to the charges on the entire (full) surface of cavity is obtained
by integrating (64) between limits 0 to π.
Zπ
2πr2 P
Z
dE4 = cos2 θ sin θ dθ
4π0 r2
0
Zπ
P
E4 = cos2 θ sin θ dθ (65)
20
0

Put x = cos θ
dx = − sin θ dθ
∴ −dx = sin θ dθ
5.46 Applied Physics

Integrating Eq.(65) without limits,

P x3
 
P
Z
∴ E4 = x2 (dx) =
20 20 3
Sub for x and put the limits
π
(cos θ)3

−P
E4 =
30 3 0
P 1
(cos π)3 − (cos 0)3

=− ×
20 3
P
=− [−1 − 1]
60
2P P
E4 = =
60 30
P
E4 = (66)
30

∴ The internal field Ei is given by

Ei = Intensity of the applied field + field due to polarisation

P
Ei = E + (67)
30

Here Ei is called as internal field or Lorentz field.

Classius - Mosotti relation

Let us consider an elemental dielectric having cubic structure. Since there are no
ions and permanent dipoles in these materials, the ionic polarizability α i and ori-
entation polarizability α0 are zero that is

αi = α 0 = 0 (68)

Since only electronic polarizability occurs, the polarisation P is given by

P = N α e Ei (69)

Sub for Ei
 
P
P = N αe E+ (70)
30
P
P = N αe + N αe
30
 
N αe
P 1− = N αe E
30
 Material Science 5.47

!
N αe E
P = (71)
1 − N3α0e

We know electric flux density in the material in the presence of external field is given
by

D = P + 0 E (72)
P = D − 0 E (73)

Divide by E
P D
= − 0
E E
P
But =  =  0 r (74)
E
P
=  − 0
E
=  o r −  0
P
= 0 (r − 1)
E
P = E 0 (r − 1) (75)

Comparing (75) and (71) are can write

N αe E
E 0 (r − 1) =
1 − N3α0e
N αe N αe
1− =
30 0 (r − 1)
 
1 1
1 = N αe +
30 0 (r − 1)
 
N αe 3
1= 1+
30 r − 1
N αe 1 r − 1
= =
30 1 + r3−1 r − 1 + 3

N αe r − 1
= (76)
30 r + 2

Where N = number of molecules per unit volume. The equation (76) is known
as Classius-Mosotti equation. This equation is used to calculate α e (Electronic
polarizibility), knowing the value of r .
5.48 Applied Physics

5.3.9 Dielectric loss

Definition
When a dielectric is subjected to an a.c. voltage, the electric energy is absorbed by the
material and is dissipated in the form of heat. This dissipation of energy is called
as dielectric loss. Since this involves heat generation and heat dissipation, the
dielectric loss plays an important role in high voltage applications.

(a) Expression for dielectric loss

When the period of applied voltage is greater than relaxation process, the polar-
isation is completed at any time within a cycle. Here the charging current leads
the voltage as in capacitor. Hence electric energy is lost during charging. This is
applicable for a perfect insulator like vacuum or purified gas.
When the period of the applied voltage is in the same range as relaxation time
of polarisation process, the resonance occurs. Here the current leads the volt-
age by (90 − δ) where δ is called as the loss angle and tan δ is taken as a measure
of electrical loss due to resonance and is known as loss tangent. Here the charging
current can be resolved in to two components, one is parallel and another is perpen-
dicular (90◦ ) to the applied voltage as in capacitor. This is shown in Fig.32.

I q
90 - d

V V
(a) (b)
w e0 er´ E0
B
P
I

d
OA = w e0 er´ E0
d
90- OB = w e0 er´´ E0
w e0 er´´ E0 q= w e0 er´ E0 tan d = loss tangent
O A
E0
(c)

Fig. 32

The parallel component is the real part (OP is charged current) and results in I 2 R
loss (power loss).
 Material Science 5.49

Loss tangent can be expressed as

00r
tan δ = (77)
0r

Where 0r , 00r are real and imaginary parts of relative permittivity for a dielectric
in a capacitor having capacitance C and f is the frequency of the applied voltage V ,
then the dielectric power loss is given by

P = V I cos θ (78)
But V = I XC (79)

where XC is the capacitive reactance

1
∴ XC =
2π fC
V
I= (80)
XC
Also cos θ = cos(90 − δ) = sin δ (81)

Where δ is the angle made by the charging current with the applied voltage sub
in (78)
V2
P = sin δ (82)
XC

Since δ is very small, sin δ = tan δ. Hence Eq.(82) can be sittency

V2
P = tan δ (83)
XC
Sub for XC we get
V 2 tan δ
P = (84)
2π fC

Here tan δ is called as the power factor of the dielectric. Hence power loss
depends on tanδ only. Since other factors like voltage (V ) frequency of applied
voltage (f ) and capacitance are constants.

(b) Frequency regions of dielectric losses

1. The dielectric losses in radio frequency region are usually due to the dipole
rotation or due to ions jumping from one equilibrium position to another.
2. The dielectric losses in the lower frequencies are mainly due to d.c. resistivity
(P ).
5.50 Applied Physics

3. The dielectric losses in the optical region are associated with electrons and
this loss is known as optical absorption. Hence the electronic polarisa-
tion produces power loss at optical region and at lower frequencies electronic
polarisation produces no power loss.
4. The dielectric losses associated with ionic vibrations the frequencies fall in In-
frared region and is known as Infrared absorption.

(c) Dependence of dielectric loss

Factor affecting dielectric loss. Increase in values of the following factors will in-
crease the dielectric loss.

(a) Temperature
(b) Humidity
(c) Applied voltage
(d) Frequency of the applied voltage.

(d) Significance of dielectric loss

Dielectric loss plays a dominating role in high voltage applications. Dielectric loss is
an engineering problem involving heat generation and heat dissipation. Hence
for the usage of insulating materials, the proper understanding of balance between
heat generation and heat dissipation is a must.
The dielectric materials having very large value of dielectric loss is said to be
lossy dielectric.

5.4 Dielectric breakdown

5.4.1 Definition of dielectric breakdown
Definition of dielectric breakdown is a applied to a dielectric and if it exceeds
the critical value, the dielectric material loses its resistivity (insulating property) and
permits a very large current to flow through it. This phenomenon is known as di-
electric breakdown. The electric field strength at which the breakdown takes place
is known as dielectric strength and the voltage corresponding to this is known as
breakdown voltage. This breakdown produces a devasting effect like firing.

5.4.2 Definition of dielectric strength

The dielectric strength is defined as the breakdown voltage per unit thickness of
the dielectric material. Unit is V m−1 .
The failure (or) breakdown of a dielectric material is of great important for elec-
tronic engineers. There are many reasons for this breakdown to occur.
Let us now discuss the different types of dielectric breakdown and their mecha-
nism briefly.
 Material Science 5.51

5.4.3 Types of dielectric breakdown

The different types of dielectric breakdown are
(a) Intrinsic breakdown
(b) Thermal breakdown
(c) Discharge breakdown
(d) Electrochemical breakdown
(e) Defect breakdown.

(a) Intrinsic breakdown

In a perfect dielectric, there are no free electrons and the conductivity is almost
zero.
When the applied voltage is large, some of the electrons in the valence band cross
over to the conduction band after crossing through the large forbidden energy gap,
there by giving rise to large conduction currents. The liberation (or) movement of
electrons from the valance band is known as field emission. This process of crossing
of electrons from valence band to conduction band is a chain reaction. As a result,
a large amount of current flows through the dielectric material causing dielectric
breakdown (losing the resistive property). The breakdown produced in this manner
is known as intrinsic breakdown (or) avalanche breakdown. This breakdown
occurs may be due to the presence of imperfections, vacancies at the intensities or
filled with ions and some extra atoms present at the latice other than normal ones.

Characteristics of this breakdown:

1. It can takes place even at low temperature.
2. It requires relatively large electric field.
3. It does not depends on the electrode configuration and the shape of the
material.
4. This kind of breakdown mostly occurs in thin samples.

(b) Thermal breakdown

If an electric field is applied to a dielectric material, some amount of heat is pro-
duced. This heat produced in the material should be dissipated. In some cases,
the amount of heat generated is larger than the heat dissipated in it, then this
excess of heat results in local melting. Once the melting start, that particular region
becomes more conductive and allows a very large current flow through it there by
causing dielectric breakdown. This type of breakdown is known as thermal break-
down.
Characteristics of this breakdown:
1. It occurs at high temperatures.
5.52 Applied Physics

2. The breakdown strength depends on the size and shape of the dielectric ma-
terial.
3. It also depends on the geometry and thermal property of electrodes.
4. The breakdown time is of the order of milliseconds or much longer.
5. The breakdown strength is lower in a.c. fields than in D.C., since the power
loss increases with the frequency (frequency of a.c).

(c) Discharge breakdown

This breakdown is classified in two types

1. External breakdown.
2. Internal breakdown.

The external breakdown caused by a glow (or) corona discharge and such a dis-
charge occurs at the sharp edges of the electrodes. The large electric field due to
this glow (discharge) causes a damage on the adjacent solid dielectric medium. The
carbon formed due to this damage makes the dielectric more conducting and there
by causing dielectric breakdown. Dust or moisture present on the surface of the
dielectric may also produce this external discharge breakdown.
Internal breakdown occurs when the insulator contains occluded (hiding) gas
bubbles. If these dielectric materials are subjected to high voltage, the gaseous
substances are dissociated into ions and there by producing a large ionisation
current. This large ionisation current may produce an electric breakdown known as
discharge breakdown.
Characteristics:
When a large number of occluded gas bubbles are present in a dielectric mate-
rials, the breakdown takes place even at low voltages.

(d) Electrochemical breakdown

The chemical and electrochemical breakdown are closely related to thermal break-
down. If the temperature of the dielectric material increases, it will increase the
mobility of the ions and hence the electrochemical reaction takes place. When the
ionic mobility increases, large current will flow there by decreasing the insula-
tion resistance and this will result in dielectric breakdown. Due the chemical reac-
tion, the electrical and mechanical properties of the dielectric materials are changed
and finally these will lead to breakdown. Insulating materials become oxides and
thereby decreasing the dielectric properties. For example in the case of rubber in air
the oxide forms on the surface and, produce cracks on the surface. Organic materials
working at high temperatures have lost their stability towards chemical properties.
 Material Science 5.53

Characteristics of this breakdown

1. Electrochemical breakdown is determined by the leakage current, density of
ions, temperature and permanent dipoles present in the materials.
2. To avoid the electrochemical breakdown, the impurities should not be mixed
with the pure dielectric materials.
3. Electrochemical breakdown are accelerated by the increase of temperature.
Hence to avoid electrochemical breakdown, the dielectric materials should not
be operated at high temperature (or) heat dissipation facilities should be pro-
vided.

(e) Defect breakdown

Some dielectric materials may have defects like cracks, and pores etc. Moisture
and other impurities can be get filed up in these places leading to the breakdown.
This is known as defect breakdown.

Criteria for the selection of a dielectric materials

Some of the important factors considered for the selection dielectrics are
1. It should have high value of dielectric constant.
2. It should have a low dissipation factor (or) power factor.
3. It should have a high dielectric strength.
4. It should have a high insulation resistance.
5. It should have a high thermal conductivity and low thermal expansion.

5.4.4 Classification of dielectric (or) insulation materials

The insulating materials (dielectric) are classified into three categories namely
(a) Solid insulating materials:
Eg: mica, porcelain, bakelite asbestos, pre ceramics, glass, rubber & cotton.
(b) Liquid insulating materials:
Eg: varnish, transformer oil, cable oil, silicon fluids and fluoro organic fluids.
(c) Gaseous insulating materials: Eg: Air, hydrogen, nitrogen, halogens and
sulphur hexa fluorides (SF6 ).

5.5 Formulae and Problems in Magnetism

5.5.1 Important formulae in magnetism

µφ = 4π × 10−7 H/m
φ
B= (85)
A
5.54 Applied Physics

φ=BA (86)
B = Magnetic induction (or) flux density
φ = Magnetic flux
B
µ= (87)
H
µ = µ 0 µr (88)
I
χ= (89)
H
Dividing Eq.(87) by (89) we get

µ B
= (90)
χ I

µr = 1 + K (91)
B = µ0 (I + H) (92)
I = Intensity of magnetisation
H = Magnetic field strength (or) Intensity of magnetic field
µ = absolute permeability
χ = magnetic susceptibility
µr = Relative permeability
µ0 = Permeability of air (or) free space

eh
Bohr magneton µB = (93)
4π m
h = plancks constant = 6.62 × 10−34 Js.
e = charge of electron = 1.6 × 10−19 C
m = mass of electron = 9.1 × 10−31 Kg.

5.5.2 Problems of magnetic materials

 Solved Problem 1

The magnetic induction produced in a bar of iron is 8π W b/m2 . Its area of cross
section is 4 × 10−4 m2 . Calculate the magnetic flux (φ).
I Solution
Given B = 8π W b/m2 ; A = 4 × 10−4 m2 .
φ
Magnetic induction B=
A
 Material Science 5.55

∴ Magnetic flux φ=BA

φ = 8π × 4 × 10−4
φ = 32π × 10−4
φ = 100.5 × 10−4 = 1.005 × 10−2 W b.

 Solved Problem 2

Intensity of magnetic field (or) field strength (H) 200AT /m produces a magnetic in-
duction (B) of 4π W b/m2 in a bar of iron. Calculate the relative permeability and
susceptibility (µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m).
I Solution
Given B = 4π W b/m2 ; H = 2000 AT /m; µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m

B 4π
µ= = = 2π × 10−3 H/m
H 2000
But µ = µ 0 µr
µ 2π × 10−3 1
∴ µr = = = × 104
µ0 4π × 10 −7 2
µr = 0.5 × 104 = 5000
But µr = 1 + χ
χ = µr − 1 = 5000 − 1 = 4999

 Solved Problem 3

A magnetic material having magnetisation 2185 A/m, produces a flux density of

0.004 W b/m2 . Calculate the magnetising force field strength (H) and relative perme-
ability (µr ) of the material. (µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m).
I Solution

Given I = 2185 A/m

B = 0.004 W b/m2 = 4 × 10−3 W b/m2
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m.

Using the relation

∴ B = µ0 (H + I)
B 4 × 10−3 104
H +I = = =
µ0 4π × 10−7 π
5.56 Applied Physics

10000
H +I = = 3185
π
H = 3185 − I = 3185 − 2185

H = 1000 AT /m
B B
But µr = =
B0 µ0 H
4 × 10−3
µr =
4π × 10−7 × 103
10−3 10
= =
π × 10−4 π
µr = 3.185

 Solved Problem 4

The susceptibility of a diamagnetic material is −5 × 10−5 and magnetic field strength

is 105 AT /m/ Calculate the intensity of magnetisation produced in it?
I Solution
Given χ = −5 × 10−3 ; H = 105 AT /m; I =?
I
∴ χ=
H
I = χ H = −5 × 105 × 105

I = −5 A/m
(−ve sign shows, the magnetisation produced in the material is in the opposite di-
rection of the external field).

 Solved Problem 5

The intensity of magnetisation produced in a diamagnetic material is −5 A/m for the

applied field of strength 105 AT /m. Calculate the flux density (B). (µ0 = 4π × 10−7 ).
I Solution
Given H = 105 AT /m; I = −5 A/m; B =?.
B = µ0 (H + I)
B = 4π × 10−7 (105 − 5)
B = 4π × 10−7 × 105 (approx)
−2 2
B = 4π × 10 W b/m
 Material Science 5.57

 Solved Problem 6

The susceptibility of a paramagnetic material is 4 × 10−3 at 27◦ . Calculate of suscep-

tibility at 127◦ .
I Solution

χ = 4 × 10−3
T = 273 + 27 = 300 K

By curie law
C
∴ χ= where C=curie constant
T
C = χ T = 4 × 10−3 × 300
C = 1200 × 10−3

C = 1.2
T = 127 + 273 = 400
C 1.2 12
χ127 = = =
T 400 4000
3
χ127 = = 3 × 10−3
103

 Solved Problem 7

Calculate the power loss due to hysteresis in a transformer core of volume 0.02 m 3
and 50 Hz frequency. Area of cross section of hysteresis loop (or) energy loss/m 3 is
500 J/m3 .
I Solution
Given
volume V = 0.02 m3
Frequency f = 50 Hz
Area of loop = 500 J/m3 (energy loss)

∴ power loss due to hysteresis = workdone

workdone = WG = A V f V = volume
= 500 × 0.02 × 50
5.58 Applied Physics

= 25 × 103 × 0.02
= 50 × 103 × 2 × 10−2
= 50 × 101
W = P (loss) = 500 W.

 Solved Problem 8

A magnetic flux of 32π × 10−4 Wb produces a magnetic induction (B) 8πWb /m2 in
a bar of iron the volume of the magnet is 2 × 10−5 m3 , calculate the length of bar
magnet?
I Solution
Given π = 32πW b; B = 8πW b/m2 ; A =?

φ = B.A
φ 32π × 10−4
A= = = 4 × 10−4 m2
B 8π
A = 4 × 10−4 m2
V = 2 × 10−5 m3
V = 2 × 10−6 m3

V =A×l
V 2 × 10−5 20 × 10−6
l= = =
A 4 × 10−4 4 × 10−4
−2
l = 5 × 10 m
= 5cm

 Solved Problem 9

The retentivity (Br ) and coercivity (HC ) of a magnetic material are 6πW b/m2 and
1000AT /m. Calculate the energy product of the material?
I Solution

Br = 6πW b/m2
HC = 1000
= 103 AT /m
EP = B r × H C
EP = 6π × 103
EP = 6000πJ.
 Material Science 5.59

 Solved Problem 10

A magnetic field of intensity 104 A/m is applied to a paramagnetic material having

susceptibility 3.7 × 10−3 . Calculate the intensity of magnetization (I) & flux density
(B) (A.U.2002)
I Solution
Use formulae

H = 104 A/m
I
Xe =
H
I = Xe × H
B = µ0 (H + I)

Ans.

I = 37A/m
B = 0.0126W b/m2

5.6 Formulae and Problems in dielectrics

5.6.1 Formulae in materials
Electric intensity E
1. F = Force in Newton.
q = Charge in Coulomb.
V = Applied voltage.
d = Distance between plates.

E
E= N/c
q
V
E= N/m (or) F = Eq
d

2. ψ = DA
φ = Electric flux in Coulomb.
D = Electric flux density in C/m2
A = Average of cross section.

3. D =∈ E similar to B = µH
5.60 Applied Physics

D
(a) ∈= ∈ = absolute permittivity of a medium
E

∈=∈0 × ∈r ∈0 = Permittivity of freq space

(b) D =∈0 ∈r E
∈0 = 8.85 × 10−4 F/m
∈r = Relative permittivity

4. Dipole moment (µ)

µ=q×d
unit of µ is c − m

q = Value of one of the charge of dipole

d = Dist. between dipoles

5. Electric polarization
µ
p=
V
V = Volume of dielectric in m3

6. P =∈0 (∈ −1)E

7. µ = αE

µ
α=
E

α = polarizability

Unit of α = F/m2
Electric flux density in a dielectric material under external field is (E).

8. Where
N = Number of units/m3
P = N µ = N αE

9. D =∈0 E + P

10. Electric susceptibility Xc is given by the relation

∈r = 1 + X e
Xe =∈r −1
 Material Science 5.61

11. Capacitance of a conductor with air as dielectric

∈0 A
C=
d
A = Area of one of the plate
d = Dist between plates unit of C is farad(f) but practical units are µf and pf
12. Capacitance with a dielectric medium (slab) between the plates,
K =∈r
∈0 ∈r A ∈0 KA
C1 = =
d d
C1
∴ =∈r = K = Dielectric constant of the material,
C
13. Electronic polarization
µe = α e E
p = N µe = N αe E
αe = electronic polarizability

14. Lorentz force on nucleus (or) electron

F = Eq
q = Ze
F = E(ze) = zeE

∈0 (∈r −1)
15. αe =
N
16. In Ionic polarization

µi = α i E
αi = Ionic polarization
Pi = N µ i
Pi = N α i E

e2 e2 M + m
   
1 1
17. αi = 2 + = 2
ω0 M m ω0 Mm
m = Mass of cation (Ionic nucleus)
M = Mass of negative (electron) or anion
e = Charge of electron = 1.6 × 10−19 e
ω0 = angular frequency of molecule
ω0 = 2πf0
f0 = frequency of rotation of molecule
5.62 Applied Physics

18. Orientation polarization

α0 = orientation Polarizability
P0 = N α 0 E
N µ2 E
P0 =
KT
Where K = Boltzmann constant
µ2
α0 =
3kT
Here α0 depends on temperature
1
α0 ∝
T
19. Space charge polarization
Ps = N α s E
Ps is very small where compared to other polarizations in dielectric.

20. Internal field in a dielectric (Ei )

P
Ei = E +
3 ∈0
E = applied electric field intensity
P = Polarization vector

21. Classios-Mosotti equation (for the determination of αe )

N αe ∈r −1
=
3 ∈0 ∈r +2
3 ∈0 (∈r −1)
αe =
N ∈r +2

22. Energy stored in a capacitor

1 Q2
E=W = CV 2 = Joules.
2 2C

Problems
Dielectric materials

 Solved Problem 11

Calculate the capacitance of a capacitor having square plates of area 4 × 10 −4 m2 and

separated by a distance of 0.004 m.
 Material Science 5.63

I Solution
Given d = 0.004m = 4 × 10−3 m; A = 4 × 10−4 m2
∈0 A
C= ∈0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m
d
8.85 × 10−12 × 4 × 10−4
C=
4 × 10−3
C = 8.85 × 10−16 × 103
C = 8.85 × 10−13
C = 0.885 × 10−12 f
C = 0.885pf

 Solved Problem 12

The capacitance of a capacitor with air as dielectric between the plates is 2µf when
air is replaced by a dielectric slab, the value of capacitance becomes 10µf . Calculate
the dielectric constant of the material of the slab
I Solution
Given C1 = 10mf ; C = 2mf

C1
∈r = K =
C

10
∈r = =5
2

 Solved Problem 13

The charge on an electric dipole is 2 × 10−6 c and distance between the dipoles is
2mm. Calculate the dipole moment of the dipole
I Solution
q = 2 × 10−6 C = 2µC
d = 2mm
= 2 × 10−3 m
µ=q×d
= 2 × 10−6 × 2 × 10−3

µ = 4 × 10−9 c − m
5.64 Applied Physics

 Solved Problem 14

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is 4µf is with a dielectric of permittivity

∈r = 50. Find the energy stored in the capacitor and energy stored in polarizing the
dielectric for an applied voltage of 500V . (Anna University Model 2001 & 2002)
I Solution
Given

C = 4µf = 4 × 10−6 f
∈r = 50
V = 500V
1
∴ Energy stored in the capacitorE = CV 2
2
1
= × 4 × 10−6 × (500)2
2
1
= × 4 × 10−6 × 25 × 104
2
1 1
= × 100 × 10−2 = × 102 × 10−2
2 2
1
= J
2
Energy stored in the capacitor E1 = 0.5J

Energy of capacitor when dielectric is removed (air as dielectric)

C C
C0 = =∈r
∈r C0

∈r = 50
C = 4µf
∈r = 50
4 × 10−6
C0 =
50
8
C0 = × 10−6 = 0.08 × 10−6 f
100
C0 = 8 × 10−8 f

Energy stored in the capacitor with vacuum (or) air as dielectric

1
E2 = Co V 2
2
 Material Science 5.65

1
E2 = × 8 × 10−8 × (500)2
2
1
E2 = × 8 × 10−8 × 25 × 104
2
E2 = 4 × 10−8 × 25 × 104
E2 = 100 × 10−4 = 1 × 10−2 = 0.01 J

Energy stored in dielectric in polarizing the dielectric

E = E1 − E2 = 0.50 − 0.01 = 0.49 J

 Solved Problem 15

In an ionic crystal, the polarization produced is 4.425 × 10 −8 m2 , when an electric

field of intensity 103 V /m is applied to it. Calculate the relative permittivity of the
crystal.
I Solution
Given E = 103 V /m; P = 4.425 × 10−8 m2 ; ∈r =?
P =∈0 (∈r −1)E
P
∈r −1 = E
∈0
4.425 × 10−8 104 10
= 3
= 3
=
8.85 × 10 −12 × 10 2 × 10 2
∈r −1 = 5

∈r = 6

 Solved Problem 16

Calculate the electronic polarizability of Argon atom.

I Solution
Given ∈r = 1.0027

N = 2.7 × 1025 atom/m3

5.66 Applied Physics

P =∈r (∈r −1)E

P = N αe E
P ∈0 (∈r −1)E
αe = =
NE NE
∈r (∈r −1)
αe =
N
8.85 × 10−12 (1.0027 − 1)
αe =
2.7 × 1025
8.825 × 10−12 × (0.0024) 8.85 × 10−12 × 2.7 × 10−3
αe = 25
=
2.7 × 10 2.7 × 1025
αe = 8.85 × 10−15 × 10−25
αe = 8.85 × 10−40 F m2

 Solved Problem 17

Find the total polarizability of CO2 if its susceptibility is 0.985 × 10−3 Density of CO2
is 1.977kg/m3 .
I Solution
Given

Xe = 0.985 × 10−3
d = 1.977kg/m3
Molecules weight of CO2 = 44kg
= 44 × 10−3 kg
∈r = 1 + Xe Similar to
∈r = 1 + 0.985 × 10−3
µr = 1 + X m

Take
N = 2.688 × 1025

α =?
∈0 (∈r −1)
α=
N
8.85 × 10−12 (1 + 0.985 × 103 − 1)
α=
2.688 × 1025
−12
8.85 × 10 × 0.985 × 10−3 × 10−25
α=
2.688
 Material Science 5.67

8.85 × 0.985 × 10−40

α=
2.688
α = 3.24 × 10−4 F/m2

 Solved Problem 18

The following data refers to a dielectric material. ∈r = 4.94 n2 = 2.69. When n is the
index of refraction. Calculate the ratio between electronic and ionic polarizability of
this material.
I Solution
Given ∈r = 4.94 n2 = 2.69
Using

∈r −1 Nα
=
∈r +2 3 ∈0
Where α = α e + αi
∈r −1 N 0 (αe + αi )
=
∈r +2 3 ∈0
4.94 − 1 3.94
=
4.94 + 2 6.94
N (αe + αi )
= 0.5677 =
3 ∈0

N (αe + αi )
= 0.5677
3 ∈0

But ∈r = n2
At optical frequencies αi = 0

n2 − 1 N αe
2
=
n +2 3 ∈0
2.69 − 1 1.69
= = 0.3603f
2.69 + 2 4.69
N αe
=
3 ∈0
N αe
= 0.36034
3 ∈0
Divide
αe + α i 0.5677
= = 1.575
αe 0.36034
5.68 Applied Physics

αi
1+ = 1.575
αe
αi
= 0.575
αe
αe 1
= = 1.738
αi 0.575

5.7 Modern Engineering Materials

Materials play an important role in the designing and fabrication of equipments and
appliances used in engineering, medicine, science, industry and day to day life. Be-
fore designing and fabrication, a complete study of physical, chemical, electrical,
magnetic etc properties of materials is a must. A thorough study of properties of
materials and their relation to the microstructure, form the basic concepts of mate-
rial science.
The development of material science help us to design the equipments and ap-
pliances to meet the requirements of modern engineering, medical and industrial
needs. The materials used in ‘Hi-Tec’ are designed to give maximum performance
(efficiency) and long life. Let us study some of the newly developed engineering
materials, along with their production, properties and applications.

5.8 Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)

5.8.1 Definition of SMA
Shape memory alloys are special alloys which after being deformed can remember
and recover their original shape or size when they are subjected to appropriate
thermal process. Generally these materials can be physically deformed at some
relatively low temperature and upon exposure to some high temperature, they will
return to their original shape.

5.8.2 Types of SMA

a) Materials that exhibit shape memory only upon heating are referred to have a
one way shape memory.
b) Some materials also undergo a change in shape on recooling. These materials
are said to have two way shape memory. Examples of SMA: Nickel - Ti-
tanium (Ni − Ti ) alloys and copper base alloys such as Cu Zn Al and Cu Al
Ni.

5.8.3 Crystal structure of SMA

Shape memory alloys display two distinct crystal structures or phases. The tem-
perature and stresses will determine the phase of SMA at that moment.
 Material Science 5.69

The crystal structure or phase of a SMA at lower temperature is called marten-

site and the crystal structure or phase of a SMA at higher temperature is called as
austenitic.
When a SMA is at martensite form at low temperature, it can be deformed into
any shape. When the alloy is heated it goes through a transformation from marten-
site to arsenite. In the arsenite phase, the memory metal remembers the shape
before it was deformed.
Thus when a SMA alloy of given shape is cooled from a given temperature T 1 ,
to a lower temperature T2 , it deforms and changes in shape. Again upon heating
form T2 to T1 , the alloy regains its original size (or) shape. This property is known
as Thermoplasticity. It is a natural property of the alloy in solid-state trans-
formation and the transformation is known as martensite transformation. There
is a microstructural change takes place when the initial crystal structure is trans-
formed in to a new crystal structure. This mechanism does not involve the mixing
of atoms by diffusion but there is a coordinated shear displacement, in the sec-
tions of the crystal.

5.8.4 General characteristics of SMA

Temperature - Transformation - Temperature Curve for SMA under constant
load (stress) as it is cooled and heated.

Th : Transformation hysteresis
Ms : martensite start
Mf : Martensite finish
As : Austenite start
Af : Austenite finish

Temperature
Fig. 33
5.70 Applied Physics

The properties of SMA depends on the amount of each crystal (metal) phase
present in it. But the exact structure of two phases varies depending on the types
of SMA.
An SMA can be easily deformed when it is in martensite phase since inter
molecular bonds are not broken. The SMA can recovers its original shape, when
it returns to austenite phase.
The martensite possesses a needle like structure. The martensite transforma-
tion that occurs in SMA, yields a thermo elastic martensite and develops from a
high-temperature austenite phase with a long range order. The transformation does
not occur at a single temperature but over a range of temperatures that varies with
each alloy system. The usual way of characterizing the transformation and naming
each point in the cycle is shown in the graph drawn above.

5.8.5 Thermo-mechanical behaviour of SMA

The mechanical properties of shape memory alloys (SMA) vary greatly over the tem-
perature spreading across the transformations. This is clearly seen in the graph.
Where the stress-strain curve is drawn for Nickel - Titanium alloy when tested be-
low, with in and above the transformation range. Austenite phase has much higher
yield and flow stresses. The dotted line on the martensite curve indicates that
on heating after removing the stress, the sample remembered the unstrained shape
and the material transforms to austensite. No such shape memory is found in the
austenite phase up on heating and straining, because no phase change occurs.

(c)

Fig. 34 Stress-strain curve ar different temperatures relative to transformation (a)

Austenite (b) Martensite (c) Pseudo elastic behaviour
An interesting feature of the stress-strain behaviour occurs when the material is
tested above its transformation temperature. At this temperature, martensite can be
self induced. It then immediately strains and shows the increasing strain at constant
 Material Science 5.71

stress behaviour as seen in the part of the curve AB, on unloading though the ma-
terial reverts back to austenite at lower stress as shown by the curve CD and shape
recovers not by the application of heat but by the reduction on of stress. This effect
makes the material to become extremely elastic and it known as pseudo elasticity
(or) super elasticity, pseudo elasticity is non linear. Hence young’s modulus is not
able to define in this range since it shows both temperature and strain dependence.
Memory alloys shows greater stress rates of elasticity. For example eyeglass
frames made up of SMA are martensite in phase. Bending the arms (application of
stress) in half (at room temp) introduces a phase change at the bends to make it to
austenite. Austenite is not stable at room temperature and the system seeks lower
energy states, the austenite reverts back to martensite and because of this, the arm of
eyeglass bend back.

5.8.6 Commercial alloys having shape memory effect

The most common shape memory alloy is Nitinol consisting of equal parts of Nickel
and Titanium. The following table gives a list of SMA with their composition and
transformation on temperature.
Composition Transformation
S.No SMA Atomic (or) weight Temperature
Alloy percentage (celsius)
1 Ni − T i 49/51 at% Ni −50 to 110◦
2 Mn − C u 5/35 at % Cu 250 to 180◦
3 Cu − Sn Approx 15 at% Sn −120 to 30◦
4 Ni − Al 36/38 at% N l −180 to 100◦
5 Ag − cd 44/49 at% cd 190 to −50◦
6 Au − cd 46.5/50 at%cd 30 to 100◦
7 Cu − Al − N i 14/4.5 at% Al −140 to 100◦
3/4.5 at% N i

5.8.7 Application of SMA

Shape memory alloys have a variety of applications. Some of their applications are
listed below.
1. Industrial applications
(a) Control of increased heat in industries
Lines that carry high inflammable and toxic (unpleasant (or) pungent
smell) fluids (liquids and gases) should have a greater amount of con-
trol so that the dangerous (unwanted) events can be prevented. For that
the systems are programmed with SMA in such a way as to shut down the
production of increased (unwanted) heat, there by preventing the the dev-
asting effects. Industries like petrochemicals, semiconductors, phar-
5.72 Applied Physics

maceutical, and large oil and gas fields are using this kind of tech-
nique.
(b) Fire Safety Valve
This equipment uses Cu Zn Al actuator which is designed to shut off
toxic (or) inflammable gas flow when fire occurs. Here SMA is used as a
force actuator on a spring.
(c) Valve Control
A device has been developed using SMA in which a valve controls the
rate of flow of heat carefully to any desired amount.
(d) Croft Hydraulic coupling

SMA Sleeves

Fig. 35

Here fitting are manufactured as cylindrical sleeves with SMA, which are
slightly smaller than metal tubing used to join their diameters get ex-
panded while being martensite and on warming they transformed to
austenite in which they shrink in diameter and strongly hold the ends.
This joint is superior to welding.
(e) Helicopter blades
The performance of helicopter blades depends on the vibrations of SMA
used in micro processing control tabs. These control tabs are used for
the trailing ends of the blades and hence a pilot can fly with increased
accuracy.

2. Commercial Applications

(a) Eye Glass Frames

Eye glass companies demonstrate the eye glass frames that can be bent
back and forth and retain their shape. Here the frames are made up of
SMA which shows super elasticity. In eye glass Nickel - Titanium
alloy is used as SMA, which absorb (or) with stand large deformation
without any damage.
Super elasticity is the capacity of some poly crystalline material to ex-
hibit large deformation without fracture (broken) (or) necking. They can
withstand elongation from 100% to > 1000% without breaking.
 Material Science 5.73

3. Medical Applications

(a) Blood clot filter

The main applications of SMA is the blood clot filter. Here N i Ti wire is
shaped to anchor (forced) in to a vein and catch the passing clots. This
part is chilled, so it can be collapsed and inserted in to the vein. The body
heat is sufficient to turn the part in to its functional shape.
(b) Artificial hip joints and bone plates for healing bone fractures
i. Ni − Ti shape memory alloys have been employed in artificial joints
such as artificial hip joints.
ii. Because of their flexibility they are used as, bone plates for narrow
join for healing bone fracture and for connecting broken bones.
iii. They are also used in medical applications like teeth braces, artifi-
cial muscles and orthopaedic devices.

5.9 Nano Phase Materials

5.9.1 Definition and introduction
Nanophase materials are the nano structures materials having a characteristic length,
less than 100nm. Their grain size is the order of 1nm to 100nm. They exhibit
greatly altered physical chemical and mechanical properties when compared to their
normal, large grained (macro size) counter parts with the same chemical composi-
tion.
Nano phase material is identified as one of the major field in modern material sci-
ence by the research work done by Gleiter and coworkers in 1990. A cluster (group)
of nano particle contains less than 104 molecules or atoms corresponding to a di-
ameter of a few nanometers. Hence one can conclude the size of a nano particle is
about 1nm. Since the size of nanoparticles lie between molecular and bulk mate-
rial they have hybrid properties. They have non linear optical and magnetic
properties.

5.9.2 Production of Nano Structured Materials

It is possible to produce nano, structured materials by using a variety synthetic meth-
ods. Depending upon the desired properties or applications, each method will have
some advantages and disadvantages.

a) Vapour Condensation
Method of synthesis:
In this method clusters of atoms are synthesized through vapour condensation.
This method involves the process of evaporation of a solid metal followed by
5.74 Applied Physics

rapid(fast) condensation in order to form nanosize clusters. Thus the result-

ing powder can be used as filter for composites materials or consolidated in
to bulk material.
Application:
This method is used to produce ceramic or metal nano structured powders.

b) Chemical Synthesis
Method synthesis
By using a variety of chemical approaches such as sol-gel or thermal
decomposition, a nanostructured materials are synthesized. These methods
provide large quantities of nano sized materials at low cost.
Application
This method is used to produce both metals and ceramics of nano material size.

c) Mechanical deformation
Method:
This method involves milling or shock deformation. It is a common method
used to produce nanostructured powders which turns produces nano struc-
tured materials. By mechanical milling, it is possible to produce nano struc-
tured powders of different systems.(other wise it become immisible)
Application
This method is applied to produce nano structured powders of a bulk material
(or) different systems.

d) Thermal crystallization
Method:
By controlling the nucleation and growth rate during annealing (slow cooling)
of an amorphous materials, we can produce bulk materials with an average
grain size of 20nm without using condensation and sintering steps.
Application
This method is used to produce three dimensional nano materials (crystalline
materials).

5.9.3 Ball milling

Principle
This techniques uses the principle of mechanical crushing.
In ball milling, small hard balls are allowed to rotate inside a drum and then it is
made to fall on a solid with high force to crush the solid into nano crystal.
 Material Science 5.75

Types of ball mill

• Attrition ball mill
• Planetary ball mill
• Vibrating ball mill
• Low energy tumbling ball mill
• High energy ball mill

Construction and working

Nano
Ball mills rotate around a horizontal axis, par- Bulk powder
tially filled with the material to be ground plus material

the grinding medium.

Different types of materials are used as media like steal, ceramics, flint pebbles
etc.,
When the ball is rotating, the material is forced to get crushed against the walls.
The milling balls impart energy on collision and produce smaller size of nano parti-
cles from bulk material.
The grinding balls in the grinding jar are subjected to superimposed rotational
movements, coriolis forces. The difference in speeds between the balls and grinding
jars produces an interaction between frictional and impact forces which releases high
dynamic energies. The interplay between these forces produces the high and very
effective degree of size reduction.

5.9.4 Properties of nanostructured particles, physical prop-

erties
(a) Variation of physical properties with size
In this section let us discuss how the geometrical arrangement of atoms and hence
their stability changes with size.
2.6

Discussion Cu Metal
Interatomic Distance [Å]

2.4
When the bulk material
is reduced to nanoparticle
size, it creates more sur- Cu2 Dimer
face sizes (area). This will 2.2

in turn changes, the sur-

face pressure and leads to
a change in the inter parti- 2.0
0.00 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0
cle spacing. This effect is Size in diameter [Å]

Fig. 36
5.76 Applied Physics

shown in the graph drawn between size of particle and inter atomic distance for
Cun . (36)
It is quite interesting to note that as the inter particle spacing decreases as the
size decreases. It is apical of metal clusters (groups). This is due to the competition
(interaction) between the long range electronic forces and short range cove cove
repulsive forces. The change in inter particle spacing and the large surface area
to the volume ratio of the particles have a combined effect on the properties of
materials. The variations in the surface free energy (use to form clusters) changes
the chemical potential. This will in turn alter the thermodynamic properties like
meting point. This effect is shown in Fig.37 drawn between inter atomic distance
and meting point for Aun . Here the meting point decreases as the size decreases.
The rate of decrease, increases substantially at very small sizes.

m.p. bulk
1200
melting temperature (K)

1000

800
0 100 200 300
Distance (Å)

Fig. 37

5.9.5 Electron affinities and chemical properties

The variations in the inter particle spacing and geometry (arrangement) also result
in the variation of electronic properties with size.

a) Ionization potential
When the size is reduced from the bulk, the electronic bands in the metals be-
come narrower and the delocalise a electronic states are transformed in to more
localized molecular bonds. This will affect the ionisation potential (Energy re-
quired to remove an electron in the outer most orbit of an atom in the vapour
state). It has been noticed in the experiment that the ionization potentials at
small size of the particles are higher than at the bulk material work function.
The ionization potential shows a marked fluctuations with the size of the par-
ticles.
 Material Science 5.77

b) Reactivity (catalytic property)

The large surface to volume ratio of the particles, variations in geometry and
the electronic structure have a strong effect on catalytic properties. For example
the reactivity of small clusters (collection) has been found to vary greatly in
magnitudes when the cluster is changed by only a few atoms Fig.38 shows the
activity of clusters of F en with hydrogen.

Fig. 38
c) Hydrogen storage (absorption)
Another important possibility is the absorption (storage) of hydrogen in met-
als. It is well known that the metals do not absorb hydrogen. If they do so (if
the metal absorbs), the hydrogen is absorbed dissociatively by the metal on the
surface in the ratio 1 : 1. This limit is notably increased in particles of smaller
size. It has been found that small positively charged clusters of N i , Pd , and Pt
generated (produced) in molecular beam and containing 2 to 60 atoms, can ab-
sorb eight hydrogen atoms per metal atom. (H: metal: 8:1). Also the number
of absorbed H atoms decreases as the cluster size increases. This clearly
shows that the smaller particles are very useful in hydrogen storage de-
vices. This principle is used is in the industry in the process of hydrogenation
of oil and fats using powdered Nickel as catalyst instead of using bulk Nickel
metal (to increase surface area to volume).

5.9.6 Magnetism in nanoparticles

Nanoparticles of magnetic and nonmagnetic solids exhibit an entirely new class of
magnetic properties, which are marked by quantum that are far from complete un-
derstanding.
5.78 Applied Physics

a) Domains
A bulk ferromagnetic material domain contains several domains. Each do-
mains contains several thousand atomic spins. Generally the spins are aligned
with in the domain but different domains point in different directions. The fol-
lowing table will briefly explain the difference in magnetic behaviour of a bulk
material and clusters of the same metal.

S.No Meatal Bulk Cluster

1 Na − K Paramagnetic Ferro magnetic
2 F e, Co, N i Ferro magnetic Super paramagnetic
3 Gd, T b Ferro magnetic Rotators/super paramagnetic
4 Cr Antiferro magnetic Frustrated paramagnetic
5 Rh Para magnetic Ferro magnetic

b) Geomagnetic resistance, coordination number & magnetic moment (GMR)

Ferromagnetic and anti ferromagnetic multilayers have been found to exhibit
giant magneto resistance (GMR). Small particles differ from the bulk, since
large fraction of the atom resides on the surface itself. The atom residing on
the surface of smaller particles will have lower coordination number than to
the interior atoms.
Fig.39 shows the dependance of magnetic moment on the coordination num-
ber. It is clear from the graph as the coordination number decreases, mag-
netic moment increases towards the atomic size. In other words the
smaller particles are more magnetic than the bulk material.

0.6
Magnetic moment

0.4
D m ( mb)

(a)

0.2 (b)
(c)
0

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Coordination number

Fig. 39

5.9.7 Mechanical properties

(a) Dependance of hardness and strength
Hardness and strength of conventional grain size are the function of grain size.
 Material Science 5.79

For ductile poly crystalline materials, the grain size depends on flow stress
which is given by empirical Hall-petch equation.
1
σ0 = σ i + K d − 2
where σ0 = yield stress
σi = friction stress which opposes the dislocation motion
K = constant
d = grain diameter

A few observations on an particles prepared by gas condensation method are useful

to explain their mechanical properties similarly hardness is given by the equation.
1
Ho = H i + K d − 2

d = grain diameter
Ho = Hardness after stress
Hi = Initial hardness

The experimental results of hardness measurements shows a different behaviour

namely positive slopes zero slope and negative slope depending on the grain size,
when it is less than 20 nm.

5.9.8 Conclusion
Thus the hardness, strength and deformation behaviour of nano-crystalline materi-
als is unique and not yet well understood.
Thus the nano structured particles have the following properties

1. High magnetic resistance

2. Lower melting point
3. High solid state phase transition temp
4. Lower debye temp
5. High self diffusion coefficient
6. High catalytic activity
7. Low ferromagnetic temp
8. High hardness & strength.

We have also seen the physical, electronic, magnetic and chemical properties
of nano materials depends sensitively on size and the small particles display be-
haviours which are quite different from those of the individual atoms of the bulk
material. These new behaviours are not only important from the fundamental point
of view but also lead to new applications. In fact, we are capable of controlling
5.80 Applied Physics

the properties of materials by changing the size, composition and dimension

that leads to atomically designed materials with additional properties.
They are listed below

1. They have 30 to 50% lower elastic module than for conventional grain size.
2. They posses super plastic behaviour at low homologous temperature.
3. The posses 2 to 7 times higher hardness and strength values for nano crys-
talline pure metals (∼ 10nm grain size) than those of larger grain size (7(µm)).
4. There is a decreasing hardness with decreasing grain size.

Applications

In nano phase materials, there are two types of applications

a) Structural applications
b) Functional applications.

a) Structural applications

These applications are mainly based on the mechanical properties of nano phase ma-
terials. They are used to produce plastic ceramics and extremely hard materials.

b) Functional applications

These applications are mainly based on the transformation of external signals

like the filtering of incident light and the change of electrical resistance in differ-
ent gas concentrations.

c) Other applications

1. They are used to produce soft magnetic materials and tiny permanent
magnets with high energy product (Br × HC ). Hence they are used in high
density magnetic recording, information storage devices.
2. They are used as magnetic nano-composite refrigerants and magneto resis-
tance spin values applications.
3. Quantum wells quantum dots and quantum wires having quantum confine-
ment are mainly produced from fermi conductor nano materials are used in
computer storage (memory) devices.
4. Since these materials have large ratio between surface area and volume, they
are used to improve the mechanical behaviour of materials in potential struc-
tural applications.
 Material Science 5.81

5.10 Metallic Glasses

Definition
The engineering materials which share the properties of both metals and glasses are
called metallic glasses simply the metallic glasses are glasses having metallic
properties.
Eg: Pd77 , Cu6 Si17 .

Explanation
A glass is a solid material obtained from a liquid which does not crystalline on
cooling. They are amorphous solid in which atoms are packed in random fash-
ion. The glass is a word generally associated with transparent silicate glasses
containing silica (SiO2 ) and oxides of some metals like Al, K, Na, Pb and Mg. These
glasses are non metallic act as electrical insulators and does not exhibit ferromag-
netism. But metals are malleable, ductile act as good conductors and posses crys-
talline structure.

Molten specimen
Photo
cell
Light

Copper lining

Piston
Anvil

Fig. 40 Piston-Anvil liquid quenching device

But matallic glasses exhibit metallic properties even though they are amorphous
in nature. Oxides of glasses are amorphous, in nature and it is common feature but
a metallic material (metallic glasses) to have amorphous nature is quite new.
Metallic glasses are usually prepared by cooling a metallic liquid (mentioned
already) which has a disordered structure so quickly so that there is no enough time
left for the formation of crystalline structure. The rate of cooling is of the order of
2 × 106 ◦ C per second.
During solidification there is no change in interatomic spacing. Thus a metallic
glass may be considered as a solid with frozen liquid structure. The temperature at
which the transition takes place from liquid to solid is known as glass transition
temperature (Tg ). On heating the metallic glasses show a reversible glass-liquid
5.82 Applied Physics

transition at glass transition temperature Tg . The metallic glasses developed forty

years ago required faster cooling of the order of million degrees of Celsius per sec-
ond. But the new alloys recently developed that form metallic glasses require lower
cooling rates at the order of 1 to 100◦ C per second. This slower cooling facilitate to
fabricate large parts of a machinery using metallic alloys in bulk ingot.

5.10.1 Preparation of metallic glasses

(a) Small scale production
The original method used for preparing metallic glasses was the gun technique
(or) splat cooling. Here a small liquid globule is propelled (pumped) by means
of a shock tube and spraying it to form a thin foil (coating) on copper substrate (Cu
base). Here the substrate is curved so that the centrifugal force promotes a good
thermal contact between liquid layer (sprayed) and the substance. In this method
heat is extracted (absorbed) from the melt from only one side. This limitation is
eliminated in an improved method in which the liquid globules are squeezed be-
tween a fast-moving piston and a fix anvil that are lined with copper. This copper
coating removes the heat from melt (liquid sprayed) quickly. An advantage of this
piston-anvil method is that it provided a good parallelism between two faces of
foil (cooled film) which is about 25mm in diameter and 40µm in thickness.

(b) Large scale (or) mass production

The laboratory methods discussed above are not suitable for large scale (or) mass
production of metallic glasses. For practical applications we require metallic glasses
in the form of thin sheets. Hence large effort was devoted to various methods so as
to freeze the metallic melt rapidly in the form of a continuous ribbon. The principle
of this method is to feed (pump) a continuous jet of liquid alloy on the outer rim
of a rapidly rotating cylinder. Hence the molten alloy solidifies rapidly in to a thin
ribbon (50µm thick) that is ejected out tangentially (to the rotating cylinder) at the
rate as high as 6600 ft/min (or) 2200 m/min. The width of ribbon obtained is limited
to few millimeters.
This method mainly involves the following steps.
(a) A stream of melt is injected through a nozzle (small hole) into a rotating drum
containing water, instead of pumping on to a rotating cylinder. Wires with
circular cross sections can be formed.
(b) A very rapid cooling at the rate of 106 K/sec called splat cooling is obtained
in this method.

5.10.2 Properties of metallic glasses

1. Composition
The metallic glasses are metal alloys which have no long range atomic order.
 Material Science 5.83

2. Metallic properties
They are all strong, ductile, malleable brittle and opaque.
3. Mechanical properties
They have high rapture strength, high toughness and better corrosion re-
sistance.
4. Electrical and Heat properties
The electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary with
temperature. Their temperature coefficient can even be zero or negative.
It has negative temperature coefficient, that is the electrical resistivity de-
creases as the temperature increases.
5. Magnetic properties
They have high magnetic permeability (µ is high) and hence exhibit ferro-
magnetism. They have low magnetic losses, saturation magnetisation with
low coercivity and zero magnetostriction. (They will not elongate or con-
tract under a.c.field producing varying magnetic flux).

5.10.3 Applications of metallic glasses

Due to their unusual physical and chemical properties, metallic glasses play an
important role as an engineering material. Some of the applications of metallic
glasses are listed below.
1. Electrical and electronic applications
(a) Because of their insensitivity to temperature, they are used in elec-
tronic circuits.
(b) Since their resistivity is high, they are widely used as resistance ele-
ments in electric circuits.
2. Thermal applications
The metallic glass Pd80 , Si20 in which Pd is replaced by chromium (Cr) up to
7% are used as thermometers for measuring very low temperature. Such
a thermometer is called as cryo thermometers (cryo means low).
3. Safety applications
Since metallic glass can withstand high dozes (amount) of radiations without
a change in electrical properties, they are used in fission and fusion reactor
and environmental devices.
4. Magnetic applications
(a) Since metallic glasses possess high vicker’s hardness (8 GPa) (vicker
hardness is a standard for measuring the micro hardness of a material)
and good corrosion resistance, they are used in the manufacture of
magnetic tape recording heads.
5.84 Applied Physics

(b) The high value of magnetic permeability makes the metallic glasses rib-
bons and wires ideally suitable for generating harmonics when they are
placed in suitable AC and DC and as antitheft tags for protecting store
merchandize (articles for sale).
(c) Because of their low magnetic loss, they are used in motors which reduces
the core loss as much as 90% when compared to conventional crystalline
magnets.
(d) Super conducting metallic glasses like Zr75 and Rh25 are used in produc-
ing high magnetic fields and for magnetic leviation effect (magnetic
suspension used in fast train track).
(e) Metallic glasses are used in magnetic devices like magnetic sensors (or)
transducers, security systems and power transformer cores and sci-
entic applications.
(f) Since metallic glasses may be regarded as liquids with frozen struc-
ture, they are ideally suited to produce materials for low temperature
transport and critical behaviour studies and they are most suited for
the study of electrons in non crystalline metals.

5.10.4 Metallic glasses as transformer core material

Since metallic glasses exhibit excellent ferromagnetic properties with low magnetic
loss, high permeability, magnetic saturation, low coercivity and zero mag-
netostriction effect with extreme hardness they are ideally suited to produce
large sheets used as transformer cores.

Slotted
nozzle

Nozzle
Metallic glass ribbon

Melt
Substrate

Rotating drum
Substrate

Fig. 41 Planer flow casting (for the manufacture of ribbons of metallic glasses)

Core sheets (or) wide ribbons up to 15 cms can be produced by using a planar
flow casting method in which a narrow slitted nozzle for feeding molten alloy
is situated very close to rotating cylinder surfaces.
 Material Science 5.85

These large sheets of metallic glasses are widely used in power distribution trans-
formers which convert high voltage electricity to power lines of 240 V used for do-
mestic purposes (Step down transformer). Another advantage in using metallic
glasses as core in transformer, is that the size of transformer becomes so small
and efficient also in performance when compared to the conventional transformers
which are very large in size.

5.11 Ceramics
5.11.1 Definition
Ceramics is usually refers to an art of pottery.That is, products such as pots, pans,
bricks and tea cups made out of clay. But all these clay products come under tradi-
tional ceramics.
Another class of ceramics is known as modern advanced ceramics, which com-
posed of materials containing metallic and non metallic elements, chemically
bonded together primarily ionic bond or covalent bonds. They can be crys-
talline (or) non crystalline (or) mixtures of both.

5.11.2 Properties
1. Mechanical property:
Most of the ceramics have high hardness.
2. Thermal property:
They have high temperature strength.
3. Chemical property:
They possess a good chemical resistance.
4. Electrical property:
Generally they have low electrical and thermal conductivities, which makes
them useful for electrical and thermal insulations.

5.11.3 Explanation
The exhibition of the above properties can be explained from the electronic behaviour
of constituent atoms of the bulk material. The constituent of ceramics are metallic
and non metallic atoms. The metallic elements release the outer most electrons (va-
lence electrons) and non metallic atoms which receive these electrons. As a result of
this transfer electrons are immobilized (not moving) and this situation indicates the
absence of electrons in the conduction band. Hence a good ceramic material
behaves as a good insulator both thermally and electrically. Thus the insulating
character of ceramics is explained.
For heat chemical and mechanical resistance characters, the following explana-
tion can be given. The metallic positive ions (after losing electrons) and negative ions
5.86 Applied Physics

(after gaining electrons) develop a strong electrostatic attractive force between them.
Each cation (positive ion) is surrounded in all sides by anions (negative charge).
Hence a considerable energy is required to separate these two ions. That is why
the ceramic materials have mechanical hardness, thermal resistance (refractory)
and chemically inertness (chemical resistance).

5.11.4 Classification of ceramics

Generally ceramic materials can be classified in two classes, namely

(a) Traditional ceramics

(b) Advanced ceramics (Technical ceramics and Engineering ceramics).

(a) Traditional ceramics

These ceramics includes clay made materials like brick, tile, sanitary ware, dinner
ware, clay pipe and electrical porcelain, commonly used glass, cement abrasives and
refractory materials also come under traditional ceramics. Usually the traditional
ceramics are made from the following basic components clay, silica, flint and felspar.
Also traditional ceramics are made from the materials (or) minerals obtained
in their natural state.

(b) Advanced ceramics

Advanced ceramics which is also known as technical ceramics or engineering ce-
ramics are based on pure (or) nearly pure ceramic components or their combina-
tion. The raw materials used for advanced ceramics must be processed carefully so
that a controlled product can be produced. Also ceramics are made by using vari-
ous composition mixing and processing techniques. Therefore the starting materials
used for the manufacture of ceramics are not naturally occurring (got) materi-
als, but materials that have already undergone some chemical transformation
and refinement.
Examples: Alumina (Aluminium oxide Al2 O3 ) Zirconia (ZiO2 ), Silicon carbide (SiC)
Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ), barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) and high temperature super con-
ductors.

5.11.5 Classification based on function (or) application

Based on the primary function or application, ceramics are also subdivided into two
categories namely structural ceramics and electronic ceramics.
(a) Examples of Structural ceramics:
Engine components, cutting tools, valves, bearings, fibres, heat exchangers,
whiskers and biological implants.
 Material Science 5.87

(b) Examples of Electronic ceramics:

Optical and magnetic materials.
(c) The electronic-magnetic-optic functions include electronic substrates, elec-
tronic packages, capacitors, magnets, transducers, wave guides, displays and
sensors.

5.11.6 Fabrication of advanced ceramics

A variety of process are used to fabricate advanced ceramics. The process chosen for
a particular product is based on the material, shape, complexity, property require-
ments and cost. Generally ceramics fabrication processes can be divided into four
categories.
1. Powder process
2. Vapour process
3. Chemical process
4. Melt process.
Out of these processes let us now discuss only powder process method.

Manufacturing of advanced ceramics by powder process method

Traditional clay-made ceramics, refractories and majority of advanced ceramics are
fabricated by powder process method. The method involves several steps which are
listed as below
1. Preparation of the starting powders.
2. Forming the desired shape (green forming).
3. Removal of water and organics.
4. Heating with (or) without the application of pressure to density the powder.
5. Finishing.

(1) Powder preparation

The starting powders for traditional ceramics are mainly clay and other natural min-
erals which are first processed to achieve purity and particle size of desired. Size
hence the methods involves mining, crushing and milling or process similar to
those operations used in other industries.

Manufacturing process of ceramics

The methods used to manufacture modern ceramics have many similarities with the
manufactures of traditional ceramics. The mass production of traditional ceramics
involves the process like milling, and blending the naturally occurring (available)
materials into a fine clay powder plastic mass. Then this mass is shaped by using
techniques like injunction moulding, extrusion moulding or slip casting.
5.88 Applied Physics

Injunction moulding is a process in which the clay is forced in to a closed

mould. But in extrusion moulding clay is forced through a die having required
cross section. Slip casting is a process in which clay-water slurry is poured in to
a process mould which absorbs excess of water. Then the shaped product is dried
in air and then taken to a kiln. Here it goes a through a process called sintering.
This process occur at a temperature lower than the melting point of clay mixture.
Then the product is goes through process like finishing, glazing etc. Glazing is done
by a wax like material which is melted on the surface to give a uniform coating on
the surface of the product. It gives a glassy appearance on the surface of the
product.
The advanced ceramic manufacture involves very similar steps. But water is
not used in these process. Instead of water, organic polymer binders are added
to convert the finely grounded powder into a malleable mass. Bur during sin-
tering these organic chemicals are eliminated by vapourisation (Or) chemical com-
bination (or) both. The application of pressure before sintering (or) during sintering
gives a denser product (densifying process). This will remove the voids (or) pores in
the powdered mass. This also helps to eliminate cracks and reduce the shrinkage.

5.11.7 Properties of advanced ceramics

1. Hardness:
Advanced ceramics are hard, stiff and inert.
2. Conduction:
They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
3. Temperature strength:
They can withstand very high temperature.
4. Melting point:
They possess high melting point due to their strong chemical bonds (ionic-
covalent bonds).
5. Wear resistance:
They have high wear resistance.
6. Stability:
They are chemically very stable.(inert)
7. Corrosion resistance:
They have very high corrosion resistance.
8. Fracture toughness:
They have very low fracture toughness (brittle fracture) of about 1. Some ce-
ramics have fracture toughness vary from 3 to 12. They are 50 times more sus-
ceptible brittle fracture than metals. But fracture toughness can be increased
by using materials with no voids and chemical impurities for the fabrication of
ceramics.
 Material Science 5.89

5.11.8 Applications of ceramics

The selection of materials for engineering applications is based on performance re-
quirements, cost and other factors.
The general advantages of advanced ceramics over metals and polymers are,
(a) High temperature strength
(b) Chemical stability
(c) Wear resistance and
(d) Corrosion resistance.
Let us now discuss the various applications of ceramics in different fields.

(a) Structural applications

Advanced ceramics like silicon nitride, zirconia and alumina are used for manufac-
turing cutting tools and as mechanical seal which can encounter the heat and
corrosion in the environment. Their fracture toughness can also be increased by re-
inforcing ceramic matrix with ceramic fibre.

(b) Electronic applications

Based on the specific composition and crystal structure ceramic exhibit either in-
sulator (or) fermi conductor (or) conductor behaviour and very often they can
change from one to another. They exhibit some useful magnetic and electronic
properties.
Because of their above mentioned special characteristics, they are used
as substrates for electronic circuits, electronic packages, capacitors magnetic
components electronic sensors piezoelectric components and integrated optic
components.
(c) Semiconductor applications
Since some ceramics exhibit semiconducting properties, they are used to fabricate
semiconductor devices, one of the example is thermistor (or) a temperature sensi-
tive resistor used for controlling and measuring temperature. Because of their tran-
sition property from non conducting to conducting, they are used as varistor which
is a variable resistance device. Zinc oxide is an example of advanced ceramic
material shows this switching over property from insulation barrier to metallic con-
duction, when applied voltage is increased. Switching voltage can also be controlled
by varying the composition.

(d) Piezoelectric effect and piezoelectric ceramic applications

If a mechanical pressure applied on a quartz crystal is changed, a varying voltage
which is proportional to the applied pressure is produced across the crystal in per-
pendicular direction. This is known as piezoelectric effect and the crystal is known
as piezoelectric crystal.
5.90 Applied Physics

Ceramic materials which exhibit piezoelectric effect are called piezoelectric ce-
ramics. Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is an excellent example of piezoelectric ceram-
ics. Piezoelectric ceramics are used in phonograph pickups, microphones, gas
lighters etc. When a PZT crystal is subjected to a mechanical pressure, it produces a
very high voltage. This high voltage produces a spartk due to breakdown of air and
this spark is used to ignite the gas in gas stove and gas ovens.
Piezoelectric ceramics are used in quartz watches, ultrasonic scanners in
medicines and SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) used in submarines.

(e) Magnetic applications of ceramics

Ferrites, a class of magnetic ceramics used in magnetic cores memories, power

transformer, T.V and Radio sets (as ferrite antenna) recording and reading heads
for magnetic tape records and bubble memory cores.

(f) Ferroelectric ceramic applications

These ceramics have a unusual ability of converting electrical signals into me-
chanical energy such as sound.
They can also change the sound, pressure or motion into electric signals.
Thus they function as transducers. (A device used to convert one energy into an-
other). Barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) is a good example of ferroelectric ceramics.
The non conducting property of ferroelectric ceramics is used in the manufac-
ture of capacitors to store electric charge in different electric and electronic circuits,
BaTiO3 has a high value of dielectric. Its dielectric constant vary from 1200 to
1500.

(g) Superconducting ceramics

When a super conductor is cooled below a certain temperature called critical tem-
perature TC , it transforms from normal conductor to a superconductor. Above
TC , it again reverts back in to a normal conductor. High value T C superconducting
ceramics like Ba2 Cu3 O7 (TC = 90◦ K) and Ba2 Ca2 Cu3 O10 (TC = 125◦ K) are used in
power transmission, electromagnets and transformer windings, coil wind-
ings in electrical machines and super conducting ring in computers as storage
element. The main advantage of using super conducting ceramics is that they con-
sume very low power (0.5 W).

(h) Applications in automation

Advanced ceramic components are used in automotive and other engines. The auto-
motive engines includes turbo charger rotors, valves, valve guides, fuel injector
nozzles, exhaust-port inserts and advanced diesel engine components.
 Material Science 5.91

(i) Application of ceramics as insulator in space shuttle orbiter

Since advanced ceramics have high thermal strength, they are used in thermal pro-
tection system for the space shuttle orbiter and the space shuttle can be used for at
least 100 missions. This thermal insulation tile material attached to the body of
space shuttle orbiter is known as high temperature reusable surface insulation
(HRSI). They are also used as aerospace hardwares.

(j) Medical applications

A number of advanced ceramics are used as implants in the human body espe-
cially for hip joint and dental implants and they are called as biomedical materi-
als.(ceramics)

(k) Telecommunication application

Silica (SiO2 ) is used to make optical fibres cables used for telecommunication pur-
poses. Super plastic materials (ceramics) are used in advanced nano phase materi-
als.

(l) Wear resistance and corrosive resistance applications

Since advanced ceramics have high value of wear resistance and corrosive resis-
tance, they are used as extrusion dies and pump components.

5.12 Bio-Materials
Bio-materials are the materials which can be implanted in the human body under
required medical conditions so that it heals the defect or wound in the body without
creating any side effect. i.e. Bio-materials are completely accepted by human body
system.
Bio-materials are nowadays used in the following categories:

1. Metallic bio-materials
2. Ceramic bio-materials
3. Polymeric bio-materials

1. Metallic bio-materials

Used as implants in human body. Implants are used in bone replacement, strength-
ening of bones and to connect broken bones.
Example: Stainless steel (ASTMF - 138 and 139) - Implant devices, bone screws.
Proto sul - 10 (Co-Ni-Cr-Mo) for Hip joint.
5.92 Applied Physics

2. Ceramic bio-materials
Ceramic bio materials are used to prepare artificial bones. They are also used in
dental and orthopaedic purposes.
Example: Apatite ceramics: synthetic bone.
Synthetic hydroxyapatite: dental and orthopaedic raw materials.

3. Polymeric bio-materials
Polymeric bio-materials find vast usage in many areas of medicine.
Example:
PTFE - Polytetra fluro ethylene: To prepare artificial valves
PMMA - Polymethyl methacrylate: To prepare contact lenses and
bone cement.
PVC - Poly Vinyl chloride: To prepare artificial blood vessels and
heart components.
Polyesters - Used in preparing artificial lungs, livers and blood vessels
Nylons - To prepare artificial joints.

Short Answer Questions

1. Define magnetic flux and magnetic induction and flux density. Mention their
units?

2. Define magnetic permeability and susceptibility. Mention their units?

3. Define magnetic relative permeability, Intensity of magnetisation and magnetic

field intensity (H). Give the relation between relative permeability and suscep-
tibility.

4. What is Bohr magneton?

Ans: When an atom is placed in an external magnetic field, the orbital mag-
netic moment of electrons is quantized (have certain definite minimum value).
A quantum (measure) of magnetic moment of an atomic system (Atomic mag-
netism) is known as Bohr magneton represented by µB .
 
eh
µB =
4πm
e = charge of electron
m = mass of electron
h = planck’s constant

5. What is curie constant and weiss curie law?

6. What are domains?

 Material Science 5.93

7. What is Heissenberg theory on ferromagnetism?

8. What is hysteresis and hysteresis loss?

9. Define retentivity and coercivity of a magnetic material?

10. Define energy product of a magnetic material? Give its importance.

11. What are hard and soft magnetic materials? Give examples. Mention their
uses.

12. What are ferrites? Mention their applications?

13. What are dielectrics? Mention some applications of dielectrics.

14. Define electric field intensity (E), electric flux (ψ) and Electric flux density (or)
electric displacement vector (D). Mention their units?

15. Define electric permittivity and relative permittivity (Dielectric constant)?

16. Define dipole and dipolemoment.

17. Define electric polarisation (or) polarisation vector?

18. Define polarzability (α).

19. Name the four types of polarisation process and mention their frequency range
of the applied field.

20. What is electronic and Ionic polarisation? Mention their ranges of frequency of
applied field.

21. What is orientation and space charge polarisation. Mention their frequency
ranges of the applied field.

22. Explain the terms dielectric loss and loss tangent?

23. Explain the significant of dielectric loss and list the factors affecting the dielec-
tric loss?

24. Mention same characteristics for the selection of a dielectric material?

25. Explain different types of insulating (dielectric) materials and give examples?

26. Name different types of dielectric breakdown mechanism.

27. Give some examples of active dielectrics and mention their applications?
Ans: piezo electrics and pyroelectrics are two classes of active dielectrics.

(a) Piezo electrics:

Barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) and
Lithiumniobate (LiNbO3 ).
5.94 Applied Physics

(b) Pyroelectrics:
Barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) Lithium Niobate (LiNbO3 )
Uses: used for making, pressure transducers, ultrasonic transducers &
microphones.
triglycine sulphate (TGS).
Uses: For making high sensitive infrared detectors.

28. Explain intrinsic breakdown mechanism and thermal breakdown mechanism

in dielectrics.

29. Explain discharge breakdown mechanism and electro chemical breakdown mech-
anism in dielectrics.

30. Explain defect breakdown mechanism.

31. Explain the term internal field (or) local field.

32. What are bio materials? Mention their applications in medicine?

A bio material can be defined as a synthetic material used to replace the
part of a living system or to function in intimate contact with the living tissue.
A bio material can be used for any period of time as a part of system which
treats, augments or replaces any tissue organ or function of the body. The
bio material should posses compatibility (matching characteristics) with
human cells and tissues and satisfy many aspects with the required prop-
erties to act as implant materials.
Classification: Metallic biomaterials, ceramic biomaterials, polymeric bioma-
terials.

Eg:

(a) Bio plates are implants which are used to aid in the fixation of long bone
fractures.
(b) Sutural, screws used to assist healing.
(c) Probes and catheters used to aid diagnosis.
(d) Cardiac pacemaker used to improve function of heart.
(e) Ceramic bio materials used in dentistry and to replace heart valves.
(f) PVC used in dialysis devices polypropylene (PP) used in disposable sy-
ringes.
33. What are metallic glasses? Give some examples.

34. Mention some unique properties of metallic glasses?

35. List out some applications of metallic glasses.

 Material Science 5.95

36. What are the advantages of using metallic glasses as transformer core? (AU)

37. What are the nano particles?

38. Explain thermal crystallisation and mechanical deformation process tom pro-
duce nano particles.

39. How does the properties of nano particles vary with size?

40. Explain the magnetic properties of nano particles.

41. Mention some special (unique) properties of nanophase materials.

42. Give some applications of nanophase materials.

43. What are shape memory alloys? Give examples. (AU)

44. What is one way and two way shape memory? Explain. (AU)

45. Mention two types of crystal structure exhibited by SMA? (martensite & austen-
ite)

46. Mention some general characteristics of SMA.

47. Explain the thermo mechanical behaviour of SMA.

48. List out some applications of SMA. (AU)

49. What are ceramics? How they are classified. Give the general properties of
ceramics.

50. Give some examples of advanced ceramics?

51. Mention the methods involved in the manufacture of advanced ceramics.

52. What is Green forming and Hot pressing?

53. Mention some applications of advanced (in electronic & structural fields) ce-
ramics.

54. What are piezoelectric ceramics mention their applications. (AU)

55. What are the ferroelectric ceramics mention their applications. (AU)

56. What is the advantage of using ceramics for the fabrication of capacitors?

57. What are the superconducting ceramics? (AU)

58. List out the uses of semiconducting and superconducting ceramics.

59. What are ferrites? Mention some of their uses? (AU)

60. What is ceramic tile insulation (space shuttle orbiter).

5.96 Applied Physics

Review Questions
1. Compare dia, para and ferromagnetism.
2. What is ferromagnetism? Explain weiss theory (or) Domain theory of ferro-
magnetism and explain how it explains the ferromagnetic properties.
3. Explain the term ‘Hysteresis’ and how hysteresis curve can be drawn for a
ferromagnetic material. Explain how the hysteresis curve can be explained by
domain theory.
4. What are the antiferromagnetic materials and ferrimagnetic materials. Discuss
their properties and applications. Give examples.
5. Describe Heissenberg’s theory of ferro magnetism (or) Heissenberg’s criteria
on internal field?
6. Explain energy product of a magnetic material and its application in electronic
field?
7. Describe dielectric property in terms of band theory of solids and mention
some applications of dielectrics.
8. Mention different types of polarisation mechanisms involved in a dielectric
material? Derive an expression on the internal field (or) Lorentz field (or) local
field produced in a dielectric under the external electric field. Hence derive
claussius - Mosotti equation used for the calculation electronic polarisation
(αe ) for a cubic structure. (AU)
9. Explain briefly the different kinds of dielectric breakdown? Explain the signif-
icance of dielectric breakdown.
10. Describe briefly electronic polarisation and ionic polarisation. Derive expres-
sions for electronic and ionic polarizabilities.
11. Discuss space charge polarisation and orientation polarization. Derive expres-
sion for orientation and space charge polarizabilities.
12. Discuss briefly the effect of frequency of the applied field and temperature on
polarisation and dielectric constant.
13. Explain the term “Dielectric loss”. Derive an expression for the power factor of
dielectric and loss tangent. Explain the significance of dielectric loss. (AU)
14. What are shape memory alloys? Explain their characteristics. List their appli-
cations.
15. What are nano phase materials? How their physical properties vary with ge-
ometry. Mentional their applications. (AU-2003)
16. What are metallic glasses? How are they prepared? Discuss some of their ap-
plications (or) Explain their use as transformer core material. (AU-2003)
17. What are ceramics? What are characteristics? How they are manufactured?
Explain their mechanical, electrical and magnetic applications.
18. Discuss ferroelectric ceramics, piezoelectric ceramics. Superconducting ceram-
ics and their applications.