Surveying I Chapter 2

Chapter 2

2.0. Measurement of Horizontal Distances

1. Introduction

One of the most basic operations of surveying is the determination of distance

between two points on the earth’s surface, and this distance between two points is
understood to be the horizontal distance. In plane surveying, the distance between
two points should be reduced in to its equivalent horizontal distance either by field
procedures or by applying slope corrections.
B

A H

2. Methods of Measurement

1. Pacing: - this is method of measurement applied for making approximate

measurements quickly or to check measurements made by more precise
means.

2. Odometer:- This method is applied for rough measurements by rolling a

wheel along the line to be measured, and counting the number of
revolutions. The odometer may be useful for preliminary surveys, when
pacing would take too long.
3. Tachometry: - It offers a rapid indirect means of determining distance. It
is used extensively and is particularly useful in topographic surveying.
Distance measurement may be done by tachometry consists of using a
subtense bar and precise transit or theodolite.
4. Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM):-This method of measurement
works based on the speed of light or electromagnetic waves. It is widely
used for distance measurement of long distance as well as for construction
lay out.

5. Taping: - It involves direct measurement of the distance with steel tapes

varying in length from 1m to 300m. Formerly, on surveys of ordinary
precision it was practical to measure the length of lines with the engineer’s
chain or Gunter’s chain, for measurements of the highest precision, special
bars were used.

+
Choice of Methods

Most boundary, control and construction surveys involving long lines and large
areas can be performed most accurately and economically using modern EDM
equipments. When the distances involved are relatively short or specific
construction layout requirements are present, taping the distance can be more
practical. Stadia still used for small topographic surveys and preliminary surveys
for projects of limited extent.

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Surveying I Chapter 2

The method to be used for horizontal distance measurement depends on the

accuracy of the work, cost of operation and other conditions.

Summary for Methods of Distance Measurements, Use and Degree of Accuracies:

Method Precision Uses

Reconnaissance, small-scale mapping,
Pacing 1/50 to 1/200
checking tape measurement, quantity surveys.
Reconnaissance, small-scale mapping,
Odometer 1/200
checking tape measurement, quantity surveys.
Location of details for topographic mapping,
Stadia 1/250 to 1/1000 rough traverse, checking more accurate
measurement
When taping is not feasible because of terrain
Subtense and when electronic distance-measuring
1/1000 to 1/500
bar devices are not available. (for hydrographic
surveys and traverse)
Traverse for land surveys and for control of
Ordinary
1/1000 to 1/5000 route and topographic surveys and
taping
construction.
Traverses for city surveys, base lines for
Precise 1/10,000 to
triangulation of low accuracy and construction
taping 1/30,000
surveys requiring high accuracies.
Base line 1/100,000 to 1st, 2nd and 3rd order triangulation for large
taping 1/1000,000 areas, city surveys, long bridges and tunnels.
Traverse triangulation and trilateration for
EDM +0.04’ +1/300,000 control surveys of all types and for
construction surveys.

2.1 Chain Surveying

Chain surveying is a method of land surveying where only linear

measurement are made.

Instruments used

a) Chain: -This was a widely used method for measuring distance. It was 100
ft steel ribbon type.
Available in the form of 66 ft chain (Gunter’s chain) also called the 4 pole
chain or in the form of 100 ft chain composed of 100 links each having 1 ft
long. They are available in lengths from a few feet to 1000ft.

b) Tapes: -These are made in a variety of materials, lengths and weights.

Those more commonly used by the surveyor and for engineering
measurements are the steel tapes, some times called the engineers or
surveyor’s tape and woven metallic and non-metallic tapes.

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Woven Metallic Tape is a ribbon of water proofed fabric into which are
woven small brass or bronze wires to prevent its stretching. It is 10, 20, 30,
or 50m long, graduated in meters, centimeters and 2mm, and is usually
13mm wide.
Metallic tapes are used principally in earth work cross sectioning, in
location of details, and in similar work where a light, flexible tape is
desirable and where small errors in length are not of consequence.
Non metallic glass fiber tapes which are non conductors of electricity
have been developed for use near power lines.
Invar tapes: - are used for very precise measurements, such as for base
lines and in city works. Invar is a composition of nickel and steel with a very
low coefficient of thermal expansion (1/30 of steel tape) and little affected
by temperature changes. Invar is soft metal, and the tape must be handled
very carefully to avoid bends and kinks.
Steel tapes: - are 15, 25, 30 or 50m long. The light box tapes are
graduated through out in meters, decimeters and centimeters. Heavier
tapes are graduated as follows through out to meters and decimeters; first
and last meter in centimeters and first and last decimeters in millimeters;
or throughout to meters and half meters with end meters to decimeters.
These tapes are quite strong as long as they are kept straight but if they
are tightened when they have loops or kinks in them, they will break very
easily. If a tape gets wet, it should be wiped with a dry cloth and then again
with an oily cloth.
Tapes are calibrated by comparing to a standard kept in laboratory under
specific condition Pull, support and temperature.
Additional instruments used in taping.

1. Range Poles: - these are poles of circular section 2m, 2.5m or 3m long,
painted with characteristic red and white bands, which are usually 0.5m
long, and tipped with a pointed steel shoe to enable them to be driven into
the ground. They are used in the measurement of lines with the tapes, and
for marking any points that need to be seen. In hard or paved ground a
tripod is used to support the rods.

2. Taping Pins: - are also called chaining pins are commonly employed to
mark the ends of the tape during the process of taping between two points
more than a tape length apart. They are usually 25 to .35cm long.

3. Plumb Bob: - It is a pointed metal weight used to project the horizontal

location of a point from one elevation to another or it is used to project a
point on the ground up to the tape.

4. Hand level: - can be used to keep the two ends of the tape at the same
elevation when measuring over irregular terrain.

(** 2.1.1 Principle of Chain Surveying

In chain surveying the area to be surveyed should be divided into frame work
of triangles, which are the simplest geometrical figures that can be plotted with
three sides known.

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Checking lines or proof lines:-while dividing an area in to a frame work of

triangles; adequate checks have to be provided to avoid mistake in the work.
Once the area is plotted, check lines should be measured to see weather the
plotting is correct or not.

Off Sets
Check lines
Off sets are lateral distances measured from survey lines to determine the
location of details like buildings, canals, roads etc. They can be perpendicular
(called offset) or oblique.

Most boundaries in chain surveying are irregular and their position is surveyed
by first laying a network of triangles which can be plotted and checked. From
these survey lines offsets are measured to the boundaries.
Procedures for Offset Measurements Fence

(a) Irregular features such as hedges, stream

banks, etc. offsets are taken at changes in
direction (perpendicular to the survey line)
(b) Straight features like walls, kerb lines and
fences, offsets are taken at the ends of the
straight. Road
(c) Curved features like bends in roads, offsets
are taken at regular intervals. Hedged

Setting out Right Angles

This operation is often required in connection with the measurement of offsets.

It may be done by dropping a perpendicular line from a point to a survey line
or by setting out a line at right angles to the survey line from a given point on
the survey line.

For the first case:

1. The tape is swung with zero at center about the point,

R and the minimum reading at which it crosses the band is
noted. This occurs when the tape is perpendicular to the
C band, but the method can be used only on smooth
ground where a free swing of the tape is possible.
R
P 2. Putting the free end of the tape at center C (the point),
scratch an arc to cut the survey line at E and F. And
E F bisecting line EF at P.

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B
3. Run the tape from B to any point P on the survey line.
C Bisect BP at C, and with center C and radius CB, scratch
an arc to cut the band at A. Then BÂP=900.
A
P
P For the second case:-

C 1. Take points A and B on the survey line and bisect line AB so

that AC=BC. Scratch an arc from A and B with the same
A B
radii to intersect at P. Then connecting points P and C. will
A form a right angle ACP or BCP.
5 2. Using method of 3, 4, 5. Run the tape from B to any point P
3
on the survey line at 4m distance. Take another point A out
from survey line 3m from point P and 5m from point B so
B 4 P that , BPA=900.

**) Method of Ranging

Ranging is the process of establishing intermediate points on the straight line

between two surveying stations.

1. Direct Ranging: - is used where the two end stations are intervisible.Field
surveying is performed by field parties composed of from two to seven
people. A good system of hand signals between different members of the
party makes a more efficient means of communication than by word of
mouth for distance measurement. Some of these signals are:-

1. Slow sweeps with right or left hand means to move in that direction
slowly.
2. Rapid sweeps with either hand means to move in that direction
rapidly.
3. Either arm extended means to continue moving in that direction.
4. Either arm is held vertically and moved in the direction in which the
rod to be plumbed.
5. Both arms up and brought down means the position is correct.
6. Both arms extended horizontally in the forward direction and
depressed quickly means to fix the rod.
2. Indirect (Reciprocal) Ranging: -
Is used when the two end stations are not intervisible but both are visible from
an intermediate but both are visible from an intermediate position.
C1 D1

D1
A B
C1
D2
C2
A B
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In the figure it is required to range between points A and B. Two station C 1&D1
are chosen in such a way that A and B re both visible from these stations. So
the rod man at A aligns C 1 to be in line with D1 on line AD1. Then the rod man
at B guides the rodman at D 1 to be in line with C 1 on line BC1, this will establish
a new position D2 for D1. Next the rod man at A guides C 1 to be in line with
AD2, this establishes new position C 2 for C1 to be in line with AD2, this
establishes new position C2 for C1. The procedure repeats by establishing new
positions D3, C3, D4, C4, etc until station C and D are on straight line AB.

3. Random line Ranging: -

This method is needed when the distance between two intermediate points
may be too large and the ground may be so wooded or hilly that it is
impossible to see directly from one station to the other to find an intermediate
point from which both stations can be seen.

A D’ E’
B

D
E
C
In figure above, it is required to establish intermediate stations D’ and E’ on a
line AB passing through woody land. A random line AC as close as possible to
AB but clear of obstruction is established at C, a line BC at right angle to AC
and clear of obstruction is established.

The length of AC and BC are measured, and stations D and E are selected on
AC as desired. The length of AD and AE are measured and by using similarity
of triangles the measured lengths can be transferred to line AB.
By similarity of triangles

ACB   AEE’   ADD’

2.2. Miscellaneous Taping and Ranging operations. *****************

1. Angle measurement

When the angle-measuring instruments, like transit or theodolite, are not

available tapes can be used to determine the angle between two lines with
in 5 to 10 minutes of arc.

l
Sin  = Chord/2*l Chord

l

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2. Taping around the obstructed lines but ranging is possible;

a. Taping around the obstruction is possible.

When natural or artificially formed structures such as meandering rivers,

ponds, etc obstructs the use of taping, measurements may be done around
the obstruction as shown below.
B’ C’

Pond
A B C D

Erecting perpendicular lines BB’ and CC’ of equal length and measuring
length of B’C’

b. Use of right angled triangle.

Erecting a line perpendicular to survey line at B and connecting the point with
point on other side on the survey line.
B’

A Pond C D
B

c. Use right angled triangles on both sides of survey line.


Pond B
A

D
Select a point A on the survey line clear of obstruction and erect line CD
passing through A in such a way that lines CB and DB are clear of

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obstruction. Measure the lengths of lines AC, AD, BC and BD and AB can be
determined as:

BC2= (sinAC)2+ (-cosAC+AB)2

=cos2AC2+AB2-2cosAC AB+sin2AC2
= AC2+AB2-2cos AC AB……………….. (1)

In ADB
(AB+ADcos) 2+ (ADsin) 2=DB2
AB2+AD2cos2+2ABAD cos+AD2 sin2=BD2
AB2+AD2+2AB AD cos=BD2……………….. (2)

In the two equations (1) & (2) there are two common variables AB & cos

So, In eq. (1) 2AB cos= …………..(3)

(2) 2AB cos= ……… (4)

Equating equations 3 & 4

Arranging the equality

(BD2-AD2)AC-AB2AC= (AC2-BC2) AD+AB2AD

AB2 (AD+AC) =BD2AC-AD2AC-AC2AD+BC2AD

3. Taping around an obstruction is impossible

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Obstacles such as rivers, bushes, large water body etc. may not give access for
measurement by tape but ranging poles.
** By setting out right angles
A D B

A’
D’ River
C
A random line BC is selected and by setting out right angles to survey line
points C & D’ are obtained. For measured value of A’C, CD’, A’D’ and OD’, DB
can be determined by similarity of triangles.

** With out setting out a right angle

B D E

C
River
F P
Q

A random point C is chosen out of the survey line, from points B and D on
survey line and BC and CD are measured and continued to P&Q respectively.
BC=CP &DC=CQ. By continuing lines EC and PQ to join at F. so, FQ=DE.

(3) Obstacles which obstruct ranging and chaining

The obstruction of structures like buildings etc, preventing the other end can
be measured by such techniques.

** By setting out right angles.

Building

On a survey line right angles are set out at A and B to get points A’&B’.Line
A’B’ will be continued to get points C’ and D’ and by setting out right angle at
points C’ and D’ and distances CC’ and DD’ to be equal to BB’, on survey line
BC=B’C’.

** With out setting out right angles

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Building

On line ADC, AD is measured and E is set out to form an equilateral triangle i.e
AE=AD=DE.

Line AE is projected to point B and on line AB, BF is measured and G is set out
to form an equilateral triangle BFG. Line BG is projected to point C and another
equilateral triangle is  IHC formed. So that AC=AB=BC.

3. Sources of Errors Precautions and corrections

3.1 Sources of errors.

The principal systematic errors in linear measurements made with a tape are:

1. Incorrect length of tape

2. Tape not horizontal;
3. Variation in temperature;
4. Incorrect tension or pull;
5. Sag in tape;
6. Incorrect a alignment of tape and;

Principally random errors introduced in taping measurements are because of:

1. Error in determining temperature of tape;

2. Failure to apply the proper tension;
3. Wind deflecting the plumb bob.
4. Taping pin not set exactly where the plumb bob touched the ground.
5. Inability of the observer to estimate the last place in reading between
graduations.
6. Inability of the tape man to steady the plumb bob.

3.2. Corrections for errors in tape measurement

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1. Incorrect length of tape.

The length of steel tape may vary when it is kinked, worn and imperfectly
repaired after breaks. So, in order to reduce (eliminate) the variation in length,
it should be checked with the standard.

The correction to be applied to any measurement made with the tape in order
to account for the deviation is called the absolute correction Ca.
Ca= true length-nominal length

The true length is the value determined by calibration under specific conditions.
Tape too long add correction, tape two short subtract correction.

Example

A distance is measured with a 100m steel tape and is found to be 2320.30m.

Later the tape is standardized and is found to have an actual length of
99.97m. What is the correct distance measured?

Soln. Ca=true length-nominal length

= 99.97-100=-0.03/ tape length

Corrected distance=2320.30+ = 2319.60m

2. Mal alignment of Tape

If the tape is assumed to be on a survey line, it may be misaligned out of

survey line and an error is introduced. This mal alignment may be at the end
of the tape or at the middle of the tape.

If the end of the tape is out of line by an amount h in a length L, the error will
be

e= and the correction C = -

If the tape is not pulled straight and the center of the tape is out of line by a
length h then,

e=

So, correction = -2

3. Change in temperature:-

When a taping instrument is made, it is standardized for different conditions,

temperature, pull and support. When the field temperature differs considerably
from the standard, a measurement made with a tape will also vary
considerably because of the thermal expansion of the material to which the

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tape is made. So, possible corrections are necessary for the variation in length
of the tape by the equation.

Ct=L (T-Ts)

Where Ct =temperature correction (m)

 = Coefficient of thermal expansion (for steel =11.5*10-
6
/C0)
L = Length of tape actually used (m)
T = Temperature at which measurement is made ( 0C)
Ts= Temperature at which tape was standardized ( 0C)
Example

A traverse line is 152.4 m long. If the tape used in the field is 50.0m when
standardized at 170c, what correction must be applied if the temperature at the
time of measurement is 230c? ( =11.2*10-6/0c)

Soln Ct=L (T-Ts)

= 50*11.2x10-6(23-17)
= 3.36 x10-3 m/length

Total correction =

4. Correction for tension (CT)

If a tape is used in the field under a tension different from the standard tension
used in calibration, the tape will change its length a slight amount according to
the relation ship between stress and strain. The amount of correction to be
added or subtracted for the measured length is a function of the measured
length, tension during taping, the standard tension, cross sectional area of the
tape, and the modulus of elasticity of which the tape is made.

Correction for pull (incorrect tension)

CP=

Where Cp is the correction per tape length (m)

P is the tension applied (kg)
Ps standard tension (kg)
L the length (m)
A is the cross-sectional area of tape (cm 2)
E is the modulus of elasticity of the steel tape
Modules of Elasticity of steel is 2,100,000kg/cm 2
In order to maintain constant tension, spring balance can be used.

Example
A 30m tape weighing 0.90kg has cross-sectional area of 0.0485 cm 2. The tape
measures 29.94m when it is pulled under a tension of 45kg. The tape was

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standardized under a tension of 10kg and modulus of elasticity of the tape is

2.1x106 kg/cm2. Determine the correct distance measured.

Soln; Using the above eqn. (correction for pull)

=0.010m

The correct distance =29.94+0.010

= 29.95m

5. Correction for sag

When the tape sags between points of support, it takes the form of a catenary.
Due to the formation of sag on tape, the horizontal distance between points
will be less than the true reading on the tape, which is supported for its entire
length.

The correction to be applied is the difference in length between the arc and the
subtending chord. For the purpose of determining the correction, the arc may
be assumed to be a parabola, and the correction is then given by;

Where Cs= Correction between points of support, m

w=weight of tape, kg/m
W=weight of tape, kg,
L= distance between support, m
P= applied tension, kg

In the above relation, it is clearly shown that the correction is directly

proportional to unsupported length and inversely proportional to the square of
the pull. So, in order to eliminate the error for sag, it is necessary to apply
corrections for the observed distance or incase of light tapes, by increasing the
tension sufficiently to compensate for the effect of sag. The required tension,
Pn, called the normal pull, can be determined by the equation using trial and
error procedures.

Where Pn=normal pull, kg

W= total weight of tape

b/n supports, kg
A = tape cross section, cm 2
E= modulus of elasticity of
tape, kg/cm2
Po=Standard pull,kg

6. Tape not horizontal

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When horizontal taping is being performed over sloping ground or on slope,

discrepancies occur because the tape is not truly horizontal.

Correction should be applied in order to reduce the measurement made on

slope to corresponding horizontal distance and can be computed as follows.

H2+h2=S2 but H+e =S

 H=s-e
(s-e) 2+h2=s2 s2-
2 2 2
2se+e +h =s
e 2-2se +h2=0
0 2
For angle  <10 , e becomes very small and can be neglected

So, -2se+h2=0 2se=h2 

Correction C slope= -e=-h2/2s

For angle  >100 H= (S2-h2)1/2 =s- - …..

e=S-H = …..

Correction Cslope= - ( ….)

Or generally C slope=S (cos-1)

Lecture Note 14