ESN-406

Plate Tectonics
By
Pitambar Pati

Department of Earth Sciences

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
What is plate tectonics???

Large scale movement and

interaction among the lithospheric
plates is defined as plate tectonics.
These are large-scale processes
affecting the structure of the
earth's lithosphere
Why is it important ????
https://in.pinterest.com/pin/372884044139831283/

1. It is a compulsory credit course having two examinations !!

2. It is the newest addition to geoscientific understanding of the
earth (developed around 1950-60)
3. Mostly used for exploration
4. Used for understanding the earth’s evolution in temporal and
spatial scales
5. Controls our daily life, food habit, neighborhood relationship,
national economy and many more………direct or indirectly
https://imgur.com/gallery/Q5l3hPV
Background………..
Present day distribution of land and sea (Geography of the world)
DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND SEA THROUGH GEOLOGICAL TIMES
Breaking up of
lithospheric plate and
their coalescence
promotes opening of
new ocean basin and
their closer. This cyclic
process is called
“Willson Cycle”
Tectonic events results change in geography
Mechanism of plate movement
 THE SUPERCONTINENT CYCLE
Geologic evidences for the repeated occurrence of continental
collision and rifting since the Archean has led to the hypothesis
that the continents periodically coalesced into large landmasses
called supercontinents

The best known of the supercontinents include Gondwana and

Pangea, which formed in the latest Proterozoic and late Paleozoic
times, respectively
Other supercontinents, such as Rodinia and Laurussia, also have
been proposed for Late Proterozoic and late Paleozoic times,
respectively.
 THE MECHANISM OF SUPERCONTINENT CYCLE

The assembly and dispersal of the supercontinent reflect

interactions between continental lithosphere and processes
operating in the mantle.
Two types of interaction-
•Broad upwelling and downwelling that
define mantle convection cell.
•Impingement of deep mantle plumes on
the base of the continental lithosphere.

During periods of dispersal, the continents

tend to aggregate over cold downwellings in
the mantle, where they act as an insulating
blanket. The mantle consequently heats up,
altering the convection pattern, and the
supercontinent rifts apart in response to the
resulting tension. The continental fragments
then move toward the new cold
downwellings resulting from the changed
convective regime.(Gurnish ,1988).
The plates change their direction on the timescale of
approximately 300 Myr. (Lowman et al., 2001)

The reversal is caused by trapping and build up of heat and

buoyancy forces in the interior of the convection cells.
Slab-pull and trench suction forces were as important as mantle
upwelling in the break-up of the supercontinents.

The role of hot spots or upwelling deep mantle plumes during

continental break-up is uncertain. Thermal buoyancy forces due to
mantle upwellings and tractions at the base of the lithosphere
caused by convecting asthenosphere may contribute to a
horizontal tension that is sufficient to break continental
lithosphere.
Large scale movement and interaction of lithospheric plates is
known as plate tectonics…….
There are seven main plates (largest is the Pacific) and numerous
smaller plates such as Nazca, Cocos and Scotia plates.
Interior of earth showing
the movement of
convection current and
plate movement
mechanism
 Earth’s Magnetic Field
It is believed that the Earth’s magnetic field
originates in a layer called the outer core
The outer core is a metallic fluid consisting
mainly of iron

This metallic fluid is

in motion and the
convection currents
act like a giant
dynamo, converting
mechanical energy
into magnetic energy
Type of Plate Interaction:
A: Plates move away from each other: Divergent Plate Boundary

B: Plates move towards each other: Convergent Plate Boundary

C: Plates Slide past each other: Conservative Plate boundary

The theory of plate tectonics, which describes the interactions of
the lithospheric plates and the consequences of these
interactions, is based on several important assumptions:
1. The generation of new plate material occurs by seafloor
spreading; that is, new oceanic lithosphere is generated along
the active mid-ocean ridges
2. The new oceanic lithosphere, once created, forms part of a rigid
plate; this plate may but need not include continental material
3.The Earth’s surface area remains constant; therefore the
generation of new plate by seafloor spreading must be
balanced by destruction of plate elsewhere

4.The plates are capable of transmitting stresses over great

horizontal distances without buckling, in other words, the
relative motion between plates is taken up only along plate
boundaries
The Earth has a cool and therefore mechanically strong outermost
shell called the lithosphere is of the order of 100 km thick and
comprises the crust and uppermost mantle

Immediately beneath the lithosphere, there exists the

asthenosphere where viscous flow takes place on a
geological timescale (millions of years, not seconds!) due to high
temperature and pressure

If the Earth is viewed in purely mechanical terms, the

mechanically strong lithosphere floats on the mechanically weak
asthenosphere
The basic concept of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere is
divided into a small number of nearly rigid plates (like curved
caps on a sphere), which are moving over the asthenosphere

Most of the deformation which results from the motion of the

plates – such as stretching, folding or shearing – takes place
along the edge, or boundary, of a plate

Deformation away from the boundary is not significant

Seismicity map of the Earth outlines the plates very clearly
because nearly all earthquakes, as well as most of the Earth’s
volcanism, occur along the plate boundaries

These seismic belts are the zones in which differential

movements between the nearly rigid plates occur
Seismic Gap concept
Dimension (XY & Z) of
plates has greatly been
changed from the origin to
present
Although the plates are made up of both oceanic and continental
material, usually only the oceanic part of any plate is
created or destroyed

Seafloor spreading at a mid-ocean ridge produces only oceanic

lithosphere
It is hard to understand why continental material usually is not
destroyed at convergent plate boundaries
It is probable that, if the thick, relatively low-density continental
material (the continental crustal density is approximately 2.8 × 103
kg/m3) reaches a subduction zone, it may descend a short way,
but, because the mantle density is so much greater
(approximately 3.3 × 103 kg/m3), the downwards motion does not
continue
Instead, the subduction zone ceases to operate at that place
and moves to a more favorable location
 MOTIONS OF PLATES ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH
Plate motion in earth necessarily involves some spherical
geometry

Imagine the earth to be flat rather than a sphere

(people in Middle age)
Relative motion between the two
plates A and B i.e. relative
velocity of plate A with respect
to plate B is written BvA
(i.e., if you are an observer on
plate B, then BvA is the
velocity at which you see
plate A moving). Conversely, the
velocity of plate B with respect to
plate A is
AvB, and AvB = −BvA
 A B

A B

B
 Two plate System
The western boundary of plate B is a
ridge that is spreading with a half-rate
of 2 cm yr−1

Transform fault
Sinistral/Dextral

The eastern boundary satisfies the

presence of a subduction zone
 Shifting of subduction zone Shifting of subduction zone
(i) (ii)

(i) Plate A being subducted beneath plate B at 4 cm yr−1. This

means that plate B is increasing in width by 2 cm yr−1, this
being the rate at which new plate is formed at the ridge axis

(ii) Plate B being subducted beneath plate A at 4 cm yr−1,faster

than new plate is being created at its western boundary (2 cm
yr−1); so eventually plate B will cease to exist on the surface
of the planet
Tomographic imagery of the low-angle
subduction of the Farallon Plate (green)
beneath North America. The Farallon
Plate began subducting under the North
American Plate during the Jurassic, and
is thought to have been completely
overrun by about 50 million years ago.

The fate of its remnant slabs as

they descended into the mantle
may explain several features of
the overlying continent, including
the rise of the Rockies and the
activity of the New Madrid Seismic
Zone. The colors show anomalies
in rigidity, which correlate with
temperature anomalies. Green
and blue represent relatively
cooler regions, and orange and
red represent hotter regions
Three Plate System
Plates A and B are spreading
away from the ridge at a half-
rate of 2 cm yr−1

The eastern boundary of plates

A and B is a subduction zone,
with plate A being subducted
beneath plate C a rate of 6 cm
yr−1
Relative rate of plate motion at the boundary between plates B
and C….??????? CvB = CvA + AvB
The net rate of destruction of plate B is 10 − 2 = 8 cmyr−1

Plate B will be totally subducted and a simple two-plate

subduction model will be in operation

(Vector addition was not really necessary; common sense works

equally well)
 North-South motion

Western boundary of plate

B is a ridge that is
spreading at a half-rate of 2
cm yr−1, the northern
boundary of plate B is a
transform fault

Boundary between plates A

and C is a transform fault
with relative motion of 3 cm
yr−1

CvB…..??????????
Plate B undergoes oblique
subduction beneath plate C
at 5 cm yr−1
 The other possible solution is
for plate C to be subducted
beneath plate B at 5 cm yr−1

In that case, the

boundary between
plates C and B
would not remain
collinear with the
boundary between
plates A and C but
would move
steadily
The same processes are going on now a days and hence the
distribution of lithospheric plate is being continuously changed
with time
The real Earth, however, is spherical, so we need to
use some spherical geometry

Plates move on the surface of a sphere which follows the Euler’s

‘fixed-point’ theorem
 RELATIVE MOTION
• The relative motion between plates is described by
keeping one plate fixed and moving the other one
relative to it; that is, rotating it away from (or toward)
the fixed plate.

• Provided it remains rigid, each point of a moving

plate describes an arc of a different small circle
about the same Euler pole.

• The motion between plates is equivalent to a relative

rotation about their mutual Euler rotation pole.
Euler’s ‘fixed-point’ theorem states that
‘The most general displacement of a rigid
body with a fixed point is equivalent to a
rotation about an axis through that fixed
point.’
Taking a plate as a rigid body and
the centre of the Earth as a fixed
point, the theorem can be
explained as: “Every displacement
from one position to another on
the surface of the Earth can be
regarded as a rotation about a
suitably chosen axis passing
through the centre of the Earth”
The relative motion between two plates
is uniquely defined by an angular
separation about a pole of relative
motion known as an Euler’s pole
The ‘suitably chosen axis’ which passes
through the centre of the Earth is called
the rotation axis, and it cuts the surface of
the Earth at two points called the poles of
rotation

These are purely mathematical points

and have no physical reality, but their
positions describe the directions of
motion of all points along the plate
boundary.
The magnitude of the angular velocity about the axis then
defines the magnitude of the relative motion between the two
plates
The sign convention used is that a rotation that is clockwise (or
right-handed) when viewed from the centre of the Earth along the
rotation axis is positive. Viewed from outside the Earth, a positive
rotation is anticlockwise. Thus, one rotation pole is positive and
the other is negative
Consider a point X on the surface of the Earth. At X the value of
the relative velocity v between the two plates is
Linear velocity v = ωR sin θ
θ is the angular distance between the rotation pole P and the point
X, and R is the radius of the Earth
= magnitude of angular velocity (º)

This factor of sin θ means that the relative

motion between two adjacent plates
changes with position along the plate
boundary, in contrast to the earlier
examples for a flat Earth
Thus, the relative velocity is zero at the rotation poles, where θ =
0◦ and 180◦, and has a maximum value of ωR at 90◦ from the
rotation poles

If by chance the plate boundary passes through the rotation pole,

the nature of the boundary changes from divergent to convergent,
or vice versa

Lines of constant velocity (defined by θ = constant) are small

circles about the rotation poles
The pole and its antipole are the two unique points on the surface
of the Earth that do not move relative to either of the two plates

The pole of any two plates tends to remain fixed relative to them
for long periods of time

Plate velocities are similarly constant for periods of several million

years

There are three methods by which the pole of relative motion for
two plates can be determined

1. Transform faults along their common boundary

The pole of rotation of two plates can thus be determined
by constructing great circles at right angles to the trends to
transform faults affecting their common margin and noting
their point of intersection
The most convenient type of plate
margin to which to apply this
technique is the accretive type, as
ocean ridges

Because of inaccuracies involved in

mapping oceanic fracture zones, the
great circles rarely intersect at a
single point and hence statistical
methods are applied which are able
to predict a circle within which it is
most probable that the relative
rotation pole lies.
2. A second method is based on the variation of spreading rate
with angular distance from the pole of rotation

The velocity of spreading is at a maximum at the equator

corresponding to the Euler pole and thence decreases according
to the cosine of the Euler pole’s latitude

The determination of the

spreading rate at a number of
points along the ridge then
allows the pole of relative
rotation to be found

(Velocity is measured based on

magnetic lineation)
3. The final, and least reliable, method of determining the
directions of relative motion between two plates makes use of
focal mechanism solutions of earthquakes on their common
margins

If the inclination and direction of slip along the fault plane are
known, then the horizontal component of the slip vector is the
direction of relative motion.

Convergent boundaries, however, present more of a problem, and

it is often necessary to use indirect means to determine relative
velocities

Hence relative velocity of two diverging plates and taken and the
same for the third plate is determined by vector algebra.

Hence relative velocity of any plate on the earth’s crust can be

determined provided that there are sufficient number of divergent
PLATE TECTONICS
UNDERSTANDING THE EARTH…………….
Planet Earth is believed to have formed by
the accretion of primordial solar material
similar in composition to chondrites
(Chondrites are stony (non-metallic) meteorites that
have not been modified due to melting
or differentiation of the parent body)

Arguments based on the abundance of

radioisotopes of hafnium and tungsten
indicate that the Earth accreted in about
10 million years and that core formation
was completed by about 30 million
years after accretion of the planet
During this early accretionary stage, the Earth was hot because
of:
Accretion generate enormous amounts of heat
Radioactive decay
Formation of the molten iron-nickel core
Bombardment of terrestrial bodies
The energy released by sinking iron and nickel to form the core
generated sufficient heat to melt a large fraction of the Earth
The magnetic field is generated by convection in the molten
metallic outer core, which must, therefore, have been present at
that time
Some of these early bombardments were so large that they
actually knocked material off the planet

One such collision with a Mars-size body before 4.45 billion years
ago removed material from Earth to form the Moon

The oldest rocks on Earth indicate that a strong magnetic field

already existed 4.4 billion years ago (Jack hill Formation,
Australia)
The planet began to cool and solidify, and because of chemical
variations and changes due to increased pressure with depth,
a zoned planet was produced
The solidification has been a long, slow process, and it continues
today, with the outer part of the core still molten. During this
convective cooling of the planet, igneous processes redistributed
elements, and the result is a compositionally layered planet.
 Interior of the Earth from seismic waves
Interior of the Earth is not accessible……..

The deepest well is about 12 km deep from the earth’s

surface…….

Direct evidence of earth materials are found in deep sea as

well as in volcanoes………..
 Seismicity and plate tectonics
• Seismicity is an integral part of plate tectonics
• Seismometers are instruments for detecting ground
motions
• Seismographs are instruments for recording seismic waves
from earthquakes.
• Recordings are called seismograms
Zone - II: This is said to be the least
active

Zone - III: It is included in the

moderate seismic zone

Zone - IV: This is considered to be

the high seismic zone

Zone - V: It is the highest seismic

zone
Earthquake waves
Fashion of damage by an earthquake
 Seismic Wave Speeds

The bulk modulus (K) of a substance

essentially measures the substance's
resistance to uniform compression.

It is defined as the pressure increase

needed to effect a given relative
decrease in volume.

Shear modulus, μ, sometimes referred

to as the modulus of rigidity, is the
ratio of shear stress to the shear strain.

= shear modulus  = density

K = modulus of compressibility (bulk modulus)
Velocity of seismic waves depend upon:
Density, porosity, water saturation, degree of consolidation etc

Pickett’s (1963) cross plot shows that P-wave to S-wave velocity ratio (Vp/Vs)
for sandstone is about 1.6 in low-porosity rocks, drifting to 1.8 in relatively
higher porosity rocks.

Gardner and Harris (1968) showed that Vp/Vs values > 2.0 are characteristic of
water-saturated unconsolidated rocks, and values < 2.0 indicate either well-
consolidated rock or the presence of gas in unconsolidated sands
 Seismic Wave Speeds
Material P wave Velocity (m/s) S wave Velocity (m/s)
Air 332

Water 1400-1500

Petroleum 1300-1400

Steel 6100 3500

Concrete 3600 2000

Granite 5500-5900 2800-3000

Basalt 6400 3200

Sandstone 1400-4300 700-2800

Limestone 5900-6100 2800-3000

Sand (Unsaturated) 200-1000 80-400

Sand (Saturated) 800-2200 320-880

Clay 1000-2500 400-1000

Glacial Till (Saturated) 1500-2500 600-1000

If there will an
earthquake at
Nagpur, which
part of India will
feel fast?
How to find out the epicenter distance of an earthquake from the
seismogram……?
Data from at least three seismogram is require for plotting the
epicenter distance

From Hyderabad, Patna

and Bhopal, if the circles
are drawn according to
scale, these meet at a
point which is the
epicenter and falls in the
Narmada-Sone lineament
0 500 km
How to find out magnitude of
an earthquake from
epicenter distance and wave
amplitude?
Data from more than
one seismograph near
to the epicenter are
taken for magnitude
calculation.
p = P wave arrival from a path that traveled upward from the
focus(hypocenter)
pP = P wave arrival from a path that traveled upward from the
focus,reflected off the surface of the earth, then arrived back at
the surface.
P = P wave arrival from a path that traveled downward from the
focus(hypocenter)
PP = P wave reflected off the surface once
PPP = P wave reflected off the surface twice
c = a reflection off the outside of the outer surface of
the outer core
K = a travel path (refraction) through the outer core
KK = one reflection on the inside outer surface of the outer core
KKK = two reflections off the inside outer surface of the outer core
i = a reflection off the outside of the outer surface of
the inner core
I = a travel path (refraction) through the inner core
Note that the all paths through the earth tend to bend upward. This is a
result of refraction because materials deeper in the earth conduct
seismic waves faster than materials above.
A seismic shadow zone is an area of the Earth's surface
where seismographs cannot detect an earthquake after
its seismic waves have passed through the Earth. When an
earthquake occurs, seismic waves radiate out spherically from
the earthquake's focus. The primary seismic
waves are refracted by the liquid outer core of the Earth and are
not detected between 103°/105° and 140°/143°
(between approximately 11,570 and 15,570 km ) from the
epicenter. The secondary seismic waves cannot pass through
the liquid outer core and are not detected more than
103°/105° (approximately 11,570 km or 7,190 mi) from
the epicenter.
Why are seismic waves important?

Seismic waves are good for:

Mapping the Interior of the Earth (PREM Model)
Preliminary Reference Earth Model
 The Four Layers
The Earth is composed of four different layers. The crust is the layer that we
live in, and it is the most widely studied and understood. The mantle is much
hotter and has the ability to flow. The outer core and inner core are even
hotter with great pressures
Geologic studies of high grade metamorphic rocks that once
resided at depths of 20–50 km and have been brought to the
surface by subsequent tectonic activity provide some useful
information

Foreign rock fragments, or xenoliths, that are carried from

great depths to the Earth’s surface by fast rising magmas also
provide samples of deep crustal material
The variation of seismic velocities with depth results from a
number of factors such as: increase of pressure with depth
causes a rapid increase in incompressibility, rigidity, and density
over the topmost 5 km as pores and fractures are closed

Collectively, the observations

from both geological and
geophysical studies show
that the continental crust
is vertically stratified in terms
of its chemical composition
Earth’s Layers The Earth's rocky outer crust
solidified billions of years ago, soon
after the Earth formed.

This crust is not a whole solid shell; it

is broken up into huge, thick plates
that drift at the top of the soft,
underlying asthenosphere
The crust must be understood in detail because:

1.All our day to day activities are confined

2.Economic wealth are confined

3.Rocks are exposed for study of crustal evolution

4.The products of any metamorphic events depend upon the rock

composition and P&T

It is from 25 to 70 km thick beneath continents and 7 to 10 km

thick beneath oceans.

The rocks in the continental crust are less dense than those in the
oceanic crust, and as a result of isostasy (buoyancy), continents
stand higher than ocean floors
 The Crust
Outermost layer, exposed to
the surface, rigid, lighter rock.

• It consists of rocks of great variety (Igneous, sedimentary,

metamorphic, soil)
• Average 35 km thick beneath continent and 7-8 km thick
beneath oceans
• Made of Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum
• Temp <1,000ºC
Crustal abundance of
rocks
 The Crust
The crust was derived from the
Mantle over the eons by a series of
melting and reworking processes
(crustal evolution)

The boundary of crust and mantle was

delineated by Andrya Mohorovicic in
1909 and is termed as “Mohorovicic
Discontinuty” or Moho in short

Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

- thick (10-70km) - thin (~7 km)
- buoyant (less dense - dense (sinks under
than oceanic crust) continental crust)
- mostly old - young
Divided into:
1. Continental
2. Oceanic
1. Continental Crust:
A. Upper Continental Crust
B. Lower Continental crust
A. Upper Continental Crust: Earlier thought to be purely of
Granitic composition (density about 2.67 tonnes/m3).
However, the granite plutons show large negative gravity
anomalies and its density is some 0.10-0.15 tones/m3
lower than the average value of the upper crust
The mean value of the upper crust can be obtained from mean
composition of large no. of samples collected from world
wide from sedimentary rocks as these sample the upper
crust naturally by the process of erosion
This composition corresponds to Granodioritic to Dioritic and is
characterized by a relatively high concentration of the heat-
producing elements.
B. Lower Continental Crust:
1. Velocity of P-wave vary from 6.5-7.6 km/s
2. This is either by chemical composition (more basic) or by
presence of more dense and high pressure phase of rocks are
present
3. Early crustal models suggest the lower crust to be basaltic in
composition, because:
1. Basaltic magmas were derived from this level
2. Experimentally derived P-wave velocity corresponds to
basaltic composition
3. However, investigation of mineral assemblages present
under the physical conditions in lower crust reveals that
basalt cannot be present in lower crust
4. Green and Ringwood (1967) experimented that in T
1100°C and P 2100MPa, basalt in dry condition is
converted to Eclogite.. However, the P-wave velocity in
Eclogite is 8km/s which does not fit to the actual P-wave
velocity in the L-crust
Green (1970) suggested that the L-crust is gabbroic and
anorthositic composition which fit to the P-wave velocity range.
Anorthositic lower crust is found at continent-continent collision
where the crust is thickened and the due to increase in heat flow
granite melt moves upward leaving the anorthositic composition at
lower part.
The Conard discontinuity is present just above this layer.. So it
can be speculated that the Conard discontinuity may only be
present at the terrain undergone continent-continent collisions
(which is not true)
Model for the generation of Massif-type
anorthosites.

A) Mantle-derived magma underplates the crust

as it becomes density equilibrated.
B) Crystallization of mafic phases (which sink),
and partial melting of the crust above the
ponded magma. The melt becomes enriched in
Al and Fe/Mg.
C) Plagioclase forms when the melt is
sufficiently enriched. Plagioclase rises to the
top of the chamber whereas mafics sink.
D) Plagioclase accumulations become less
dense than the crust above and rise as crystal
mush plutons.
E) Plagioclase plutons coalesce to form massif
anorthosite, whereas granitoid crustal melts rise
to shallow levels as well. Mafic cumulates
remain at depth or detach and sink into the
mantle. From Ashwall (1993)
If the Lower crust is wet,, basaltic rocks would occur in the form of
Amphibolite

If Amphibolite is mixed with more silicic material, this would have a

seismic velocity in the correct range

Deep crustal xenoliths, crustal contaminated magma and deep

crustal seismology suggests the crust to be more complex in
composition and structure then the simple models proposed
 A Layered Earth
Chemical Properties
Oceanic Crust

• Thin

• Basaltic composition

• Dark-colored (MAFIC)

• Composed of: oxygen, silicon, magnesium, iron

 The Oceanic Crust
Dense, thin (6-7 km thick beneath an average water depth of 4.5
km)
Oceanic Layer-1: Sea bed surface materials include
unconsolidated terrigenous sediments carried into deep ocean by
turbidity currents and pelagic deposits such as ooze, zeolite layers
and manganese nodules. These are redistributed by deep sea
currents
Average 0.4 km thick
Progressively thickens away from the ridge (where it is thin or
absent)
There are systematic variation of sediment thickness in the Pacific
and Atlantic/Indian oceans
There is a rugged surface exists between layer-1 and layer-2
because the layer-2 is of volcanic nature (unconformity
type…..?????)
Oceanic Layer-2:
Variable in thickness (1-2.5 km)
Seismic velocity: 3.4-6.2 km/s
Igneous origin: Basalt is Olivine Tholeiites containing calcic
plagioclase, and are poor in potassium, sodium and incompatible
elements
Very little areal variation in composition except at oceanic islands
Three subdivisions are recognized:
2A: Present only near at oceanic ridge where hydrothermal
circulation of sea water occurs (thickness: 0-1km). It is porous
(30-50%) and rubbly nature and hence
allow water to circulate
2B: Below 2A and probably formed by
filling of porosity of 2A by secondary
minerals such as calcite, quartz and zeolite
2C: Dominated by intrusives and grades
into layer3.
Oceanic Layer-3
Chief layer of the oceanic crust and is characterized by its plutonic
foundation
Gabbroic composition with few places of serpentinized ultramafic
material
This is divided into two layers:
The Upper layer (3A) is composed of Isotropic gabbro and the
lower layer (3B) is composed of cumulate gabbro
 Origin of Oceanic crust
Hot asthenospheric material ascend rapidly through narrow zones
and provides a melt of basaltic composition
This asthenospheric mass forms a magma chamber in the lower
part of the oceanic crust at level of layer-3
Part of the magma are erupted to ocean floor to produce pillow
basalt and below is the zone of dykes
These collectively make the layer-2
The layer 2C is partially composed of sheeted dykes
Below that the crust is developed on entirely on magma chamber
(Layer-3)
The first mineral to crystallize from the magma chamber is olivine
and chrome spinel fall through the magma and creates a basal
layer of dunite and occasionally chromite.
Further cooling pyroxene crystalises and forms the layer of
peridotite along with olivine.
As further the magma cools and pyroxene crystallization is
dominant, pyroxenites are formed.
Ultimately, plagioclase crystalises and “layered olivine gabbro”
forms at the top of dunite.
Much of the residual liquid still volumetrically quite large and
solidified within a small temprature range and forms “isotropic
gabbro”
A small fraction of this residue consisting essentially of plagioclase
and quartz , is the last fraction to crystallize and forms small veins
and pockets of plagiogranite intrudes into the sheeted dyke
complex
The residual water and volatiles in the upper part of the magma
chamber along with the seawater percolating from above through
fractures hydrothermally alter the sheeted dykes within the
fossilized magma chamber
The two gabbro units i.e. the isotropic and layered represents 3A
and 3B layers of the broad layer 3 of oceanic crust.
The ultramafic cumulates, rich in olivine and pyroxene, would then
account for the sub-Moho seismic velocity.
Thus Moho occurs within the crystallized magma chamber at the
base of the ultramafic units
However, off-axis, in a lower Temp. environment the upper most
ultramafic may partially hydrated (serpentinized) and usually
acquire lower seismic velocity.
The seismic Moho would then occurs much below in the
ultramafic section
So at the base of the magma chamber is considered as the base
of the oceanic crust and petrologist termed it as “Petrological
Moho”
 OPHIOLITE
An ophiolite is a section of the Earth's oceanic crust and the
underlying upper mantle (oceanic lithosphere) that has been
obducted and exposed above sea level and often emplaced
onto continental crustal rocks. Ophio- is Greek for "snake” and -
lite means "stone" from the Greek lithos. The rock looks like snake
skin
Ophiolites usually occur in collisional orogens and their
association of deep-sea sediments, basalts, gabbros, and
ultramafic rocks suggests that they originated as oceanic
lithosphere and were subsequently thrust up into their continental
setting by a process known as obduction

The analogy of ophiolites with oceanic lithosphere is supported by

the gross similarity in chemistry (although there is considerable
difference in detail), metamorphic grades corresponding to
temperature gradients existing under spreading centers, the
presence of similar ore minerals, and the observation that the
sediments were formed in deep water (Moores, 1982)

Salisbury & Christensen (1978) have compared the velocity

structure of the oceanic lithosphere with seismic velocities
measured in samples from the Bay of Islands ophiolite complex in
Newfoundland, and concluded that the determined velocity
stratigraphies are identical.
Dating of events indicates that obduction of many ophiolites
occurred very soon after their creation while young and hot.

Continental collision, however, normally occurs a long time after

the formation of a mid-ocean ridge, so that the age of the sea floor
obducted should be considerably greater than that of the
collisional orogeny.

Both forearc and backarc type basin also produce ophiolites as

evidenced by the geochemistry of rocks associated.
 The Mantle
• Layer of Earth between
the crust and the core
• Contains most of the
Earth’s mass
• Thickest layer, ~68% of
Earth’s mass, 83% of
volume
• Has more magnesium
and less aluminum and
silicon than the crust
• Is denser than the crust
• Solid, minerals rich in Fe,
Si, Ma, 1,500º - 3,200º C
Although the mantle is solid, it behaves as a plastic material that
slowly convects

What is not clear is whether convection currents pass all the way
through the mantle or convect in two separate layers, the lower
and upper mantle

The division between these two

parts of the mantle is the prominent
seismic discontinuity at a depth of
∼660 km.
The subduction of lithospheric plates into the mantle generates
earthquakes that can be traced to a depth of 660 km

IT MAY INDICATE……..
 Either material from the upper
mantle cannot penetrate into
the lower mantle
 Or rocks below this depth are
not sufficiently brittle to
generate earthquakes?

These two possible

explanations have led to the
two-layer mantle convection
model
Recent studies of seismic velocities in the mantle favor at least
some subducted slabs penetrating to the depth of the core-mantle
boundary, where they may correlate with depressions on that
boundary
Immediately above the core-mantle boundary is the 100 km to 300
km-thick D′′ ( D double prime ) layer , which may be the graveyard
of subducted slabs.
This is a complex layer, but toward its base is a 5 km to 40 km
thick zone with ultralow seismic velocities, which undoubtedly
indicate the presence of partially melted rock.

It is possible that magmas that rise at hot spots such as Hawaii

have their source in this zone.

The bottom of D″ has been

observed in some regions
to be marked by a seismic
velocity discontinuity
(sometimes known as the
'Gutenberg discontinuity',
after German
Geophysicist Beno
Gutenberg)
The upper mantle is bounded on its lower
side by the 660 km seismic discontinuity.
Between this depth and another prominent
discontinuity at 410 km is called the
transition zone

Above this is the uppermost mantle, which

terminates at the base of the crust at the
prominent Mohorovicic discontinuity
(or Moho ).

An extremely important zone marked by low seismic velocities

occurs in the uppermost mantle between depths of 20 to 50 km
beneath oceans and 70 to 220 km beneath continents . This zone
is known as the asthenosphere, from the Greek word asthene-s,
meaning “weak.”
Its low velocities are attributed to the presence of very small
amounts of melt, which weakens the rock.

Above the asthenosphere, the uppermost mantle and overlying

crust form the relatively strong lithosphere

The asthenosphere is of importance because it is on this weak

layer that the lithospheric plates move around the surface of the
Earth to give us plate tectonics
 A Layered Earth
Chemical Properties
Core (outer and inner core)
• Dense, inner layer
• Composed of: iron and nickel
•Outer Core = dense, viscous
liquid
•3,700º-5,500ºC
(increases with depth)
• Inner Core = Solid, max
density of 16 g/cm3
•Solid, dense, 6,000º C,
Iron and Nickel
The Earth’s radius is 6371 km, almost half of which (3483 km)
is occupied by the metallic core, which is composed
predominantly of iron and nickel but must also contain small
amounts of light elements, such as silicon, oxygen, sulfur, and
hydrogen.
The core is slowly crystallizing from the bottom up, with the solid
inner core having a radius of 1220 km.

The inner core is solid not because

of temperature but because of the
extremely high pressure at the
center of the Earth (364 GPa).
As the liquid in the outer core crystallizes onto the inner core,
it liberates the latent heat of crystallization of iron and nickel,
which helps drive the convection cells in the outer core, where
the Earth’s magnetic field is generated.

It is believed that the Earth’s magnetic field

originates in a layer called the outer core
The outer core is a metallic fluid consisting
mainly of iron

This metallic fluid is in

motion and the
convection currents act
like a giant dynamo,
converting mechanical
energy into magnetic
energy
 EARTHQUAKE DISTRIBUTION
Plate tectonic theory predicts that the majority of the Earth’s
tectonic activity takes place at the margins of plates
It follows, then, that the location of earthquake epicenters can be
used to define plate boundaries.
The relatively rapid motions experienced by plates generate very
large numbers of earthquakes over a short interval of time

Earthquakes are classified according to their focal depths: 0–70

km shallow focus, 70–300 km intermediate focus, greater than
300 km deep focus
Belts of shallow focus earthquakes follows the crest of the ocean
ridge system
Focal mechanism solutions
indicate tensional events
associated with plate accretion
and strike-slip events where the
ridges are offset by transform
faults

On land, shallow focus tensional

events are also associated with
rifts
All intermediate and deep events are associated with destructive
plate margins.
The northern, eastern and western Pacific Ocean is ringed by a
belt of earthquakes which lie on planes, in places offset by
transform faults, dipping at an angle of about 45° beneath the
neighboring plates. These planes of earthquake foci, known as
Benioff (or Benioff Wadati) zones, are typically associated with
volcanic activity at the surface.

The deepest events recorded

lie at a depth of about 670 km.
Collisional mountain belts such as the Alpine-Himalayan chain are
similarly characterized by intermediate and deep focus
earthquakes although, since there is no longer a Benioff zone
present in such regions, the seismic activity occurs within a
relatively broad belt

The intra-plate areas are relatively aseismic on this timescale,

although occasionally large magnitude earthquakes do occur
 Type of Plate Interaction

A: Plates move away from each other: Divergent Plate boundary

B: Plates move towards each other: Convergent Plate boundary

C: Plates Slide past each other: Conservative Plate boundary

 CONSTRUCTIVE PLATE BOUNDARY

Constructive or accretive plate margins are marked by ocean

ridges, where new oceanic lithosphere is created

They represent the longest, linear uplifted features of the Earth’s

surface, and can be traced by a belt of shallow focus
earthquakes that follows the crestal regions and transform faults
between offset ridge crests (<70 km: Shallow, 70-300 km:
Intermediate, >300 km: Deep focus)
Rock outcrop in Iceland, a visible surface feature of the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, the easternmost edge of the North American plate. It is a popular
destination for tourists in Iceland.
The total length of the spreading margins on mid-ocean ridges
is approximately 75,000 km

It is the earth’s longest mountain range in underwater

Their crests are commonly 2–3 km higher than neighboring
ocean basins, and locally the topography can be quite rugged
and runs parallel to the crests. Dominated by listric normal faults

The gross morphology of ridges appears to be controlled by

separation rate
 Spreading rates at different points around the mid-ocean
ridge system vary widely
 In the Eurasian basin of the Arctic Ocean, and along the
Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge, the full spreading rate is less
than 20 mm a−1.

 On the East Pacific

Rise, between the
Nazca and Pacific
plates, the accretion
rate ranges
up to 150 mm a−1
 The axis of spreading is marked by a narrow zone of volcanic
activity that is flanked by zones of fissuring
 This area is known as the “crestal accretion zone” or “plate
boundary zone”
 Beyond distances of 10–25 km from the axis, the lithosphere
becomes stable and rigid
 Away from this volcanic zone, the topography is controlled by
vertical tectonics on normal faults
Magma eruption along
the MOR occurs in a
zone rather than a
particular plane. This
zone is known as
crestal accretion zone
or plate boundary zone
Many of the essential characteristics of the ridges, such as
topography, structure, and rock types, vary as a function of
spreading rate
 The fault scarps on fast-spreading
ridges are tens of meters in height,
and an axial topographic high, up to
400 m in height and 1–2 km in width

 Within this high a small linear

depression, or graben, <100 m wide
and up to 10 m deep is sometimes
developed

 On slow spreading ridges the

median rift valley is typically 30– 50
km wide and 500–2500 m deep, with
an inner valley floor, up to 12 km in
width, bounded by normal fault
scarps approximately 100 m in
height
At fast rates of spreading the high may arise from the buoyancy
of hot rock at shallow depth

But on slowly spreading ridges it is clearly formed by the

coalescence of small volcanoes 1–2 km in width, and hence is
known as an axial volcanic ridge

At MAR development

of the style of the
median valley may
be a cyclic process
between phases of
tectonic extension and
volcanic construction
Faulting is more prevalent on fast spreading ridge than on slow-
spreading ridges and accounts for the vast majority of the relief.
Both inward and outward facing fault scarps that give rise to a
horst and graben topography in fast spreading ridge. This differs
from slower spreading ridges, where the topography is formed by
back-tilted, inward facing normal faults.
“Fast-spreading ridges” East Pacific Rise
Intermediate
“Slow-spreading ridges” Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Very slow
“Ultraslow-spreading ridges” Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge
Seismic refraction over the East Pacific Rise shows the crust is
slightly thinner than encountered in the main ocean basins, and
that the upper mantle velocity beneath the crestal region is
anomalously low and this low velocity zone extends to a depth of
about 100 km
Oceanic layer 1 rocks are only present within topographic
depressions, but layers 2 and 3 appear to be continuous

Gravity survey at MAR

The anomalously low upper
mantle velocities detected
beneath ridges correspond to the
tops of regions of low density
There are three possible sources of the low-density regions which
underlie ocean ridges and support them isostatically

i. Thermal expansion of upper mantle material beneath the ridge

crests, followed by contraction as sea floor spreading carries it
laterally away from the source of heat

ii. The presence of molten material within the anomalous mantle

iii. A temperature-dependent phase change. The high

temperatures beneath ocean ridge crests might cause a
transition to a mineralogy of lower density
 Magma chamber properties
Models for the formation of oceanic lithosphere normally require a
magma chamber beneath the ridge axis from which magma
erupts and intrudes to form the lava flows and sheeted dikes

Solidification of magma within the chamber is thought to lead to

the formation of most of oceanic layer 4.
East Pacific Rise, suggesting an inverse correlation between
magma chamber depth and spreading rate
Magma chambers are viewed as composite structures comprising
an outer transition zone made up of a hot, mostly solidified crust
with small amounts of interstitial melts and an inner zone of crystal
mush with sufficient melt for it to behave as a very viscous fluid. A
melt lens only develops in fast-spreading ridges where there is a
sufficiently high rate of magma supply for it to persist at the top of
the mush zone
 Age –Depth Relationship at MOR
The major factor contributing to the uplift of mid ocean ridges is
the expansion and contraction of the material of the upper mantle

As newly formed oceanic lithosphere moves away from a mid-

ocean ridge, it becomes removed from underlying heat sources
and cools

This cooling has two effects: First: The lithosphere contracts and
increases in density
Second: Because the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary is
controlled by temperature the cooling causes the lithosphere to
increase in thickness away from the mid-ocean ridge.
The cooling and contraction of the lithosphere cause a
progressive increase in the depth to the top of the lithosphere
away from the ridge accompanied by a decrease in heat flow

Clearly the main constraints on these models are the observed

depth (corrected for sediment loading) and heat flux at the ocean
floor as a function of age
Parsons & Sclater (1977) determined the nature of the age–depth
relationships of oceanic lithosphere, and suggested that the depth
d (meters) is related to age t (Ma) by:
d = 2500 + 350 t1/2 (Half Space model)
This model Suggests the lithosphere cools indefinitely (as a single
layer)

(This relationship only holds for oceanic lithosphere younger

than 70 Ma)
Parsons & McKenzie (1978) suggested a model in which the
cooling layer comprises two units rather than the single unit
implied by half space model.
In this model the upper unit, through which heat moves by
conduction, is mechanically rigid, and the lower unit is a viscous
thermal boundary layer
As the lithosphere moves away from a spreading center, depth of
both units increases.

However, the lower unit eventually thickens to the point at which it

becomes unstable and starts to convect
This brings extra heat to the base of the upper layer and prevents
it thickening
This model suggests that the age– depth relationship for oceanic
lithosphere older than 70 Ma is then given by:

d = 6400 − 3200 exp(−t/62.8) (half plate model)

This model suggests the lithosphere ultimately attains an
equilibrium situation determined by the temperature at the
lithosphere– asthenosphere boundary and the depth at which this
occurs as a result of convection in the asthenosphere

Stein & Stein (1992), using a large global data set of depth and
heat flow measurements, derived a model (GDH1 – global depth
and heat flow model 1) that gave the best fit to the
observations.

Depth–age equations for GDH1 are:

d = 2600 + 365t1/2 for t < 20 Ma
and d = 5650 − 2473exp(−t/36) for t > 20 Ma
 Heat flow at spreading center
Near to the ocean ridge, as the rock contraction occurs, cracks
are developed. These cracks serve as path ways for circulation of
ocean water into depths and hence work as a heat transfer
medium.

The cracks are predicted to advance rapidly and cool a large

volume of rock in a relatively short time, so that intense localized
sources of heat are produced at the surface
Active geothermal systems that are driven by water coming into
contact with near-molten material are expected to be short-lived
As the oceanic crust moves away from the ridge crest, and
subsides, it is blanketed by impermeable sediments, and the
pores and cracks within it become clogged with minerals
deposited from the circulating water. Ultimately heat flux through it
is by conduction alone and hence normal heat flow measurements
are obtained.
This “sealing age” of oceanic crust would appear to be
approximately 60 Ma. (Depends upon the sedimentation rate)
The temperature of the venting fluids can, exceptionally, be as
high as 400°C. The chemistry of the hydrothermal springs on the
East Pacific Rise and Mid-Atlantic Ridge is remarkably similar,
in spite of the great difference in spreading rates, and suggests
that they have equilibrated with a greenschist assemblage of
minerals (Campbell et al., 1988). Abundance of green minerals such
as chlorite, serpentine,
and epidote, and platy minerals
such as muscovite and platy
serpentine
Other common minerals
include quartz, orthoclase, talc,
carbonate
minerals and amphibole (actinolite)
 ALONG AXIS SEGMENTATION OF OCEAN RIDGE

Swath mapping have been used to reveal variations in the

structure of ocean ridges along strike

Studies of the East Pacific Rise have shown that it is segmented

along its strike by nontransform ridge axis discontinuities such
as propagating rifts and overlapping spreading centers (OSC)

These features may migrate up or down the ridge axis with time
OSCs are nonrigid discontinuities where the spreading center of a
ridge is offset by a distance of 0.5–10 km, with the two ridge
portions overlapping each other by about three times the offset
OSCs originate on fast-
spreading ridges where
lateral offsets are less than
15 km, and true transform
faults fail to develop
because the lithosphere is
too thin and weak
The OSC geometry is
unstable for long duration

Tension orthogonal to
spreading centers causes
their lateral propagation
until they overlap and the
enclosed zone is subjected
to shear and rotational
deformation
The OSCs continue to advance until one tip links with the other
OSC
A single spreading center then develops as one OSC becomes
inactive and is moved away as spreading continues
Spreading ridges are segmented at several different scales:
First order segmentation is defined by fracture zones and
propagating rifts (transform faults) which divide the ridge at
intervals of 300–500 km by large axial depth anomalies
Second order segmentation at intervals of 50–300 km is caused
by nonrigid transform faults (which affect crust that is still thin and
hot) and large offset (3–10 km) OSCs that cause axial depth
anomalies of hundreds of meters

Third order segmentation at

intervals of 30–100 km is
defined by small offset (0.5–
3 km) OSCs, where depth
anomalies are only a few
tens of meters
Fourth order segmentation at intervals of 10–50 km is caused by
very small lateral offsets (<0.5 km) of the axial rift and small
deviations from axial linearity of the ridge axis
These are rarely associated with depth anomalies and may be
represented by gaps in the volcanic activity or geochemical
variation within the central rift
Fourth order segmentation is on the same
along-axis length scale as the intervals between
pure melt pockets
Third and fourth order segmentations appear to be short-lived, as
their effects can only be traced for a few kilometers in the
spreading direction

Second order segmentations, however, create off axis scars on

the spreading crust consisting of cuspate ridges and elongate
basins that cause differential relief of several hundred meters

Segmentation of ocean ridges appears to be controlled by the

distribution of partial melts beneath them
 Mineralisation
Detailed studies of the mineralogy and chemistry of these ancient
deposits (ophiolites) indicate that the physical and chemical
processes of seafloor mineralization in the early oceans were
fundamentally the same as those observed on the modern mid-
ocean ridges, and direct comparisons can be made between the
formation of modem and ancient sulfide deposits
Study suggests hydrothermal circulation occurs comes from the
presence of metalliferous deposits at ridge crests. The metals are
those known to be hydrothermally mobile, and must have been
leached from the oceanic crust by the ingress of seawater which
permitted their extraction in a hot, acidic, sulfide-rich solution
(Rona, 1984). On coming into contact with cold seawater on or
just below the sea floor the solutions precipitate base metal sulfide
deposits.
 Petrology of MORB
Under normal conditions the peridotite of the upper mantle does
not melt
However, the high heat flow at ocean ridges implies that the
geothermal gradient crosses the peridotite solidus at a depth of
about 50 km giving rise to the parental magma of the oceanic
crust . Similar high T-gradient is also found under oceanic island
Mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) have the composition of olivine
tholeiite and exhibit only minor variation in major element
composition caused by variable alumina and iron contents
They may contain phenocrysts of olivine or plagioclase or, rarely,
clinopyroxene
From experimental petrology, chemistry of the ocean ridge basalt
suggests that separation of the partial melt occurs at a depth of
15–25 km
The analysis of trace elements reveals that much of the
compositional variation in the basalts is explicable in terms of
high-level fractionation

The frequent presence of xenocrysts of deep-level origin indicates

that the rocks only spend a very short time in a high-level magma
Chamber

To explain the most extreme variations, however, it is necessary to

invoke the mixing of batches of magma
Detailed sampling of the East Pacific Rise revealed a series of
basalts that are diverse in their major and trace element chemistry

This compositional variation has been interpreted in terms of a

series of magmatic injection centers along the crest of the ridge

Flower (1981) has shown that differences in the lithology and

chemistry of basalts generated at midocean ridges show a simple
correlation with spreading rate

Slow-spreading systems are characterized by a complex magma

chamber in which there is widespread accumulation of calcic
plagioclase, the presence of phenocryst liquid reaction
morphologies, and pyroxene-dominated fractionation extracts.
Fast-spreading ridges, however, suggest low-pressure basalt
fractionation trends to iron-rich compositions with little plagioclase
accumulation or crystal–liquid interaction. This is consistent with
the magma chamber being a stable and steady state feature.

Basalts from very slow- and ultraslow-spreading ridges have lower

sodium and higher iron contents than typical MORB, reflecting a
smaller degree of mantle melting and melting at greater depths
Sampling along MAR shows that there are regular patterns of
chemical variation along it caused by differences in the depth and
extent of partial melting, degree of fractionation and rate of
spreading

THANK YOU
It follows that the width of a ridge depends upon the spreading
rate
In the East Pacific Rise the lithosphere cools indefinitely, whereas
in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
it ultimately attains an equilibrium situation determined by the
temperature at the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary and the
depth at which this occurs as a result of convection in the
asthenosphere
 FAULT PLANE SOLUTION/FOCAL MECHANISM SOLUTION

A fault plane solution is a way of showing the fault and the direction of slip on it from
an earthquake, using circles with two intersecting curves that look like beach balls.

https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/earth-hazards/earthquakes/how-are-earthquakes-detected/

https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Focal_mechanism
The main aim is to recognize and interpret the “beachball” diagram that graphically
represents the geometry of a moment tensor derived by seismologists using
sophisticated wave-form analysis

https://www.usna.edu/Users/oceano/pguth/md_help/geology_course/beachball_theory.htm
Focal mechanism solution (FMS) is the result of an analysis of wave forms generated by
an earthquake and recorded by a number of seismographs.

Body waves
Travel long distance

https://tenor.com/view/wave-seismic-geology-earth-quake-gif-26535956 https://www.geometrics.com/support/different-types-of-seismic-waves/

Surface
waves
Fade with distance
https://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm https://gpg.geosci.xyz/content/seismic/wave_basics.html
 It usually takes at least 10 records to produce a reasonable FMS, and then only if the
seismograph stations are well distributed geographically around the epicenter

https://giphy.com/gifs/IRIS-EPO-waves-earthquake-iris-ozPwVyt5eYZ1btwYwm

https://geo.libretexts.org/Courses/Gettysburg_College/Book%3A_An_Introduction_to_Geology_(Johnson_Affolter_Inkenbrandt https://geo.libretexts.org/Courses/Gettysburg_College/Book%3A_An_Introduction_to_Geology_(Johnson_Affolter_Inkenbrandt
_and_Mosher)/03%3A_Crustal_Deformation_and_Earthquakes/3.07%3A_Measuring_Earthquakes _and_Mosher)/03%3A_Crustal_Deformation_and_Earthquakes/3.07%3A_Measuring_Earthquakes
 http://www.isc.ac.uk/registries/

https://www.sms-tsunami-warning.com/pages/seismograph#.Y19Zvf1BxPY

https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-seismic-shadow-zone https://uag-earthsci.blogspot.com/2022/03/ https://giphy.com/explore/seismic-shadow-zone

 https://uag-earthsci.blogspot.com/2020/03/day-110-giftionary-measuring-distance.html https://seismo.berkeley.edu/blog/2012/01/01/how-to-read-a-seismogram-2.html

The complete characterization of an earthquake’s focal mechanism provides important

information such as:
The origin time
Epicenter location
Focal depth
Seismic moment (a direct measure of the energy radiated by an earthquake)
The magnitude and spatial orientation of the 9 components of the moment tensor
From the moment tensor, we can ultimately resolve the orientation and sense of slip of
the fault
 It’s pretty hard to interpret a 3 x 3 matrix
of numbers, so moment tensors are
usually displayed as beach balls, either
2D or 3D

https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/animation/focal_mechanisms_explained

https://mxrap.com/moment-tensors-a-practical-guide/

A moment tensor is a representation of the source of a seismic event. The stress

tensor and the moment tensor are very similar ideas. Much as a stress tensor describes
the state of stress at a particular point, a moment tensor describes the deformation at
the source location that generates seismic waves.
 For any moment tensor, there are two possible planes
called the nodal planes, and they are at right angles
to one another

One of the planes is the fault surface, and the other

is called the auxiliary plane and has no structural
significance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_mechanism

All a seismologist can say with reference to the moment tensor alone is that the
earthquake was generated on one or the other of the nodal planes. It takes geological
input to differentiate between the two possible fault-plane solutions

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-
5106621/134-earthquakes-rattle-San-Andreas-fault-just-
one-week.html https://slideplayer.com/slide/10551505/
 Analysis of several FMS
in a main shock-
aftershock sequence
allows us to map the
patch along the fault
that slipped, and
evaluate whether more
than one fault generated
earthquakes during the
sequence.
The great-circle arcs are
the nodal planes, one of
which coincides with the
fault surface that
generated the
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/2-Examples-of-focal-mechanism-beach-ball-diagrams-and-
earthquake https://seismo.berkeley.edu/mt/
their_fig22_343376667
FMS beachball diagrams are lower hemisphere stereographic projections that show two
black quadrants and two white quadrants separated by great- circle arcs oriented 90°
from each other.

https://slideplayer.com/slide/3277698/

http://civilengineering-notes.weebly.com/stereographic-projection.html

The great-circle arcs are the nodal

planes, one of which coincides
with the fault surface that
https://www.scribd.com/doc/219193710/Stereographic-Net
generated the earthquake
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Focal_mechanism
https://www.geological-digressions.com/stereographic-projection-the-basics/

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:StereoprojectStructuralgeol.jpg
Pure dip-slip faults include normal faults
and thrust faults. Only three of the four
quadrants are observable in the
beachball diagram for pure dip-slip
faults
The center of the beachball plot is white
for normal fault mechanisms (a), and the
center is black for reverse-fault
mechanisms (b). Reverse-fault FMS
diagrams look like cat’s eyes
https://slideplayer.com/slide/13516444/

Oblique-slip faults have both strike-slip and dip-slip

components. All four quadrants of a FMS beachball
diagram are included for oblique slip earthquakes

https://www.petmd.com/cat/general-health/common-cat-eye-problems
If the center of the beachball plot is in a white quadrant
(a), the fault has a normal component of slip, regardless
of which of the two nodal planes is the fault; if the center
is in a black quadrant (b), the fault has a reverse
component of slip Cronin, 2004

Some Examples

Cronin, 2004
 How is a focal mechanism solution
derived?
The basic techniques for using P-wave
D
first motions recorded by an array of
seismographs to define a FMS
D
beachball diagram

U D D U

U
U D D

U U
D D Kuang et al., 2021
Cronin, 2004
 Cronin, 2004

Data plotted on a lower-hemisphere stereographic projection on an equal-area stereonet.

The data from each seismograph station is plotted with one of three symbols: a circle (ₒ)
if the P-wave first motion was down (extension), a black dot (• ) if the first motion was up
(compression), or an x (x) if the first motion was too weak to differentiate.

For each station, the symbol is placed along a line extending from the center of the plot
toward the azimuth of the station relative to the earthquake focus, and the take-off angle
defines the angular distance from the center of the plot to the symbol.
Take-off angles depend on the velocity model of the Earth, the source depth, and the
epicentral distance at which the considered rays arrive at the Earth’s surface.

https://zdocs.hu/doc/1-seismology-4-rdpeojk2mm6e

During earthquake events the values for both the azimuth (AZM) and take-off angles of
the rays leaving the source towards the considered stations are given in the output file
 https://www.induced.pl/faq/how-should-i-provide-takeoff-angle-in-raw-ascii-file-format

https://maps.unomaha.community/Maher/GEOL3300/lab/lab5.html
https://slideplayer.com/slide/3277698/
After all of the first-motion data are plotted
(illustration “a”), two great-circle arcs are identified
on the stereonet representing two planes that are
at right angles to one another, that separate the
circles from the black dots, and that pass near or
through the x symbols (b).
Cronin, 2004

These are the nodal planes, one of which is

coincident with the fault that produced the
earthquake. Finally, we fill-in the quadrants
according to convention (c)
Just three data elements are needed to
completely specify the orientation of a FMS
beachball diagram (e.g., two elements to
specify the orientation of the fault plane and
one element to specify the orientation of
?
the slip vector on that plane).
https://slideplayer.com/slide/3277698/
Focal mechanism solution for
Divergent and Convergent
margins
 https://tenor.com/view/nuclear-underground-gif-21486437

https://mobile.twitter.com/seismofin
Continental rifts are regions of extensional deformation where the
entire thickness of the lithosphere has deformed under the
influence of deviatoric tension

The term “rift” thus applies only

to major lithospheric features and
does not encompass the smaller-
scale extensional structures that
can form in association with
virtually any type of deformation
From Rifting to Drifting
Rifts represent the initial stage of continental break-up where
extension may lead to lithospheric rupture and the formation of a
new ocean basin.

If it succeeds to the point of rupture the continental rift eventually

becomes inactive and a passive or rifted continental margin forms

These margins subside below sea level as a result of isostatic

compensation of thinned continental crust and as the heat that
was transferred to the plate from the asthenosphere during rifting
dissipates
Failed rifts, or aulacogens, become inactive during some stage of
their evolution

A classic failed continental rift or

aulacogen is one that intersects a rifted
continental margin at a high angle
Internal structure, history, and dimensions of the rifts are highly
variable (Ruppel, 1995).

This variability is due to differences in the strength and rheology of

the lithosphere at the time rifting initiates and by processes that
influence these properties as rifting progresses
Where the lithosphere is thick, cool, and strong, rifts tend to form
narrow zones of localized strain less than 100 km wide
The Baikal Rift, the East African Rift system, and the Rhine
Graben
The East African Rift

The Baikal Rift

The Rhine Rift

Where the lithosphere is thin, hot, and weak, rifts tend to form
wide zones where strain is delocalized and distributed across
zones several hundreds of kilometers wide
Example: Basin and Range province, USA

Both varieties of
rift may be
associated with
volcanic activity
Some rift segments, such as those in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Afar,
are characterized by voluminous magmatism and the eruption of
continental flood basalts

Others, such as the Western branch of the East African Rift

system and the Baikal Rift, are magma starved and characterized
by very small volumes of volcanic rock
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NARROW RIFTS
Developed by
extensional
deformation that
is localized into a
series of
discrete rift
segments of
variable age
These rifts display characteristics developed on relatively strong,
cool continental lithosphere
Key features include:
1. Asymmetric rift basins flanked
by normal faults
Associated with formation of
sedimentary basins that are
bounded by normal faults
Most tectonically active rift basins show
an asymmetric half graben morphology
where the majority of the strain is
accommodated along border faults that
bound the deep side of the basins
The polarity of these half grabens may change along the strike of
the rift axis, resulting in a segmentation of the rift valley

2. Shallow seismicity and regional tensional stresses

Beneath the axis of most continental rifts earthquakes generally
are confined to the uppermost 12–15 km of the crust, defining a
seismogenic layer that is thin relative to other regions of the
continents

Away from the rift axis, earthquakes may occur to depths of 30 km

or more. These patterns imply that rifting and thinning locally
weaken the crust and affect its mechanical behavior
The earthquakes show combinations of normal, oblique and
strikeslip motions.

Up to 80% of the total

extensional strain is
localized within these
magmatic segments (Bilham
et al., 1999; Ebinger &
Casey, 2001)

The largest earthquakes typically occur along or near major

border faults, although the seismicity data indicate that the border
faults are mostly aseismic

In the rift flanks, seismic activity may reflect flexure of the crust as
well as movement along faults
3. Local crustal thinning modified by magmatic activity
Geophysical data indicate that continental rifts are characterized
by thinning of the crust beneath the rift axis.

Crustal thicknesses,
like the fault geometries
in rift basins, are
variable and may be
asymmetric

Thick crust may occur beneath the rift flanks as a result of

magmatic intrusions indicating that crustal thinning is mostly a
local phenomenon (Mackenzie et al., 2005; Tiberi et al., 2005).
Variations in crustal thickness may also reflect inherited (pre-rift)
structural differences
Gravity data provide additional evidence that the crustal structure
of rift zones is permanently modified by magmatism that occurs
both prior to and during rifting

The negative gravity anomalies reflect the presence of

anomalously low density upper mantle and elevated geotherms
(Tessema & Antoine, 2004)

Positive Bouguer gravity anomalies that reflect the presence of

cooled, dense mafic intrusions (Tiberi et al., 2005).
4. High heat flow and low velocity, low density upper mantle
There is a large degree of variability in temperature and volcanic
activity among rifts

The Baikal Rift, for example, is much

cooler. This rift displays low regional
heat flow of 40–60 mW m−2
(Lysack, 1992) and lacks volcanic
activity.

In the East African rift, domal uplifts and pervasive volcanism

result

Heat flow measurements averaging 70–90 mW m−2 and low

seismic velocities in many rift basins suggest temperature
gradients (50–100°C km−1) that are higher than those in the
adjacent rift flanks and nearby cratons
In addition to the high
temperatures, the low velocity
zones beneath rifts may also
reflect the presence of partial
melt

Geophysical and geological

evidences from seismic,
gravity indicate that the upper
mantle underlying rifts is
characterized by low velocity,
low density and anomalously
high temperature material
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WIDE RIFTS
Large extensional
strains have
accumulated across a
zone ranging in width
from 500 to 800 km

In the central part of

the province, some
250–300 km of
horizontal extension
measured at the
surface has occurred
since ∼16 Ma
 This shows that continental
lithosphere may be highly extended
without rupturing to form a new ocean
basin

This pattern is characteristic of rifts

that form in relatively thin, hot, and
weak continental lithosphere
Key features include:
1. Broadly distributed deformation
The Basin and Range
Province is bounded on the
west by the greater San
Andreas Fault system and
Sierra Nevada–Great Valley
microplate and on the east
by the Colorado Plateau
Both the Sierra and the
Plateau record
comparatively low heat
flow values (40–60 mW
m−2) and virtually no
Cenozoic extensional
deformation
In between these two rigid
blocks Cenozoic deformation
has resulted in a broad zone of
linear, north-trending mountain
ranges of approximately
uniform size and spacing
across thousands of square
kilometers
Most of the major faults in the
Basin and Range have
recurrence times of several
thousand years

The depth distribution of

microearthquakes shows a thin
seismogenic layer that is relative
to other regions of the continent
(Approximately 98% of events
occur at depths less than 15 km)
2. Heterogeneous crustal thinning in previously thickened crust
In the Basin and Range and the Aegean Sea the thick crust
results from a history of convergence and crustal shortening that
predates rifting

Virtually the entire western margin of North America was

subjected to a series of compressional orogenies during Mesozoic
times (Allmendinger, 1992)
Some estimates place parts of the province at a pre-rift crustal
thickness of 50 km, similar to that of the unextended Colorado
Plateau (Parsons et al., 1996)
The Moho depth vary from 40km (E)
to 19-23km (NW)
The nonuniformity of crustal thinning in the Basin and Range is
expressed in patterns of faulting within the upper crust

In some areas, such as the Large strains have been

Funeral and Black mountains, the compensated at depth by
upper crust has been dissected lateral flow in a weak lower
and pulled apart to such a degree crust, which acted to smooth
that pieces of the middle crust are out any Moho topography
exposed (Snow & Wernicke, 2000)
3. Thin mantle lithosphere and anomalously high heat flow
Most wide rifts are is characterized by high surface heat flow,
negative long-wavelength Bouguer gravity anomalies, and low
crustal P and S velocities (Catchings & Mooney, 1991; Jones et
al., 1992; Zandt et al., 1995; Chulick & Mooney, 2002).

Temperatures at 110 km depth inferred

from seismic velocity models suggest
the presence of small melt and fluid
pockets in the shallow mantle beneath
the Basin and Range (Goes & van der
Lee, 2002).

Warm, low-density sub-solidus mantle

also may contribute to the high average
elevation and large-scale variations in
topography of the region.
Pre-rift volcanism is mostly calc-alkaline in
composition.
Magmatism that accompanied extension is
mostly basaltic.

Basalts from Nevada have an isotopic

signature suggesting that they were
derived from sub-lithospheric mantle.

Schematic plot of Fe content in magmas

versus oxidation state (fO 2 ) for calc-
alkaline to alkaline magmas associated
with porphyry Cu, Cu-Mo and Mo
deposits and W, Sn deposits.
LIP: Large Igneous Province
4. Small- and large-magnitude normal faulting:
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
Alfred Wegener first thought of this idea by noticing that the
different large landmasses of the Earth almost fit together like a
jigsaw puzzle.
The Continental shelf of the Americas fit closely to Africa
and Europe, and Antarctica, Australia, India and Madagascar fit
next to the tip of Southern Africa
 In 1912 Wegener proposed the theory which hypothesized
that the continents were slowly drifting around the Earth

 From 1912, Wegener publicly advocated the theory of

"continental drift", arguing that all the continents were once
joined together in a single landmass and have drifted apart
DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND SEA THROUGH GEOLOGICAL TIMES
 He supposed the cause might be the centrifugal force of the
Earth's rotation ("Polflucht") or the astronomical precession

 The one American edition of Wegener's work, published in

1925, was received so poorly that the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists organized a symposium specifically in
opposition to the continental drift hypothesis

 His hypothesis was controversial and not widely accepted until

the 1950s.
 He analyzed either side of the Atlantic Ocean for rock type,
geological structures and fossils.

 He noticed that there was a significant similarity between

matching sides of the continents, especially in fossil plants. His
hypothesis was thus strongly supported by the physical
evidence, and was a pioneering attempt at a rational
explanation.
 Application of the technique of paleomagnetism in the 1950s
and 1960s provided the first quantitative evidence that
continents had moved at least in a north–south direction during
geologic time. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the
continents had undergone relative motions, and this confirmed
that continental drift had actually occurred.

 According to continental drift, continents have moved slowly to

their current locations.
 He called this large landmass as Pangea (means all land)
Supercontinent name Age (Ma) Period/Era Range
Rodinia 1,130–750 Stenian-Tonian
Pannotia 633–573 Ediacaran
Gondwana 550–175 Ediacaran-Jurassic
Pangaea 336–175 Carboniferous-Jurassic
 EVIDENCES
Geometric reconstruction of continents:
Though approximate reconstructions were performed manually by
moving models of continents across but, an accurately
constructed globe (Carey, 1958), were performed mathematically
by computer, to minimize the degree of misfit between the
juxtaposed continental margins.

Instead of the coastlines, the true junction between continental

and oceanic lithosphere was taken for matching
 The reconstruction of continents (Geometric fit)
The first mathematical reassembly
of continents based solely on
geometric criteria was performed
by Bullard et al. (1965), who fitted
together the continents on either
side of the Atlantic. This was
accomplished by sequentially fitting
pairs of continents after
determining their best fitting poles
of rotation

Number of overlaps of geologic significance, may be related

to the process of stretching and thinning during the
formation of rifted continental margins
Geometric evidence alone has also been used in the
reconstruction of the southern continents that make up
Gondwanaland

Fitting of continental edges of the east coast of Africa,

Madagascar, India, Australia, and Antarctica has been confirmed
by subsequent analysis of the record of magnetic lineations in the
Indian Ocean and the presence of Gondwanaland was confirmed
GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES:
Matching of geologic features across the general trend of the
supercontinent:

There remain many geologic features that can be correlated

across juxtaposed continental margins
1. Fold belts: The continuity of the Appalachian fold belt of eastern
North America with the Caledonian fold belt of northern Europe.

Composition, grain size and age distribution of zircon grains in these sediments suggest the
source of sediments in the Caledonides of northern Europe lies to the west in a location now
occupied by the Atlantic, indicating that, in the past, this location must have been occupied by
continental crust
Age provinces: The correlation of the patterns of ages across
the southern Atlantic which illustrates the matching of both
Precambrian cratons and rocks of Paleozoic age
Igneous provinces: Distinctive igneous rocks can be traced
between continents both to extrusive and intrusive rocks, such as
the belt of Mesozoic dolerite, which extends through southern
Africa, Antarctica, and Tasmania, and the approximately linear
trend of Precambrian anorthosites through Africa, Madagascar
and India
The presence of chains of volcanic islands and
seamounts interpreted to have formed from fixed hotspots allows
the plate on which they sit to be progressively restored so that a
seamount is moved back over the hotspot at its time of formation.
This method can be used back to the Early Cretaceous, the age of
the oldest evidence for hotspot activity. This method gives an
absolute reconstruction of both latitude and longitude
Stratigraphic sections: Distinctive stratigraphic
Gondwana successions can be correlated between adjacent
continents. Marker beds of tillite and coal, and sediments
containing Glossopteris and Gangamopteris flora can be
correlated through South America, South Africa, Antarctica, India,
and Australia.

Coal-Warm and humid

climate
Tillite- Glacial
environment
Plant varieties depends
upon climate
Metallogenic provinces: Regions containing
manganese, iron ore, gold, and tin can be matched across
adjacent coastlines on such reconstructions

(Metallogenic province: Geographic area characterized by a particular

assemblage of mineral deposits, or by a distinctive style
of mineralization)
 The distribution of climatic regions on the Earth is controlled by
a complex interaction of many phenomena, including solar flux
(i.e. latitude), wind directions, ocean currents, elevation, and
topographic barriers which in turn are controlled by latitude
 It appears likely that the study of climatic indicators in ancient
rocks can be used to infer, in a general sense, their ancient
latitude
Carbonates and reef Warm water, within 30° of the equator and narrow
deposits temperature range 25–30°C
Evaporite Hot arid condition, evaporation exceeds seawater influx
and/or precipitation, between about 10° and 50°
Red-beds Sediments contain hematite , under oxidizing condition
with adequate iron . Presently found latitudes of less
than 30°
Coal Vegetation accumulation rate exceeds that of removal
and decay. (Tropical rain forests, where growth rates are
very high or temperate forests where growth is slower
but decay is inhibited by cold winters). Carboniferous
coals are predominantly of the low latitude type,
whereas the Permian coals of Gondwana are of the high
latitude type.
Phosphorites Within 45° of the equator along the western margins
Bauxite and laterite Conditions of tropical or subtropical weathering
Glacial deposits Within about 30°of the poles at the present day
Any exception from the above condition indicate the shift of climatic
condition or shift of depositional sites (continental drift)
 PALAEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES:
 Continental drift has affected the distribution of ancient animals
and plants by creating barriers to their dispersal
Growth of an ocean between two fragments of a supercontinent
which prevented migration between them by terrestrial life-forms

The past distribution of tetrapods implies that there must have

been easy communication between all parts of Gondwana and
Laurasia
 Remains of the early Permian reptile Mesosaurus are found in
Brazil and southern Africa

 Although adapted to swimming, it is believed that Mesosaurus

was incapable of travelling large distances and could not have
crossed the 5000 km of ocean now present between these two
localities
 The widespread dispersal of marine invertebrates can only
occur in their larval stages when they form part of the plankton
 For most species the larval stage is too short lived to exist for
the duration of the crossing of a large ocean
The distribution of Cambrian trilobites strongly suggests that in
Lower Paleozoic times there existed several continents
separated by major ocean basins

The similarity between ammonite species

now found in India, Madagascar, and Africa
indicates that only shallow seas could have
existed between these regions in Jurassic times
 Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering Curve
It uses the fossilized magnetism of Paramagnetic minerals
(possess an odd number of unpaired electron)
When a paramagnetic substance is placed in a weak external
magnetic field, such as the Earth’s field, the atomic dipoles rotate
so as to become parallel to the external field direction. This
induced magnetization is lost when the substance is removed
from the field as the dipoles return to their original orientations
Certain paramagnetic substances which contain
a large number of unpaired electrons are termed
ferromagnetic
The magnetic structure of these
substances tends to devolve into a
number of magnetic domains, within which
the atoms are coupled by the interaction
of the magnetic fields of the unpaired
electrons. This possible below Curie Point
Paramagnetic minerals are capable of retaining a record of the
past direction of the Earth’s magnetic field when form below Curie
Point (is the temperature where a material's
permanent magnetism changes to induced magnetism)
Rocks can acquire a natural remnant magnetization (NRM) in
several ways: Primary/Secondary
1) TRM (Thermo remnant magnetism)
2) DRM (Depositional/Detrital remnant magnetism)
3) CRM (Chemical remnant magnetism)
4) IRM (Isothermal remnant magnetization)
5) VRM (Viscous remnant magnetization)
The primary remnance of igneous rocks is known as thermo
remnant magnetization (TRM). It is acquired as the rock cools
from its molten state to below the Curie temperature, which is
realized after solidification. At this stage its ferromagnetic minerals
pick up a magnetism in the same sense as the geomagnetic field
at that time, which is retained during its subsequent history.
Example:-Magnetite in Basalt and Pegmatite

(a) to (c) shows how the process of heating a sample up to, and above the Curie temperature
causes the magnetic particles to demagnetise until there is no net magnetisation.
As the material is cooled back through the Curie temperature, the magnetic particles
remagnetise in a direction that is close to the prevailing magnetic field, as shown in (d) and (e),
resulting in a net magnetisation within the sample.
The primary remanence in clastic sedimentary rocks is known as
detrital remanent magnetization (DRM).
As the sedimentary particles settle through the water column, any
ferromagnetic minerals present align in the direction of the
geomagnetic field

On reaching bottom the particles flatten out, and if of elongate

form preserve the azimuth of the geomagnetic field but not its
inclination
After burial, when the sediment is in a wet slurry state, the
magnetic particles realign with the geomagnetic field as a result of
microseismic activity, and this orientation is retained as the rock
consolidates
Chemical remnant magnetization (CRM) is acquired when
ferromagnetic minerals are formed as a result of a chemical
reaction, such as oxidation during diagenetic reaction and
metamorphism

A common form of chemical

remnant magnetization is
held by the mineral hematite

Hematite forms through

chemical oxidation reactions
of other minerals
in the rock including magnetite. Redbeds, clastic sedimentary
rocks (such as sandstones) are red because of hematite that
formed during sedimentary diagenesis.
Isothermal remnant magnetization (IRM) occurs in rocks which
have been subjected to strong magnetic fields, as in the case of a
lightning strike

Lightning-induced remnant magnetization can be distinguished by

its high intensity and rapid variation in direction over scales of
centimeters
IRM is often induced in drill cores by the magnetic field of the steel
core barrel. This contaminant is generally parallel to the barrel,
and most of it can be removed by heating up to about 400℃ or
demagnetizing in a small alternating field.
Remnance of this sort is not useful for paleomagnetism
Viscous remnant magnetization (VRM) may arise when a rock
remains in a relatively weak magnetic field over a long period of
time as the magnetic domains relax and acquire the external field
direction. The natural remanent magnetization of ultramafic
igneous rocks can be altered by this process.

Any subsequent magnetization in rocks are regarded as noise,

because to construct the palaeo pole position, only the initial
magnetic field is required

CRM, TRM, and DRM tend to be “hard,” and remain stable over
long periods of time, whereas certain secondary components of
NRM, notably VRMs, tend to be “soft” and lost relatively easily
It is thus possible to destroy the “soft” components and isolate the
“hard” components by the technique of magnetic cleaning

The geomagnetic field undergoes progressive changes with time,

resulting from variations in the convective circulation pattern in the
core, known as secular variation
Secular variation value is average out from strata of different ages
and is deducted from the measured value
Paleomagnetic measurements provide the intensity, azimuth and
inclination of the primary remnant magnetization, which reflect the
geomagnetic parameters at the time and place at which the rock
was formed

Inclination (I) can be used to determine the paleolatitude φ at

which the rock formed according to the relationship 2 tan φ = tan I
What about Longitude………?????
It is important to recognize that remnant magnetization directions
cannot provide an estimate of paleolongitude

If a paleomagnetic study provides a magnetic pole position

different from the present pole, it implies either that the magnetic
pole has moved throughout geologic time, that is, the magnetic
pole has wandered relative to the rotational pole (apparent polar
wander (APW), or if the poles have remained stationary that the
sampling site has moved, that is, continental drift has occurred
It appears that wandering of the magnetic pole away from the
geographic pole is unlikely because all theoretical models for the
generation of the field predict a dominant dipole component
paralleling the Earth’s rotational axis
Consequently, paleomagnetic studies can be used to provide a
quantitative measure of continental drift
This representation does not reflect real events, but it overcomes
the lack of control of paleolongitude and facilitates the display of
information from different regions on the same diagram
The observation that the apparent position of the pole differed for
rocks of different ages from the same continent demonstrated that
continents had moved over the surface of the Earth

Moreover, the fact that APW paths were different for different
continents demonstrated unequivocally that relative movements of
the continents had taken place, that is, continental drift had
occurred
APW paths can be used to interpret motions, collisions, and
disruptions of continents and are especially useful for pre-
Mesozoic continents whose movements cannot be traced by the
pattern of magnetic lineations in their surrounding ocean basins
IF CONTINENTS DRIFT THAN
WHAT ABOUT OCEANS…………….????????
 Harry Hess an USA Naval
officer in World War- II
proposed the theory of
“SEA FLOOR
SPREADING” in 1960

SONAR (sound,
navigation, and range)
SEA FLOOR SPREADING used to map the ocean
floor

A system of underwater
mountain ranges
discovered in Atlantic and
later around the world

Supported Wegner’s
Continental Drift Theory
• Questions Hess wanted answers to:
– Why is there so little sediment deposited on the ocean
floor? If the oceans have existed for at least 4 billion years,
as most geologists believed, shouldn’t there be more?

– Why are fossils found on the seafloor no more than

180/200 million years old? Marine fossils in sedimentary
rocks on land -- some of which are found high in the
Himalayas, over 8,500 m above sea level – are much older.
• Hess’ reasoning:
– Sediment has been accumulating for about 200-180
million years at most.
• Matches time needed for the ocean floor
to move from the ridge crest to the
ocean trenches, where oceanic crust
descends into the trench and is destroyed.

– Magma is continually rising along the mid-oceanic

ridges, "recycling" crustal material by creating new
oceanic crust.
• Recycling of the seafloor explains why the oldest fossils
found on the seafloor are no more than about 180 million
years old.
• Explains how continents moved
– Wegener thought the continents must simply "plough"
through the ocean floor, critics argued this was physically
impossible

– With seafloor spreading, the continents did not have to push

through the ocean floor but were carried along as the ocean
floor spread from the ridges
Huge cracks discovered in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean
 There is a chain of submerged mountains running through the
center of the Atlantic Ocean
This chain is called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Runs parallel at the middle of the
Atlantic Ocean
• This ridge is part of a system of ocean ridges
• Mid-ocean ridges are underwater mountain chains that run
through Earth’s ocean basins
• In Iceland Mid Atlantic Ridge is exposed at Krafla island
 Mid Ocean Ridges are where sea floor spreading occurs
 Sea floor spreading is the process by which new oceanic
lithosphere is created as older materials are pushed away
 As tectonic plates move away from each other, the sea floor
spreads apart and magma rises to fill the gap
1) Hot, less dense material below Earth’s crust rises towards the
surface at the mid-ocean ridges
2) Then, it flows sideways, carrying the seafloor away from the
ridge.
3) As the seafloor spreads apart, magma
moves up and flows from the cracks, cools,
and forms new seafloor
 Evidence of sea-floor spreading
• 1. Magnetic stripes

Magnetic survey in the ocean floor reveals that the oceanic crust
shows alternate arrangement of normal as well as reverse
magnetism
The alternate normal and reverse magnetized strips represent
positive and negative anomaly, respectively
These absolute values are subsequently corrected for the
externally induced magnetic field (34%) variations which give rise
to a diurnal effect, and the regional magnetic field arising from that
part of the magnetic field generated in the Earth’s core (66%)

The anomalies originate from the generally small proportion of

ferromagnetic minerals contained within the rocks, of which the
most common is magnetite

In general, ultramafic and mafic rocks contain a high proportion of

magnetite and thus give rise to large magnetic anomalies
On continent, magnetic anomalies reflect the variable geology of
the upper continental crust (Fe-ore deposit, basaltic flow, Ni-conc.)

The oceanic crust, however, is known to be laterally uniform and

so unless the magnetic properties are heterogeneous it would be
expected that marine magnetic anomalies would reflect this
compositional uniformity
They are generally 10–20 km wide and run parallel to the crests of
the mid-ocean ridge system and are symmetrical about the ridge
axes

Their continuity, however, is interrupted at major oceanic fracture

zones, where the individual anomalies are offset laterally by
distances of up to 1100 km
The source of these linear magnetic anomalies cannot be
oceanic layer 1, which is made up of nonmagnetic sediments

Theycannot be influenced from a depth corresponding to

layer 3 as sources solely within this layer would be too deep to
generate the steep anomaly gradients
Thesource of the anomalies must therefore be, at least in part,
inoceanic layer 2. This conclusion is consistent with the
basaltic composition of layer 2 determined by dredging and drilling
since basalt is known to contain a relatively high proportion of
magnetic minerals
If magnetic lineations are generated by a layer of homogeneous
composition, how do the magnetic contrasts originate that are
responsible for the juxtaposition of large positive and negative
magnetic anomalies ?

Layer 2 has been divided into a series of blocks running parallel to

the ridge crest which have been assigned magnetization vectors
which are either in the direction of the ambient geomagnetic field
or in the reversed direction.
The rates at which geomagnetic reversals have occurred in the
geologic past is highly variable

There has been a gradual increase in the rate of reversals during

the Cenozoic, following a period during the Cretaceous when the
field was of constant normal polarity for 35 Ma.

Paleomagnetic studies reveal a similar prolonged period of

reverse polarity in the Late Carboniferous and Permian
More recently, paleomagnetic studies of sediments, lava flow
sequences, and slowly cooled igneous intrusions have shown that
a magnetic reversal occurs over a time interval of about 5000
years.

It is accompanied by a reduction in field intensity to about 25% of

its normal value which commences some time before the reversal
and continues for some time afterwards, with a total duration of
about 10,000 years.
Consequently, blocks of normally magnetized crust formed at high
northern latitudes possess a magnetization vector that dips
steeply to the north, and the vector of reversely magnetized
material is inclined steeply upwards towards the south

The magnetic profile observed over this portion of crust will be

characterized by positive anomalies over normally magnetized
blocks and negative anomalies over reversely magnetized blocks
A similar situation pertains in high southern latitudes

Crust magnetized at low latitudes also generates positive and

negative anomalies in this way, but because of the relatively
shallow inclination of the magnetization vector, the anomaly over
any particular block is markedly dipolar, with both positive and
negative components

Since the Earth is not increasing in surface area by any significant

amount, the increase in size of those oceans growing by sea floor
spreading would be balanced by the destruction of lithosphere at
the same rate in another, shrinking, ocean by subduction at deep
sea trenches situated around its margins
2. Chains of volcanic islands: Presence of seamounts
interpreted to have formed from fixed hotspots allows the plate on
which they sit to be progressively restored so that a seamount is
moved back over the hotspot at its time of formation.
This method can be used back to the Early Cretaceous, the
age of the oldest evidence for hotspot activity. This method gives
an absolute reconstruction of both latitude and longitude
• 3. Drilling Samples
– The Glomar Challenger drilled for core samples

– Samples revealed that the rocks get older the further

away from the ridge the samples are taken.
The crust increases in age the farther it moves
away from the mid-ocean ridge.
• It means that newer rock is closest to the ridge and older rock
is farther away.
• The oldest crust in the Atlantic Ocean is found near the edges
of the continents
• The Oceanic lithosphere acts as a conveyor belt
• Subduction is causing the Pacific ocean to get smaller
• The Atlantic ocean has few subduction zones and is therefore
getting larger
Surfacing plume heads can
promote formation of new
oceans – Atlantic.

a) Lithosphere moves over hot area in

mantle

b) It is uplifted forming a dome and

starts to crack apart

c) The crust is weaker and extensional

forces create a continental rift

d) New sea floor is created within the

rift.

The rifted continental lithosphere

becomes a continental margin
Formation of a Mid-Ocean Ridge
Probably occurring
today under Ethiopia -
East African Rift is a
failed rift or aulacogen.
 Spreading rate at MOR

“Fast-spreading ridges” East Pacific Rise (100-200 mm/y)

“Slow-spreading ridges” Mid-Atlantic Ridge (20-40 mm/y)
“Ultraslow-spreading ridges” Southwest Indian Ridge(<20
mm/y)
Mid Atlantic Ridge East Pacific Rise
Slow Fast
Magma chamber processes may be different at fast-spreading ridges compared
to slow ones

Fast ridge segments (EPR) display a broader range of compositions, and

produce a larger proportion of evolved liquids than do slow segments

Also magmas erupted slightly off the axis of ridges are more evolved than those
at the axis itself
 THANK YOU

HURRY UP…….SEA FLOOR IS SPREADING

CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY

A convergent boundary developes when two

plates move toward each other and collide
Accretionary
margins are
indicated by
solid barbs, and
erosive margins
by open barbs
Salient Features:
1. Sites of destruction of down
going lithospheric plate
better known as
“Subduction Zone” OR
“Collision Zone”
2. Defined by the highest depth
of the ocean basin at trench
3. Destruction of oldest part of
the oceanic lithosphere
formed at MOR
4. Formation of new rocks by igneous activities
5. Sites of important Mineralization and Metamorphism
6. Formation of new sedimentary basins (Fore arc and Back arc)
7. Characterized by deep focus earthquakes
There are three types of collision:
Oceanic - Oceanic
Oceanic - Continental
Continental – Continental

Subduction zones are when one plate is forced below another

plate. They ONLY occur when oceanic crust is colliding.
(Subducted means to be pulled under)
Oceanic – Oceanic Subduction

Example: Mariana Islands in the Pacific

 Philippine Plate- Pacific plate
• Oceanic – Oceanic
• The Philippine plate converges with the Pacific
plate to form the Mariana Trench
When Oceanic-Oceanic
convergence takes place,
island arc occurs
 Caribbean Fault
• The American plates are converging with the
Caribbean plate from the east.
Japan formed as an island chain as the Pacific and
Phillipines Plate dives beneath the Eurasian Plate
When two oceanic
plate collide, it can
result in the
formation of
Volcanoes
Over millions of years,
the erupted lava
and volcanic debris
pile up on the ocean
Floor
Finally, a volcano rise
above sea level to
form an island
volcano. Such
volcanoes are
typically strung out
in chains called
island arcs
 GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF ISLAND ARC SYSTEMS
Island arc systems are formed when oceanic lithosphere is
subducted beneath oceanic lithosphere

They are typical of the margins of shrinking oceans such as the

Pacific, where the majority of island arcs are located.
They also occur in the western Atlantic, where the Lesser
Antilles (Caribbean) and South Sandwich (Scotia) arcs are formed
at the eastern margins of small oceanic plates isolated by
transform faults against the general westward trend of movement.
All of the components of island arc systems are usually convex to
the underthrusting ocean

This convexity may be a consequence of spherical geometry

The radius of curvature of the trench and island arc on the Earth’s
surface depends upon the angle of subduction (not always true)
Width of the forearc and backarc basin depends upon the angle of
subduction too
If the average subduction angle
is about 45°, the radius of
curvature of the trench and
island arc on the Earth’s surface
is then about 2500 km

45°
The generalized morphology of an island arc system

This value is in agreement with some, but not all, island arc
systems

For example, the angle of underthrusting at the Mariana arc is

almost 90°, but it has one of the smallest radii of curvature
Idealized model of island arc. Not all components are present in
every system
Proceeding from the oceanward side of the system, a flexural
bulge about 500 m high occurs between 100 and 200 km from the
trench
The fore arc region comprises the trench itself, the accretionary
prism, and the fore arc basin. The accretionary prism is
constructed of thrust slices of trench fill (flysch) sediments and
possibly oceanic crust sediments that have been scraped off the
down going slab by the leading edge of the overriding plate
The forearc basin is a region of tranquil, flat-bedded
sedimentation between the accretionary prism and island arc

The island arc is made up of an outer sedimentary arc and an

inner magmatic arc
 The sedimentary arc comprises coralline and volcanoclastic
sediments underlain by volcanic rocks older than those found in
the magmatic arc
This volcanic substrate may represent the initial site of volcanism
as the relatively cool oceanic plate began its descent. As the
“cold” plate extended further into the asthenosphere the position
of igneous activity moved backwards to its steady state location
now represented by the magmatic arc
 Trench
Oceanic trenches are the direct manifestation of underthrusting
oceanic lithosphere, and are developed on the ocean ward side
of both the island arcs and Andean-type orogens that form above
subduction zones
Longest underwater depressions

The Peru–Chile Trench is 4500 km long and reaches depths of

2–4 km below the surrounding ocean floor so that its base is 7–8
km below sea level.
The trenches in the western Pacific are typically deeper than
those of the eastern Pacific margin, the greatest trench depths, of
10–11 km, occurring in the Mariana and Tonga–Kermadec
trenches
The main control on the maximum depth of a particular trench
would appear to be the age of the oceanic lithosphere being
subducted, as this determines the depth to the oceanic crust
entering the trench

Trenches are generally 50–100 km in width and in section form an

asymmetric V-shape with the steepest slope, of 8–20°, on the side
opposite the underthrusting ocean floor
The sediment fill of trenches can vary greatly, from virtually
nothing, as in the Tonga–Kermadec trench, to almost complete, as
in the Lesser Antilles and Alaskan trenches because of the supply
of sediment from adjacent continental areas
Melange is a large-
scale breccia, a mappable
body of rock characterized by
a lack of continuous bedding
and the inclusion of fragments
of rock of all sizes, contained
in a fine-grained deformed
matrix. The mélange typically
consists of a jumble of large
blocks of varied lithologies.
Mariana Trench
The greatest ocean depth to be sounded is in the Challenger
Deep of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of 10,911 m (35,797 ft)
below sea level.

Oceanic lithosphere moves into trenches at a global rate of about

3 km2/yr
The trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the center of
the Earth
This is because the Earth is not a perfect sphere: its radius is
about 25 kilometres (16 mi) less at the poles than at the equator
As a result, parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13
kilometres (8.1 mi) closer to the Earth's center than the Challenger
Deep seafloor
 GRAVITY ANOMALIES OF SUBDUCTION ZONES

The flexural bulge of the down going lithosphere to seaward of the

trench is marked by a positive gravity anomaly

The trench and accretionary prism are typified by a large negative

anomaly
The island arc is marked by a large positive anomaly
STRUCTURE OF SUBDUCTION ZONES FROM
EARTHQUAKES
Subduction zones exhibit intense seismic activity
A large number of events occur on a plane that dips on average at
an angle of about 45° away from the underthrusting oceanic plate
The plane is known as a Benioff (or Benioff–Wadati) zone, after its
discoverer(s)

Earthquakes on it
extend from near
the surface,
beneath the fore
arc region, down
to a maximum
depth of about
670 km
The focus can be seen to
occur at progressively
greater depths with
increasing distance from
the site of underthrusting

Information on the
nature of the Benioff
zone was obtained from
a study of the body wave
amplitudes from deep
earthquakes
With increasing depth, strength of
the subducting plate decreases and
that of the medium increases and
hence faulting occurs
The earthquake activity associated with the down going slab
occurs as a result of four distinct processes
In region “a” earthquakes are
generated in response to the
bending of the lithosphere as it
begins its descent

Bending, or downward flexure of

the lithosphere, puts the upper
surface of the plate into tension,
and the normal faulting associated with this stress regime
gives rise to earthquakes, which occur to depths of up to 25 km

Flexural bulge
Region “b” is characterized by
earthquakes generated from
thrust faulting along the contact
between the overriding and
underthrusting plates

The groups of earthquakes lying

under the island chain are
indicative of thrust faulting
The earthquakes occurring in the Benioff zone in zone “c” at
depths greater than the thickness of the lithosphere at the surface,
are not generated by thrusting at the top of the descending
plate, because the asthenosphere in contact with the plate is too
weak to support the stresses necessary for thrusting

At these depths earthquakes occur as a result of the internal

deformation of the relatively cold and hence strong descending
slab of lithosphere
In zone “C” two Benioff zones beneath the Japan arc that appear
to merge down dip
The arrival times of different seismic phases indicate that the
upper of these zones corresponds to the crustal part of the
descending slab, and the lower to the lithospheric mantle
Double seismic zones, at depths between 70 and 200 km, have
been documented in numerous well-studied subduction and it
seems probable that they are a common feature of subduction
zone seismicity
Most of these earthquakes in this zone (‘C”) are triggered by
metamorphic reactions involving dehydration; those in the upper
zone associated with the formation of eclogite and those in the
lower zone with the dehydration of serpentinite to forsterite +
enstatite + Water
It is suggested that dehydration reactions generate high pore
pressures along pre-existing fault planes in the subducting
oceanic lithosphere, producing earthquakes by brittle failure
 Eclogite Serpentinite
The fresh rock can be Serpentinite is
striking in appearance, a rock composed of one
with red to or more serpentine
pink garnet (almandine- group minerals. Minerals
pyrope) in a green in this group are formed
matrix of sodium- by serpentinization, a
rich pyroxene (omphaci hydration
te). Accessory minerals and metamorphic transf
include kyanite, rutile, ormation
quartz, lawsonite, of ultramafic rock from
coesite, amphibole, phe the Earth's mantle.
ngite,paragonite, zoisite The mineral alteration is
, dolomite, corundum, particularly important at
and, rarely, diamond. the sea floor at tectonic
plate boundaries
This explanation assumes that the oceanic mantle is
serpentinized to a depth of several tens of kilometers, whereas
hydrothermal circulation and alteration at mid-ocean ridges is
thought to be restricted to the crust

Normal faulting associated with

the outer rise and bending of the
oceanic lithosphere oceanward of
the trench may well permit ingress
of seawater and hydration of the
lithosphere to depths of tens of
kilometers
Below 300 km (zone “d”) the
earthquake mechanism is
believed to be a result of the
sudden phase change from
olivine to spinel structure,
producing transformational or
anticrack faulting.
This takes place by rapid shearing of the crystal lattice along
planes on which minute spinel crystals have grown
Spinel, (Mg,Fe)(Al,Cr)2O4, is common in peridotite in the uppermost Earth's mantle,
between approximately 20 km to approximately 120 km, possibly to lower depths
depending on the chromium content. At significantly shallower depths, above the Moho,
calcic plagioclase is the more stable aluminous mineral in peridotite, while garnet is the
stable phase deeper in the mantle below the spinel stability region.
Spinel crystallizes in the isometric system; common
crystal forms are octahedra, usually twinned. It has an
imperfect octahedral cleavage and a conchoidal
fracture. Its hardness is 8, its specific gravity is 3.5–4.1
and it is transparent to opaque with a vitreous to dull
luster.
At normal mantle temperatures this phase change occurs at a
depth of approximately 400 km

However, the anomalously low temperatures in the core of a

downgoing slab enable olivine to exist metastably to greater
depths, potentially until it reaches a temperature of about 700°C
In old, rapidly subducting slabs this
may, exceptionally, be at a depth of
approximately 670 km, explaining
the termination of subduction zone
seismicity at this depth

Similar transformation from

enstatite (MgSiO3) to ilmenite
(FeTiO3) contributes to subduction
zone seismicity in this depth range
The phase changes that occur in the slab at a depth of
approximately 700 km are thought to produce fine-grained
materials that behave in a superplastic manner and thus cannot
generate earthquakes
 THERMAL STRUCTURE OF THE DOWNGOING SLAB
The subducting lithosphere can retain its separate thermal and
mechanical identity to a considerable depth until sufficient heat
has been transferred to it from the mantle to increase its
temperature to that of its surroundings
The factors controlling the
temperature distribution are:

1. The rate of subduction: the

more rapid the descent the less
time there is for absorption of heat
from the surrounding mantle by
conduction
2. The age and hence thickness of the descending slab: the
thicker the slab the greater the time taken for it to equilibrate
thermally with the surrounding asthenosphere
3. Frictional heating of the upper and lower surfaces of the slab:
As the descent of the slab is resisted by the asthenosphere
4. The conduction of heat into the
slab from the asthenosphere
5.The adiabatic heating
associated with compression of
the slab as the pressure
increases with depth
6. The heat derived from
radioactive decay of minerals in
the oceanic lithosphere likely to
be small as oceanic plates are largely barren of radioactive
minerals
7. Heat associated with phase transitions of minerals to denser
crystalline structures with depth: the olivine–spinel transition at
about 400 km depth which is exothermic, and the spinel–oxides
transition at about 670 km, which is endothermic
The length of the Benioff zone depends on the depth to which the
subducting oceanic lithosphere maintains a relatively cold central
core
Downward deflection of
isotherms, and hence the
length of the seismic zone, is
proportional to both the rate
of subduction and the square
of the thickness of the
lithosphere
Lithosphere thickness is proportional to the square root of its age

L α R (R = rate of subduction in mm/year)

L α T2 (T= thickness of the subducting plate in km)
T α A (A= Age of the subducting plate in Ma)
L = R*A/10 (1/10 is constant)
An oceanic plate having age 200Ma subducting at 20 mm/year will have a
Benioff zone of 400 km
 VARIATION OF SUBDUCTION ZONE CHARACTERISTICS

Although the dip of the Benioff zone is often approximately 45°,

there is a great variation in dips, from 90° beneath the Marianas
to 10° beneath Peru
Dip is largely determined by a combination of the negative
buoyancy of the subducting slab, causing it to sink, and the forces
exerted on it by flow in the asthenosphere, induced by the
underthrusting lithosphere, which tend to uplift the slab
A higher rate of underthrusting produces a greater degree of uplift
Young oceanic lithosphere is relatively thin
and hot; consequently it is more buoyant
than older oceanic lithosphere

Young subducting lithosphere,

underthrusting at a high rate, will give rise
to the shallowest dips, as in the case of
Peru and Chile.

It seems probable that the absolute

motion of the overriding plate is also a
contributing factor in determining the dip of
the Benioff zone
 Subduction zones with
shallow dips have a stronger
coupling with the overriding
plate giving rise to larger
b magnitude earthquakes in
region “b”
Shallow dips also restrict the
flow of asthenosphere in the
It gives rise to backarc mantle wedge above the
compression rather than extension subduction zone
Two end-member types of subduction
zone, which they referred to as Chilean
and Mariana types
Most of the oceanic crust and pelagic sediments is subducted into
the mantle, and that, in approximately half of the convergent
margins, some of the overriding plate is eroded and subducted

Accretionary margins are

indicated by solid barbs, and
erosive margins by open
barbs
The process by which pelagic sediments on the downgoing plate
are subducted is known as sediment subduction and the
process whereby rock or sediment from the upper plate is
subducted is termed subduction erosion
Material for subduction
erosion may be derived from
the base of the landward
slope of the trench or from the
underside of the upper plate

Thus, subduction zones have

also been characterized as
accretionary or erosive
The accretionary or non-accretionary/erosive nature of a
subduction zone will depend in part, on the supply of oceanic
plate sediments and continentally derived clastic material to the
trench

Accretionary margins are

indicated by solid barbs, and
erosive margins by open
barbs
On the basis of seismic reflection profiling data, it appears that the
thickness of sediment on the oceanic plate entering a trench must
exceed 400–1000

Based on the size of the accretionary prism, this implies that

perhaps 80% of the pelagic sediments entering trenches is
subducted, and that most of the sediment accreted in the forearc
region is trench turbidites derived from continental material
In addition to the steeper slope of the forearc region at erosive
margins, the forearc is characterized by subsidence, which
reflects the thinning of the upper plate along its base
 ACCRETIONARY PRISMS
Accretionary prisms develop where trench-fill turbidites (flysch),
and some pelagic sediments, are scraped off the descending
oceanic plate by the leading edge of the overriding plate, to which
they become accreted
Beneath the prism, the plate boundary is defined by a 20- to 30-
m-thick, gently dipping fault or shear zone that separates a
deformed sedimentary wedge above from a little-deformed section
of subducted trench sediment, volcaniclastic rock, and basaltic
crust below

Above the decollement is a fold and thrust belt composed of listric

thrust ramps that rise through the stratigraphic section forming
imbricated arrays
Seismic reflection data and the ages of deformed sediments
suggest that the youngest faults in accretionary prisms occur at
the deformation front and generally become older away from the
trench

As shortening occurs, old thrust wedges gradually move upwards

and are rotated toward the arc by the addition of new wedges to
the toe of the prism. This process, called frontal accretion,
causes older thrusts to become more steeply dipping with time
and is responsible for the lateral growth of the prism
During lateral growth, intense deformation
occurs at the oceanward base of the
sedimentary pile although some older
thrusts may remain active during their
rotation and some new thrusts may form
and cut across older imbricate thrusts.
These latter, cross cutting faults are
termed out-of-sequence thrusts
In addition to frontal accretion, some incoming material is carried
downward past the deformation front where it is transferred, or
underplated to the base of the prism above the decollement

Unlike the off-scraped sediments at the toe, this underplated

material may become deeply buried and undergo high pressure
metamorphism
Tectonic underplating, together with internal shortening, thickens
the wedge and causes the slope of its upper surface to increase
The top of an accretionary prism is defined by a relatively abrupt
decrease in slope called the trench slope break
Between this break and the island arc, a forearc basin may
develop, which is then filled with sediments derived from erosion
of the volcanic arc and its substrate
This basin is a region of tranquil sedimentation where flat-lying
units cover the oldest thrust slices in the wedge
Seaward of the forearc basin, on the trench slope, small pockets
of sediment also accumulate on top of old thrust slices
Erosion of the trench slope and other landward material
commonly results in slump deposits and debris flows that can
carry material as far as the trench, where it gets offscraped and
recycled back into the wedge
Offscraped material first
moves down toward the
base of the prism and then
moves back toward the
surface
This pattern results in a general increase in the metamorphic
grade of rocks from the trench to the arc such that the oldest, high
grade rocks are structurally highest and uplifted with respect to
the younger deposits (Inverse metamorphism)

The processes also may create a chaotic mixture of igneous,

sedimentary and metamorphic rock types called a melange

Some of the oldest rock fragments in the melange may record

blueschist or eclogite facies metamorphism, indicating depths of
burial of at least 30 km
 VOLCANIC AND PLUTONIC ACTIVITY
Where subducting oceanic lithosphere reaches a depth of 65–130
km, volcanic and plutonic activity occurs, giving rise to an island
arc or an Andean-type continental arc approximately 150–200 km
from the trench axis

The thickness of arc crust reflects both the age of the system and
the type of crust on which the arc forms
The types of volcanic rocks that occur in the subduction zone
environment generally form three volcanic series
1. The low potassium tholeiitic series: Dominated by basaltic
lavas associated with lesser volumes of iron-rich basaltic
andesites and andesites

2. The calc-alkaline series: Dominated by andesites that are

moderately enriched in potassium, other incompatible
elements, and the light rare earth elements
In continental arcs dacites and rhyolites are abundant,
although they are subordinate to andesites

3. The alkaline series: Includes the subgroups of alkaline basalts

and the rare, very high potassium-bearing (i.e. shoshonitic)
lavas
 In general, the tholeiitic magma series
derived by the fractional crystallization
of olivine from a primary magma
originating at relatively shallow mantle
depths of 65–100 km is well
represented above young subduction
zones
The calc-alkaline and alkaline series
are encountered in more mature
subduction zones, generated at
depths greater than those that result in
tholeiitic rocks
Alkaline magmas exhibit the lowest
abundance in island arcs and are
more common in continental rifts and
intraplate environments
Some island arcs (Japan arc) exhibit spatial patterns in the
distribution of the volcanic series i.e. tholeiite/ calc-
alkaline/alkaline volcanic rocks is apparent with increasing
distance from the trench
This trend may reflect magmas derived from increasingly greater
depths and/or differences in the degree of partial melting
Some arcs such as the Izu-Bonin–Mariana arc system shows
compositional trends along the axis
A low degree of partial
melting tends to
concentrate alkalis and
other incompatible
elements into the small
melt fraction

This could lead to an

increase in alkalinity
However, there are many exceptions
away from the trench
to this pattern in other arcs, indicating
due to a greater depth of
that differences in local conditions
melting or a decrease in
strongly influence magma
the availability of water
compositions
In Benioff zone, there is a very strong correlation between its depth and
the systematic variation in volcanic rock composition and elemental
abundances
Potassium-silica diagram for the mean composition of 62
volcanoes collected along the Izu–Bonin–Mariana arc system
This great spectrum of rock compositions reflects the diversity of
processes involved in arc magmatism are:
1. Variations in the depth
2. Degree of partial melting
3. Magma mixing
4. Fractionation
5. Assimilation

Mature arc systems, and especially

continental arcs, typically include
large, linear belts of plutonic rock
called batholiths. These belts are
widely used as indicators of ancient,
now extinct convergent margins
The majority of these batholiths are composed of hundreds to
thousands of individual intrusions that range in composition from
gabbro, tonalite and diorite to granodiorite and granite
Ringwood (1974, 1977) suggested that partial melting takes place
at a relatively low temperature because of the high water vapor
pressure resulting from the dehydration of various mineral phases
in the down going slab.
Indeed, the greater the
amount of water present, the
more the melting
temperature of the mantle is
reduced

Thus, water acts as a

primary agent that drives
partial melting beneath
arcs
Most of the water carried to great depths is confined in hydrous
minerals in altered and metamorphosed crust, including
serpentinite
With increasing pressure, hydrous basalt and gabbro are
metamorphosed progressively to blueschist, then amphibolite, and
then eclogite by which water is released in each transformation
Fast spread oceanic crust is thought to contain little or no
serpentinite, but slow spread crust is known to contain some,
perhaps as much as 10–20%
As heat is transferred to the slab, temperature gradients are
established such that the asthenosphere in the vicinity of the slab
becomes cooler and more viscous than surrounding areas,
particularly near the upper part of the slab

This more viscous asthenosphere is then dragged down with the

slab causing less viscous mantle to flow in behind it

It is the interaction of this

down welling mantle with
aqueous fluids rising from the
sinking slab that is thought to
produce partial melting of the
mantle.
Where sufficient partial melting occurs, probably 10 ± 5% the melt
aggregates and begins to rise toward the base of the crust

As the magma moves into the crust it

differentiates and may mix with either
new, crust-derived melts or older melts,
eventually forming the magmas that
result in the calcalkaline and alkaline
series
METAMORPHISM AT CONVERGENT MARGINS
As oceanic basalt is subducted at convergent margins, it
undergoes a series of chemical reactions which results:
(a) Release water into the upper mantle wedge
(b) Increase the density of the subducting slab

These reactions involve

specific metamorphic
transformations that reflect the
abnormally low geothermal
gradients (10°C km−1) and
the high pressures associated
with the subduction zone
environment
Prior to its
subduction,
oceanic basalt
may exhibit low
pressure (<0.6
GPa)/low
temperature
(<350°C)
metamorphism of
Greenschist,
zeolite and
prehnite-
pumpellyite facies
 Zeolite facies describes the
mineral assemblage resulting from
the pressure and temperature
conditions of low-
grade metamorphism

Zeolite facies is most often experienced by pelitic sediments;

rocks rich in aluminium, silica, potassium and sodium, but
generally low in iron, magnesium and calcium

Zeolite facies metamorphism usually results in the production of

low temperature clay minerals into higher temperature polymorphs
such as kaolinite and vermiculite
Vesicular basalts and the like will have their vesicles filled
with zeolite minerals, forming amygdaloidal texture
The prehnite-pumpellyite
facies is a metamorphic
facies typical of subsea floor
alteration of the oceanic
crust around mid-ocean
ridge spreading centres

It is a metamorphic grade
transitional between zeolite
facies and greenschist In mafic rocks the assemblage
facies representing a is chlorite, prehnite, albite, pum
temperature range of 250 to 350 pellyite and epidote.
°C and a pressure range of
approximately two to seven
kilobars. The mineral
assemblage is dependent on Chlorite Prehnite Albite
host composition.
Pumpellyte Epidote
 In basalt, Greenschist facies
typically includes chlorite, epidote
and actinolite, which impart a
greenish color to the rock. This type
of alteration of basalt results from the
circulation of hot seawater in
hydrothermal systems that develop
near ocean ridges

Actinolite
Epidote Ca2(Mg4.5-2.5Fe2+0.5-2.5)Si8O22(OH)2
Ca2Al2(Fe3+;Al)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)
Basalt

Serpentinite
Chlorite
2Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
(Mg,Fe)5Al(AlSi3)O10(OH)8
As the altered basalt descends
into a subduction zone, it passes
through the pressure–
temperature field of the
blueschist facies which is
characterized by the presence of
the pressure-sensitive minerals
glaucophane (a sodic blue
amphibole) and jadeite (a
pyroxene)
 Glaucophane
(Na2(Mg3Al2)Si8O22(OH)2)
Inosilicates, sodic amphibole
group

Jadeite
NaAlSi2O6 or Na(Al,Fe3+)Si2O6
Pyroxene group
 Lawsonite,(produced at temperatures
below 400°C and at pressures of 0.3 –
0.6 Gpa) also may occur prior to the
transformation to blueschist facies at
times in the transition zone where P
&T conditions are not yet high enough
to produce glaucophane and jadeite
Lawsonite, along with glaucophane
and other amphibole minerals, is an
Lawsonite important host for water in subducting
CaAl2Si2O7(OH)2·H2O ocean crust.
 Oceanic – Continental Subduction

• Example: Western Coast of South America

When oceanic lithosphere subducts underneath the continental
lithosphere, it heats and dehydrates as it subsides. The melt rises
forming volcanism. E.g. The Andes
 Oceanic – Continental

• The Java trench is a convergence of the India plate on the

southwest and the Burma and Sunda plates on the northeast
 Aleutian Trench
• The Aleutian Trench and the Aleutian Islands were formed
by the collision between the northern part of the Pacific
plate and the North American plate.
 Continental – Continental Collision
• Example: Himalayas (tallest mountains in the
world)
 Himalayas
• Continental - Continental
• The Himalayas were formed by the converging of the
Eurasian plate and the Indian plate.
When 2 tectonic plates with continental crust collide, they buckle
and thicken, which pushes the continental crust upward
 CONVERGENT MARGIN
GRAVITY ANOMALIES OF SUBDUCTION ZONES 2
STRUCTURE OF SUBDUCTION ZONES FROM EARTHQUAKES 3

THERMAL STRUCTURE OF THE DOWNGOING SLAB 2

VARIATIONS IN SUBDUCTION ZONE CHARACTERISTICS 3
ACCRETIONARY PRISMS 3
VOLCANIC AND PLUTONIC ACTIVITY 3
METAMORPHISM AT CONVERGENT MARGINS 3
BACKARC BASINS 3
OCEAN– CONTINENT CONVERGENCE 2
OCEAN-OCEAN CONVERGENCE 2
CONTINENT– CONTINENT CONVERGENCE 2
ARC–CONTINENT 2
COLLISION
MECHANISMS OF 4
CONTINENTAL COLLISION
GENERAL GEOLOGY OF THE 4
HIMALAYA AND TIBETAN PLATEAU
OROGENESIS AND OROGENIC BELTS 3
TERRANE ACCRETION AND CONTINENTAL 3
GROWTH
MECHANISM OF 3
TERRANE ACCRETION
STRUCTURE OF 2
ACCRETIONARY OROGENS
TRANSFORM FAULTS 2
RIDGE JUMPS AND 2
TRANSFORM FAULT OFFSETS
 CONSERVATIVE PLATE BOUNDARY
At these boundaries, there are neither creation nor destruction
of lithosphere but rather the motion is strike-slip, with adjacent
lithosphere in tangential motion

However, in interpreting these fracture zones as large scale strike-

slip faults, a major problem arises in that there is no obvious way
in which the faults terminate
Wilson (1965) proposed that the faults terminate at the ends of
ridges or trenches, which they commonly meet at right angles
and named as “transform faults”

This is because the lateral displacement across the fault is taken

up by transforming it into either the formation of new lithosphere at
a terminated ocean ridge segment or lithosphere subduction at a
trench
The transform fault is only active between the offset ridge crests.

The transcurrent, or strike-slip, fault causes along a vertical plane

which must stretch to infinity beyond the ridge crests
A
T

P
R
E
S
E
N
T

A
F
T
E
R
A
P
E
R
I
O
D
RIDGE-RIDGE TRANSFORM FAULT
 Sykes (1967)
determined the focal
mechanism solutions
for those earthquakes
occurring in the vicinity
of the fracture zone
that offset the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge

Events along the ridge axis

are consistent with normal
faulting along north–south
planes. Events along the
fracture zones are much more
common and the energy
release is about a hundred
times greater than along the
ridge crest
As ridge–ridge transform faults implies that the offsets on them do
not change with time

TIME

Strike-slip faults generally may

occur at a variety of scales in
B A
virtually any tectonic setting

Transform faults represent

B A plate boundaries
Continental transforms, like their oceanic counterparts are
conservative plate boundaries where lithosphere is neither
created nor destroyed and strike-slip deformation results in lateral
displacements across the fault zone
In contrast to oceanic
fracture zones, which are
characterized by a
relatively simple linear
trough continental
transform exhibit a
structural complexity
The transform boundary is not mere
a plane, it is a zone may having
width ranges from 100 to 1000 km
In areas where continental lithosphere is relatively cool and
strong, transforms tend to display narrow zones of deformation
(Example: Dead Sea Transform 20–40 km wide)
The formation of new plates and destruction of existing plates are the most obvious
global reasons why plate boundaries and relative motions change

A plate may be lost down a subduction zone, such as happened when most of the
Farallon and Kula plates were subducted under the North American plate in the early
Tertiary

Alternatively, two continental plates may coalesce into one (with resultant mountain
building)
If the position of a rotation pole changes, all the relative motions also change

A drastic change in pole position of say 90◦:

Transform faults would become ridges and subduction

zones, and vice versa!

Changes in the trends of transform faults and magnetic

anomalies on the Pacific plate imply that the direction of
seafloor spreading has changed there, and indicate that the
Pacific–Farallon pole position changed slightly a number of
times during the Tertiary
Parts of plate
boundaries
can change
locally,
however,
without any
major
‘plate’ or
‘pole’ event
occurring
 Consider three plates A, B and C.
Let there be a convergent boundary
between plates A and B, and strike–
slip faults between plates A and C
and plates B and C

From the point of view of an

observer on plate C, part of the
boundary of C (circled) will change
with time because the plate to which
it is adjacent will change from plate
A to plate B.

The boundary will remain a dextral (right-handed) fault, but the slip rate will change from
2 cm yr−1 to 6 cm yr−1

Relative to plate C, the subduction zone is moving northwards at 6 cm yr−1

 Here, the relative velocities are such that the
boundary between plates A and C is a strike–
slip fault, that between plates A and B is a
ridge and that between plates B and C is a
subduction zone

The motions are such that the ridge migrates

slowly to the south relative to plate C, so the
circled portion of plate boundary will change
with time from subduction zone to transform
fault

These local changes in the plate boundary are a geometric, consequence of the motions
of the three rigid plates rather than being caused by any disturbing outside event
Such a study is very important because it enables us to apply the theory of rigid
geometric plates to the Earth and deduce past plate motions from evidence in the
local geological records. We can also predict details of future plate interactions
 TRIPLE JUNCTION
• A triple junction is a place where three tectonic plates meet
• There are roughly 50 plates on Earth with about 100 triple junctions among them
• At the triple junction each of the three boundaries could be one of 3 types – a
ridge (R), trench (T) or transform fault (F)

• Triple junctions can be described according to the types of plate margin that meet at
them (e.g. Transform-Transform-Trench, Ridge-Ridge-Ridge, or abbreviated F-F-T,
R-R-R).

Of the many possible types of triple junction only a few are stable through time
 STABLE JUNCTION
A triple junction is said to be ‘stable’ when the relative motions of the three plates and
the azimuth of their boundaries are such that the configuration of the junction does not
change with time

This place restricts on relative velocities and plate boundary orientation

 An unstable triple junction will change with
time, either to become another form of triple S
junction (RRF junctions easily evolve to T
FFR junctions), will change geometry or are A
simply not feasible (as in the case of FFF B
junctions). L
UNSTABLE E

In both of the above cases the triple

junction moves along the boundary of
plate C, locally changing this
boundary.

An ‘unstable’ triple junction exists only The relative motions of the plates,
momentarily before evolving to a different azimuths and types of plate
geometry. If four or more plates meet at one boundaries of the whole system do
point, the configuration is always unstable, and not change with time
the system will evolve into two or more triple
junctions
 Here, the plate A is overriding plates B
and C, and plate C is overriding plate B.

Assume that plate A is fixed; then the

positions of the plates at some later time:

The subduction zone between plates B and C has moved north along the north–south
edge of plate A was unstable; however, the new triple junction is stable (meaning that its
geometry and the relative velocities of the plates are unchanging), though the triple
junction itself continues to move northwards along the north–south edge of plate A

The point X is originally on the boundary of plates A and B. As the triple junction
passes X, an observer there will see a sudden change in subduction rate and
direction. Finally, X is a point on the boundary of plates A and C
 ASSUMPTIONS IN ASSESSING STABILITY

 Triple junctions may be described and their stability can be assessed without use of
the geological details but by defining the properties of the ridges, trenches and
transform faults involved.
 The definitions then used by geologists for R,T and F are:-
 R-structures that produce lithosphere symmetrically and perpendicular to the
relative velocity of the plates on either side.

T – structures that consume lithosphere from one side only. The relative
velocity vector can be oblique to the plate boundary

F – active faults parallel to the slip vector

 STABILITY CRITERIA
 For a triple junction between the plates A, B and C to exist, the following condition
must be satisfied:
AvB + BvC + CvA = 0
where AvB is the relative motion of B with respect to A.
 Representing this condition in velocity space by constructing a velocity triangle ABC
where the lengths AB, BC and CA are proportional to the velocities AvB, BvC and CvA,
respectively.
N
>

B > C
> E
To examine the stability of any particular triple junction, it is easiest to draw
the azimuths of the plate boundaries onto the relative velocity triangle
The stability criteria discussed above could be represented in one more widely
accepted form:-
 The lines ab, bc and ca which are parallel to the plate boundaries join points in velocity
space which will leave the geometry of AB, BC and CA unchanged.
 These lines are the same as those that join points in velocity space at which an
observer could move at the given velocity and still remain on the plate boundary.
When these are drawn onto the diagram containing the velocity triangle these
lines must be able to meet at a single point, for the triple junction to exist stably.
N
>
ab ,bc ac

. J

ac ab ,bc >E
 ORIENTATION OF VELOCITY LINES
ab

 Ridge:-For a ridge the line constructed must be the perpendicular

bisector of the relative motion vector as to remain in the middle of the
ridge.
A B
ab
 Transform Fault:-the line must be parallel to the relative motion
vector as all of the motion is parallel to the boundary direction and so A
the line ab must lie along AB for a transform fault separating the plates ab ab
A and B. B
 Trench:-along the strike of the trench but remaining on the overriding
plate. Therefore the line constructed will lie parallel to the plate ab ab
boundary but passing through the point in velocity space occupied by
the overriding plate.
CONSIDER A RTF JUNCION
 Figure shows a triple junction between Ridge(R),
Trench(T), and a Transform fault(F).

 In order to be stable, the triple junction must be

capable of migrating up or down the three
boundaries between pairs of plates.

 It is easier to visualize the conditions for stability

of the triple junction if each boundary is first
considered individually.
 CONSIDER TRENCH BOUNDRY BETWEEN A&B

 Line ab must represent the locus of a point that travels up and down the trench.
 This line, then, is the locus of a stable triple junction. B must lie on ab because there is no loss of
the overriding plate B with respect to the trench
 CONSIDER TRANSFORM BOUNDRY BETWEEN B&C

 Line BC represents the relative velocity vector between the plates.

 The locus of a point traveling up and down the fault, bc, is now in the same sense as vector BC,
because the relative motion direction of B and C is along their boundary.
 CONSIDER RIDGE BOUNDRY BETWEEN A&C

 The relative velocity vector AC is now orthogonal to the plate margin.

 Line ac now represents the locus of a point traveling along the ridge.
 The ridge crest must pass through the midpoint of velocity vector CA if the accretion process is
symmetric with plates A and C each moving at half the rate of accretion.
 COMBINING VELOCITY VECTOR REPRESENTATIONS
 The stability of the triple junction can be
determined from the relative positions of the
velocity lines representing the boundaries.

 If they intersect at one point, it implies that stable

triple junction exists because that point has the
property of being able to travel up and down all
three plate margins

 In the case of the RTF triple junction, it can be

appreciated that a stable triple junction exists
only if velocity line ac passes through B, or if ab is
the same as bc, that is, the trench and transform
fault have the same trend.
CONSIDER A TTT JUNCION
THE STABLE CONFIGURATION
 THEORETICAL CRITERIA FOR STABILITY

 Further conditions must also be met for the triple junction to exist
stably
 The plates must move in a way that leaves their individual geometries
unchanged.

Alternatively

The triple junction must move in such a way that it remains on all three of the
plate boundaries involved.
 PRESENT DAY TRIPLE JUNCTIONS

Only six types of triple junction are present during the current phase of plate tectonics.
They are :

 RRR (e.g. the junction of East Pacific Rise and Galapagos Rift Zone)
 TTT (central Japan)
 TTF (junction of Peru–Chile Trench and West Chile Rise)
 FFR (possibly at the junction of Owen Fracture Zone and Carlsberg ridge)
 FFT (junction of San Andreas Fault and Mendocino Fracture Zone), and
 RTF (mouth of Gulf of California).
Thank You…!!!