History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

EARLY PROBLEMS OF PAKSITAN:

1. Unjust Radcliff Award:
According to the 3rd June 1974 Plan the Provinces of the Punjab and Bengal were to
be divided into Muslim and non-Muslim majority areas. The Muslim majority areas would
become a part of Pakistan.
A commission was assigned the duty to demarcate the boundaries of Muslim majority and
Hindu majority areas of the Punjab and Bengal.
The conspiracy was hatched and Pakistan was deprived of its true claims.
Sir Radcliffe provided a land route to India to move into the valley of Jammu and Kashmir.

The Two Head Works Ferozepur head works and Madhapur head works constructed on the
land of West Punjab were also handed over the India.
2. Administrative Problems:
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The Hindus working in offices situated in the areas of Pakistan migrated to India and the
offices became empty. Furniture, stationery, typewriters and other necessary items were
also not available in the offices.

Most of the offices started their work under the open sky with no shelter. The Hindu officers
had destroyed the records before going to India.
The Government of Pakistan began its work under miserable conditions. However .it
seemed difficult without experienced and trained officials.

The nation accepted the challenge and performed the duties under odd circumstances.
Pakistan had to take a new start form the scratch.
3. Refugees Crisis:
Summer (1947) saw rioting and violence between Muslim and non-Muslim communities
across India
After the Boundary Award, millions of people found themselves in the ‘wrong’ country and
vulnerable to attacks; Communal riots had started in many cities of East Punjab.
Migration then took place with Muslims moving into Pakistan and non-Muslims moving into
India.

Over 10 million people were involved in this migration

Communal violence lead to many deaths
Anti-Muslim riots took place.
One million people may have been killed as a result of the migration or attacks

20 million people were made homeless

Karachi received 2 million refugees.
Millions of Muslim families migrated to Pakistan. On the way to Pakistan, a very large
number of Muslims were massacred and the properties were looted with the help of British
forces.
The number of the Muslims who finally crossed the border was more than 1,25,00,000.
The oppressed and depressed Muslims were temporarily provided accommodations in
camps.

To rehabilitate the refugees in Pakistan was a very big task for the administration.
The government of Pakistan was short of funds and resources.
The provision of shelter, clothing and food for them was a great responsibility.
Martial Law was declared by the authorities in Delhi in 1947 as non-Muslim refugees began
to slaughter the local Muslims.
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India and Pakistan cooperated to control the communal violence which led to orderly
evacuation of one country to the other.
4. Division of Assets:

The Indian National Congress took every step to crush the withering economy of the new
state. When the question of division of assets between the two separated countries was
raised, the Hindus once again did not do justice with Muslims.
The India government remained reluctant to pay the share of Pakistan out of the cash
balance Rs.4 billion. The money was to divide in 17:5 between India and Pakistan. The share
of Pakistan was 750 million rupees. First instalment of 200 million issued at once but
remaining amount was delayed illegally. Under world pressure, India became ready to pay
the amount if Pakistan would surrender Kashmir Valley to India.
Gandhi interfered in the matter and partial payment of 500 million was released. The
balance of 50 million has not been paid by India so far.
A meeting was held in November 1947 in this context. The representatives of the two states
signed a treaty but India took no action.
5. Division of Armed forces:

It was imperative that the military assets were also to be divided between the two countries
after the partition of the Sub-continent. Here again the norms of justice were ignored and
India refused to give the due share.
India wanted to keep Pakistan weak, especially after the growing threat of war over
Kashmir.
It was impossible to swap soldiers according to whether they were Muslims or Non-
Muslims.
India was reluctant in dividing the military equipment that could be used against them.

The Chief of the Joint Forces of the Sub continent, Commander-in-chief Field Marshall
“Anchinleck” favored the principle of no division of military assets. He wanted to continue
them in joint command.
All India Muslim League did not agree and pressurized for the division of military assets.

It was decided that all military assets would be divided between the two states at the ratio
of 36:64 between Pakistan and India respectively. Pakistan had to take 150,000 troops along
with 4000 officers but Pakistan got only 2500 officers and Mr. Jinnah had to hire 500 British
officers.
Sixteen ordinance factories were producing weapons in the sub-continent at the time
of partition. Not a single factory was situated in the area of Muslim majority. Indian Cabinet
refused to shift any of the 16 factories to Pakistan. It was decided after long discussions and
deliberations that India would make payment of 60 million rupees to Pakistan, which was
used to establish an ordinance factory in Wah Cantt, Taxila.
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The formula finalized for the division of military assets was not practically implemented due
to stubborn attitude of Indian government.
Field Marshal Anchinleck resigned from his office because of the negative and non-
cooperative attitude of the Indian government.
Pakistan faced serious deficiency in stores, supplies and weapons.
However, Pakistan was deprived of legal and just share in military hardware. Any way all the
soldiers were given the option to join either of the two for the Muslims expressed
their desire to join Pakistan Army.
6. Canal water Problem:
Flow of waters through the canals and rivers was controlled at a series of “head-works”
most of which lay in the part of Punjab which was now a part of India.

The natural flow of rivers in the province of Punjab was affected by the partition of the
province. No state can change the course of the river and deprive another state of its water.
The canals and barrages may be built but with the consent of the concerned state or states.
India planned to build up dams and barrages and checked the flow of water to Pakistan in
April 1948. This step affected the agriculture and economy of the West Punjab which relied
upon irrigation.
The rivers Ravi, Sutlej and Bias enter the territory of Pakistan from Indian side and they have
been the major sources of irrigation in the area.
Sir Radcliffe, in his unjust Award handed Firozpur and Madhupur Head- works to India in
spite of the fact that the project was working in Muslim majority area.
On 1st April, 1948, India shut off the water supply to Pakistan through the Firozpur Head-
work in East Punjab, stopping the water supply for Lahore, and threatening more than 1.65
million acres of agricultural land.

The Indians demanded for Pakistan to pay for the water, and claimed of their authority of
the head-works that were situated in their area.
India refused for the matter to be settled by the International Court of Justice as proposed
by Pakistan.

The matter was sorted out and the two countries were brought on the negotiation table.
India agreed for the water supply from East Punjab to West Pakistan only if Pakistan tried to
find alternative ways for water supply.
World Bank visualized the whole situation and promised to help Pakistan in the hours of
crisis. A huge amount was allocated to solve the issue.

Treaty was consequently signed in 1960, between the two countries. Pakistan conceded
three rivers (Ravi, Sutluj Bias) to India and reciprocally India left its claim on the waters of
rivers Jhelum, Chenab and Indus.
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Accession of Princely States

At partition, Lord Mountbatten had told the leaders of 462 princely that states they would
not be granted independence as he feared if they since granted independent their future
would be uncertain and would lead to war.
Hyderabad was the largest princely state (of India) with a large population of 160 million of
non-Muslims majority and Muslim minority (Ruler, Nizam, was Muslim)
Nizam wanted dominion status. Mountbatten asked him to join Pak, but India did not want
this to happen.
So, pressure was exerted by India and Indian troops invaded Hyderabad and it became the
part of India. (Invasion 17th September, 1948)
Junagadh

Junagadh was the coastal area of India 300 miles near the coast of Karachi with a majority of
non-Muslims but the ruler was Muslim.
The ruler wanted to join Pakistan but India opposed this decision and sent the troops to
surround the state.
Due to the blockade and shortage of food, the miseries of the people increased.

The Indian troops took over the area in November, 1947, Pakistan protested to the UNO
about illegal occupation but the matter remained unresolved.
Kashmir
The most serious disagreement between India and Pakistan was concerned with the state of
Kashmir which was the bone of contention.
The 90% inhabitants were Muslims but the Maharaja Hari Singh was non-Muslim wanted to
get independence.
He treated Muslims harshly and started pushing them out of Kashmir.

More than 200,000 Muslims fled to Pakistan and rebellion broke out 1947.
Maharaja turned towards India and finally Indian Government helped after the Maharaja
agreed to become a part of India.
Pakistan also sent troops to help the Muslims.

Neither side was strong enough for a war, so the matter was referred to UNO in 1948.
A ceasefire was arranged and Kashmir was divided into Pakistan and India.
It was decided to have referendum in Kashmir to determine the wishes of the people once
the situation had normalized.
Geographical Problems
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Pakistan was divided into West and East Pakistan with a distance of 1600 kilometers
of land that belonged to India.
The only thing common between East and Wes Pakistan was religion.
There was no natural border to define the territory of the country. India took
advantage and started conspiracy against Pakistan, this led to Dhaka fall and East
Pakistan was separated from West Pakistan on 16th Dec. 1971.
Political Problems

Formation and establishment of a central government for administration

India inherited all major buildings and official building from the British. Pakistan had taken
none of these.
India’s leaders had much more political experience than the few leaders in Pakistan.

The distance between the West and East Pakistan made it difficult to govern as one country.
Jinnah was the main great leader and he was suffering from Tuberculosis and he knew that
he had little time to live. He wanted the new nation to survive. The office of governor
general was just ceremonial. His tireless work and charismatic leadership enabled Pakistan
to survive and flourish.

Pakistan lacked both administrative and governmental machinery to run the affairs of the
new country.
No office furniture, no equipment (typewriters etc.), no records and no trained, and proper
office staff.

In Pakistan, mostly wealthy landlords were members of constituent assembly and they had
little political experience.
Muslim league got rural areas support but it lacked support from urban areas.

Social Problems
People of Pakistan had different languages, cultures, traditions and life styles.
There were 5 nations in the 5 regions and they had nothing common except religion (One
Unit Scheme was passed in 1955)

Some of them, particularly Balochis and Bengalis did not want Urdu as national language. (In
1956 both Bengali and Urdu were declared as National Languages)
Fast rate of population growth – Issues with economic development, food shortage and lack
of educational, medical and housing facilities (A comprehensive population planning
program was launched with the help of the electronic media and the press but with limited
success)
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At the time of partition, the literacy rate of Pakistan was 16% which would hinder
development of the country.
How successful was the government of Pakistan in solving the problems of Partition
during 1947 and 1948? (14)
Efforts of Quaid e Azam:
Became the first Governor-General of Pakistan; ensured that the new state survived against
all odds.

A cabinet was formed under him, the Prime Minister of which was Liaquat Ali Khan.
He set up a Relief Fund to rehabilitate the newly arrived refugees.
He toured provinces to encourage and motivate people and told them that no one is a
Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi or a Pathan and that all are “Pakistanis” and are united
under one flag.
Declared himself “Protector-General” of religious minorities
Secured membership of Pakistan in the United Nations Organization (UNO) for the
international recognition and significance of the country.
A Constituent Assembly was formed, to establish the constitution.

Karachi was made the capital city and Central Secretariat was set up to run the affairs of the
nation
Special people with government experience were brought from India via trains
Offices were opened in hired residential buildings, army barracks and even in tents.

Drafted Civil Service Commission and hired 500 British officers

Jinnahs Industrial Policy Statement of 1948 encouraged the establishment of Industries in
predominantly agricultural economy
Established the State Bank of Pakistan on 1st July 1948; currency was also printed.

Failures
Canal water dispute was not resolved until the Indus Water Treaty was 1960.
Only 200 million rupees out of 750 million were initially given to Pakistan.

The military assets awarded to Pakistan were old, damaged and obsolete.
India occupied Kashmir and other Princely states. The issue was brought to the UN Security
Council but remains unresolved.
Shortage of properly qualified and experienced personnel
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Problem of Kashmir and other princely states

Refugee problem
Jinnah did not live long as he had TB and thus, could not bring about more progress in the
country

Which of the following contributed the most to Pakistan’s domestic policies between 1948
and 1958? (14)

KH. Nazimuddin second governor general of Pakistan (September 1948- October 1951)
KH. Nazimuddin shifted maximum powers to Liaquat Ali Khan to excersise executive powers
and reduced the role of Governor General.
He was an important leader of the ML and belonged to East Pakistan.

He, being the GG, transferred his powers to PM Liaquat Ali Khan, who from the Legislative
Assembly appointed a basic principle committee to create an Objective Resolution. Basic
Principles Committee and Government of India Act 1935 was approved with certain
amendments.
After assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, he become the second Prime Minister of Pakistan.

Objective Resolution, 1949

The Sovereignty of the state should belong to Allah. The basic Fundamental rights should be
provided including minorities.

Islam shall be declared as the state religion of Pakistan.

The principle of democracy, equality, freedom social justice and tolerance should be
followed as done by Islamic official.
Urdu shall be declared as the National language of Pakistan.
The bicameral cameral system with equal no. of seats from East and West shall be
established.
President to be elected jointly by the two houses.
Legal system should be independent of government.

Reasons for Objection and Rejection

Objective Resolution was rejected by East Pakistan because of Urdu being official language.
The strong Islamic community rejected Objective Resolution as it was un-Islamic in nature.
East Pakistan also rejected Objective Resolution as they demand more seats in Legislative
Assembly and complained of under-representation in the proposed government.
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East Pakistan feared that they would become a colony of West Pakistan
Local and provincial politicians did not approve of the power given to the President and the
central government for provincial autonomy.

In November, 1950, Liaquat Ali had to withdraw the constitutional proposals.

What was PRODA?
Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act
It was an Act for the debarring a person from public office for suitable period of persons
judicially found guilty of misconduct in any public office or any representative capacity in
any matter therein.
Complainants were made to the Governor General or Provincial Governors who could order
an enquiry by judges. Anyone found guilty under PRODA was debarred from office. The law
was designed to eliminate corruption but in reality, it allowed the elite to remove those it
did not approve of.
Liaqat -Nehru Pact
Liaqat Ali Khan met with the Indian Prime Minster Jawahar Lal Nehru and signed the Liaqat –
Nehru pact. It was agreed that each government was responsible for the safety of minority
groups within its borders. Free passage of refugees the border was restricted and VISA
system for refugees was introduced.
In August 1947, Quaid had called the refugee problem in Pakistan, a grave emergency and
had set the Central Refugee Council to deal with it.

Rawalpindi Conspiracy
Genral Akbar Khan and his wife along with 13 others including Faiz Ahmad Faiz wanted to
topple down the government of Liaquat Ali Khan. In March 1951, this Rawalpindi Conspiracy
was disclosed by Ayub Khan and the conspirators were arrested, tried and imprisoned.
Amongst them was Chief of General Staff and 13 other officers and some civilians.
Food Crisis, Korean War of 1950-1953
On June 25, 1950, North Korean launched an unproved full-scale intervention on south,
triggering a three-year war which drew in US, Chinese and other forces the entire peninsula
was eengulfed by conflict. A cease fire was signed in July 1953.Due to economic problems
and food shortages, there was much discontent in the country. Bengali-Speaking East
Pakistan was increasingly angry over the Language issue as Urdu was to be the national
language of Pakistan. As a result, the support of Muslim League in East Pakistan collapsed.
Nazimuddin was dismissed by Governor General Malik Ghulam Muhammad in 1953.

Malik Ghulam Muhammad 1951-1955

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He was the 3rd Governor General and started the Six Year Plan for agriculture, Power,
industry and transport. It was important to the economic development of Pakistan. Severe
problems hampered development such as food shortages and drought. Rioting followed and
the government found it challenging to overcome these issues, leading to many personnel
changes. Little constitutional development could take place because of these challenges.
Economic problems religious problem and constitutional problems in 1950 a planning
commission was set up to service economic development of Pakistan. In 1951, launched, six-
year plan for agriculture, fuel, mining, power, industry transfer and other said uplift
schemes. 1953, a planning board was also set up to keep an eye on these projects and after
1956, next 5-year plan was remade for the economic development. Jute processing plant in
East Pakistan. Exploration at oil and gas at Sui in Baluchistan .He resigned in 1955 due to ill
health.
Religious Crises
During 1952-1953, religious groups in Punjab started demonstrations against Ahmedis (a
community questions the Muslim doctrine of finality of Prophethood).The religious groups
demanded that the Ahmedis to be declared a religious minority. Foreign Minister Zafarullah
Khan and other civil and military officers belonging to Ahmedi sect to be dismissed. The
central Government was faced with the outbreak of law and order. Punjab imposed martial
law in the province in March 1955.This is also led to the resignation of Chief Minister
Daultana.

SEATO (South East Asia Treaty Organization)

1955 South East Asia Treaty Organization. Also included USA and Britain. Sometimes
called Manila Pact in Pakistan. Joined in 1955. Withdrew in 1972.Aimed to resist
Communist expansion. Pakistan surprised other Muslim countries by being so
closely allied with USA.

CENTO (Central Treaty Organization)

Originally the Baghdad Pact formed in 1955 with Turkey and Iraq. Later that year
Pakistan, Iran and Britain joined to establish an anti-Communist alliance against the
Soviet Union. All except Britain were Muslim countries. Pact renamed CENTO (Central
Treaty Organization) after Iraq left in 1959.Never developed a permanent structure or
system for raising troops for mutual defense and was dissolved in 1979.USA supported
the organization but did not become a member.

Muhammad Ali Bogra 1953-1955

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• Started getting foreign aids from USA, Australia and Canada.

• He also imported wheat from America
• CENTO was also signed.
• He also had to face many problems such as economic progress was not further
developed; constitutional crises also began when both the leaders wished to
maintain their power.

One Unit Policy OR Bogra Formula

On 05 October 1955, Acting Governor General, Iskandar Mirza Passed an order verifying all
of West Pakistan in what become known as the One-Unit Scheme. It was suggested in 1954
by Muhammad Ali Bogra that all the four provinces and the ten princely states within West
Pakistan would be merged in to a single administrative system. Mirza claimed that the
unification would bring about greater efficiency and enable more rapid development. The
scheme prevented East Pakistan in gaining a majority in Assembly (as they were 10 million
more in number than West Pakistan) by officially dividing Pakistan into 2 wings and ensuring
equal representation in the Assembly. The scheme was unpopular in East Pakistan and was
opposed in individual of West Pakistan.

Molvi Tamizuddin Case 1955

Molvi Tamizuddin, the speaker of the dissolved assembly, challenged the dissolution in the
Sindh High Court, saying that the dissolution had been illegal. In Feb 1955 the court ruled in
favour of Molvi Tamizuddin, Ghulam Ahmed Muhammad appealed to the Federal Court
against this judgment. This higher court decided in the favour of Ghulam Muhammad.

Iskandar Mirza 1955-1958

Became acting Governor General in 1955. Introduced the One Unit policy in 1955, which he
claimed would bring about greater efficiency and development in West Pakistan. The policy
meant that East Pakistan could not gain a majority in the Assembly. Introduced the new
Constitution in 1956, under which he was able to become President. As Ghulam M. got
paralyzed Iskander Mirza was made as the acting Governor General in 1955.Before this, he
was member of cabinet nominated by Malik Ghulam Muhammad. He served the Royal
British Army.He remained the governor of the province of East Pakistan. He suspended the
Constitution in 1958 and declared Martial Law. His rule became unpopular and lost the
support of many leading politicians. He declared Martial Law but was forced to resign by
Ayub Khan in 1958.
Constitution of 1956
It was a written constitution and it had Islamic character as it contained Islamic provisions.

It was partly rigid and partly flexible and would be amended with 2/3 majority of national
Assembly.
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Federal system of government was introduced. The powers were divided by the constitution
between the center and provinces.
Parliamentary system of the government was enforced.

The PM and his cabinet were to be the member of the national assembly and were also
responsible and accountable to the assembly.
President was the head of state.
Unicameral legislature.

There was a total of 300 members; 150 members from each wing.
Official language Urdu and Bengali.
Independence of judiciary.
Islamic Provisions of 1956 Constitution

Name of the country will be Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

Sovereignty belongs to Allah
The head of state will be a Muslim
Islamic advisory council will be set up to guide people to order and shape their lives in
accordance with principles of Islam.

No law contrary to the principles of Islam shall be made.

Efforts will be made to bring present laws in conformity with the principle of Islamic.
All basic fundamental rights shall be provided.
Rights for minority will be provided.

Which of the following contributed the most to Pakistan’s domestic policies between 1948
and 1958? (i) Khwaja Nazimuddin (ii) Malik Ghulam Muhammad (iii) Iskander Mirza
Explain your answer with reference to all four.
Liaquat Ali Khan made the first move towards constitutional development with his
Objectives Resolution in 1949. This focussed on the principles of Islam and human rights. In
March 1949, during Liaquat Ali Khan’s time, Objectives Resolution was passed to lay out
fundamental principles to make constitution. It was reviewed by the Basic Principles
committee in September 1950 and the draft constitution recommended a bicameral
legislature with both houses having equal powers. Urdu was kept as national language.
However, the religion parties declared it insufficiently Islamic.
It was designed to deflect criticism from religious leaders who said the new state was not
Islamic enough.
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This was then followed by the drafting of a constitution, which attracted much criticism as it
was seen by many as being insufficiently Islamic.
He also managed to keep the economy going and produced surplus budgets for the new
state.
East Pakistan objected to equal share in the parliament as it had more population than West
Pakistan. It also criticized on Urdu being the only national language.
Liaquat Ali Khan introduced PRODA (Public Representatives and Officers Disqualification
Act) in order to curtail corruption in Pakistan.
In March 1951, in the famous Rawalpindi Conspiracy case, Major Akbar Khan and fourteen
other officers were arrested.In October 1951 Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated in
Rawalpindi while addressing a public rally.

Khwaja Nazimuddin
1948 made 2nd Governor General, appointed Liaquat Ali Khan Prime Minister.
Made Objectives Resolution in 1949. It focussed on the principles of Islam and human rights.
Designed to deflect criticism from religious leaders who wanted the new state to be more
Islamic.

Drafted a constitution, which attracted much criticism as it was seen by many as being
insufficiently Islamic.
Kept the economy going and produced surplus budgets for the new state.
Malik Ghulam Muhammad persuaded Khawaja Nazim-ud-Din to step down as Prime
Minister and he himself became the 3rd Governor General in Oct. 1951. In order to develop
Pakistan economically he introduced a 6 years economic development plan in 1951 that was
later further extended to another 5 years plan.
Its aim was to make economic planning regarding industry, power and transport sectors.. A
major jute processing plant was set up in 1952 in East Pakistan. As a result of efforts for
exploring oil and gas reserves, natural gas was discovered at Sui in Balochistan in 1952.
In 1953 Pakistan had develop its economic growth due to a huge demand of cotton and jute
in Korean War that caused large scale export of these commodities.
There was serious food shortage due to droughts in east and West Pakistan and violence
that was aggravated by an anti-Qadiani movement. Ulemas demanded removal of Ahmadis
from key posts including the foreign minister Sir Zafar Ullah Khan. Making this an excuse
Malik Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Khawaja Nazimud Din in April 1953.
Muhammad Ali Bogra was the new PM. During his period a clause restricting the powers of
the Governor General was passed from assembly. PRODA was also abolished by the
assembly as Governor General could misuse it. However, Ghulam Muhammad soon
dismissed Bogra’s government and dissolved the Constituent Assembly in September 1954.
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He re-appointed Bogra as PM with five non-assembly members as ministers in cabinet

including Ayub Khan as defense minister.
Malik Ghulam Muhammad

As 3rd Governor General responsible for the Six Year Plan for agriculture, power, industry
and transport. It was important to the economic development of Pakistan.
Severe problems hampered development such as food shortages and drought. Rioting
followed and the government found it challenging to overcome these issues, leading to
many personnel changes. Little constitutional development could take place because of
these challenges.
Muhammad Ali Bogra was the new PM. During his period a clause restricting the powers of
the Governor General was passed from assembly. PRODA was also abolished by the
assembly as Governor General could misuse it. However, Ghulam Muhammad soon
dismissed Bogra’s government and dissolved the Constituent Assembly in September 1954.
He re-appointed Bogra as PM with five non-assembly members as ministers in cabinet
including Ayub Khan as defense minister.
He resigned in 1955 due to ill health.

Iskander Mirza
Became acting Governor General in 1955.
Introduced the One Unit policy in 1955, which he claimed would bring about greater
efficiency and development in West Pakistan. The policy meant that East Pakistan could not
gain a majority in the Assembly.
Introduced the new Constitution in 1956, under which he was able to become President
The new constituent Assembly was elected in June 1955. In August 1955 M.G. Muhammad
fell ill and Iskandar Mirza became the new Governor General.

Iskander Mirza appointed Ch. Muhammad Ali as new Prime Minister.

The One Unit Scheme was introduced by Iskander Mirza in Oct, 1955 by merging together
all provinces of West Pakistan to make two Provinces East and West Pakistan. Ch.M.Ali
drafted Pakistan’s first constitution that was implemented in March 1956.

It introduced federal, parliamentary from of government though the President had powers
to appoint and dismiss the P.M. After One Unit Scheme, East and West Pakistan had equal
seats in the one house parliament, the National Assembly, However, the Constitution was
abrogated in Oct, 1958 by Iskander Mirza himself. Karachi airport was completed, railways
were modernized and telephone network was expanded

Mirza failed to have good relations with his Prime Ministers. Ch. M Ali was dismissed and
replaced by Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy in Sept. 1957. Suharwardy was replaced by
I.I.Chundrigar in Oct, 1957 and was replaced by Feroz Khan Noon (Dec. 1957 to 7 th Oct,
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1958). Finally, on 7th October, 1958 he declared Martial Law and appointed General Ayub
Khan as the CMLA (Chief Marital Law Administrator).
He suspended the Constitution in 1958 and declared Martial Law.

His rule became unpopular and lost the support of many leading politicians.
He declared Martial Law but was forced to resign by Ayub Khan in 1958.

Mohammad Ayub Khan (1958-1969)

Field Marshal Muhammad Ayub Khan, was the
second president of Pakistan. He was an army
general who seized the presidency from Iskander
Mirza in a coup in 1958 amidst the political chaos,
the first successful coup in the country.
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Explain why there was a constitutional crisis in 1958.

There were a number of Prime Ministers between 1955 and 1958 (Muhammad Ali Bogra,
Chaudhary Muhammad Ali, Hussain Shaheed Soharwardy, Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar and
Feroz Khan Noon) and it reached a stage where Ayub Khan felt the army should take
control until stability had been restored.
Previous governments endured a number of problems that hampered development such
as food shortages and severe foods in East Pakistan, and a drought, which led to
demonstrations of discontent. There was inflation. The government seemed corrupt and
inefficient. As successive governments found difficulty in dealing with these matters,
there were many personnel changes to try to find a solution. Pakistan faced bankruptcy
and chaos As a result, little constitutional development could take place. The 1956
constitution and One Unit Scheme had also failed previously.
Iskander Mirza lost the support of many of the leading politicians and was alarmed at a
plan by Prime Minister Suhrawardy to unite the political leadership of Bengal and Punjab
against him.
Why was martial law imposed in 1958? (7)

The death of Quaid-e-Azam gave the army an opportunity to take interest in the
governmental affairs. In the Rawalpindi conspiracy of 1951 General Akbar Khan
with 14 other officers tried to intervene in the democratic government but failed.
The political instability after the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan further increased
the military influence.
There were 5 different Prime ministers changed during 1956-1958 by Iskandar
Mirza.
Due to this incompetency of political leadership to run the state efficiently it
became necessary for the military to take over the government on the excuse of
saving the country.
Politicians were also responsible for dragging military into politics. Malik Ghulam
Muhammad introduced Ayub Khan as a defense minister in the cabinet of
Muhammad Ali Bogra.
Ayub Khan claimed to decline the offer by Malik Ghulam Muhammad of taking
over the government several times. Later, Iskander Mirza appointed Ayub Khan as
a Prime minister who ultimately forced Iskander Mirza to resign.
The delay in constitution making because of lack of agreement between East and
West Pakistan over equal representation in the parliament and the language issue
also made the situation worse as politicians failed to solve the constitutional crisis
for a long time.
Even after the constitution of 1956, politicians failed to bring stability resulting in
imposing of Martial law. There were severe food shortages and riots in the
country in 1950’s.
The politicians had a lack of interest in developing the country economically.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

On the other hand, India was rapidly progressing both economically and militarily
posing a serious threat to Pakistan’s existence. India also threatened to stop the
water flowing to Pakistan.

Constitutional Reforms
The basic democracy (1959) was a four tier system in which the Electoral College
would appoint the President of Pakistan (who was to be a Muslim and no less than
the age of 35).
The Electoral College would consist of 80,000 basic democrats who were selected by
the vote on people on the district, tehsil, division and provincial level.
In 1959, he asked these members for the vote of confidence. Almost 95% of the
members declared their confidence in him and in 1960, he was confirmed as
President.

Constitution of 1962
Due to the martial law imposed in 1958 by the government of Ayub Khan, the 1956
constitution was abrogated. General Muhammad Ayub Khan devised a committee for the
formation of the constitution of Pakistan. Thus, the 1962 constitution was introduced that
came up with a presidential form of government. Under the constitution, the president
could not be removed unless peached.
The constitution introduced the concept of basic democracies for the election of the
president.

The 2nd constitution of Pakistan enforced by Ayub Khan on 1st Mar 1962.
Dictatorial Constitution. The presidential system of government was established this time.
The president should not be removed unless impeached.
The president shall nominate the cabinet from National Assembly.
The president shall nominate the head of judiciary and provincial governors.

The National Legislative cannot pass any law without the approval of president.
President could implement or change any law he wished to.
There would be only one (NA) for 5 years.
The ban on political parties would be removed.

Urdu and Bengali will be declared both as National languages. (Twin Languages)
The National Assembly shall be held in Dhaka and Islamabad.
If president from West Pakistan, then speaker of national assembly would be from East
Pakistan.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Towards the end of the rule, Ayub Khan reverted to Parliamentary System but it was too
late.
Constitution failed and was abrogated by Yahya Khan in 1969 and later replaced in 1973

Islamic Provisions of Constitutions 1962

Sovereignty belongs to Allah and it was mentioned that the powers delegated to the
members of parliament were a sacred trust of God.
The name of the Country would be Islam Republic of Pakistan.

No law against the teaching of Islam shall be made.

The teaching of Quran and Islamiat was made compulsory to Muslims of Pakistan.
Proper organization of Zakat, Okaf and mosques should be encuces.
Rights and interest of the non-Muslims shall be protected

Muslim of Pakistan would be protected.

Muslims of Pakistan would be enabled to live their lives according to the principles of Islam.
Ayub Khan was declared the next president
Agricultural reforms (Green Revolution)
The 1958 to 1969 era of Ayub Khan is known as the decade of progress in Pakistan,
and this is for a reason – the developments that took place.
The Land reforms of 1959, Indus Water Treaty 1960, introduction of mechanized
farming, use of high yield varieties, fertilizers and insecticides helped increase
agriculture production.
75000 tube-wells were installed to provide water for irrigation and to control water
logging and salinity.
Built Dams, Barrages and Link Canals.
He imported fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and high yielding variety seeds which
increased the crop output.
It made the tenants use the barren land under big land lords and the output of crops
increased thrice which led to industrial development.
Pakistan’s growth rate became 7% which was highest in South Asia at that time
Ayub Khan introduced several reforms in agriculture. He limited the holdings of the
land and he attempted to modernize agriculture as well.
For this purpose, he fixed the limit that no one could possess less than 12.5 acres of
land (because he wanted to increase the agricultural productivity) and more
than 500 acres of irrigated and 1000 acres of unirrigated land.
The excess land taken away by big landlords was to be given to landless farmers.
In order to modernize agriculture, Ayub Khan provided several incentives to the
farmers. He decided to provide loans to the farmers so that they could purchase
tractors and insecticides and pesticides in order to increase the agricultural output.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Many poor farmers were unable to repay the loans. This is the reason why many
farmers faced a lot of problems when it came to agriculture. Overall, Ayub Khan’s
reforms led to a 15% increase in the GNP (Gross National Product) of Pakistan. The
wealthy landowners possessed massive land holdings while the poor tenants
possessed unusually less land.
This created serious problems as the agricultural output was not satisfactory. These
reforms ensured that people should have at least that amount of land that can lead
to some sort of production.
He limited the land holdings.
He gave loans to farmers (to modernize agriculture).
Dams were built to facilitate agriculture.
Industrial reforms:
Ayub Khan introduced some industrial reforms in order to increase the export and
reduce the import to enhance Pakistan’s economy.
Many foreign countries gave loans such as UK, USA and Germany.
A large number of industrial units were set up.
Tariff was imposed on the import of manufactured goods and new industries were
given tax holiday.
To provide capital for the industrial development, National Saving Schemes,
Industrial Developed Bank, National Investment Trust and Prize Bonds were
introduced.
Ayub Khan decided to provide incentives to attract foreign investors. One of the
incentives includes the Export Bonus Scheme (EBS) which manage to attract foreign
as well as local investors.
Ayub Khan managed to open more industries in Pakistan for the sake of employment
and fulfilling the local demands. Several, oil and gas development projects were also
started.
Pakistan, Iran and Turkey came into an economic alliance which is known as the
regional cooperation for development (RCD). This was a project between the three
Muslim countries to facilitate the development in the three countries. The project
was started in 1964.
With the assistance of Chinese aid Pakistan managed to build several large-scale
industries. Therefore, the industrial reforms of Ayub Khan decreased the inflation
rate in Pakistan and this was the time when the economy of Pakistan flourished.
The Industrial Production was doubled between 1960 and 1965.
The country became self-sufficient in consumer goods and emphasis was shifted to
capital goods
This led to the occupation of 66% of industries and 80% of banking and insurance
companies of Pakistan by only 22 families and all were from West Pakistan.
In 1962, Oil Refinery was set up in Karachi and a Mineral Development corporation
was set up to explore mineral deposits
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Technical and Vocational institutes were opened to provide the Industries with
skilled work force.
Social, Health and Educational reforms:

Population control schemes were introduced, they could not be effective as they were not
carried out on a large scale and they were widely opposed by some sectors of Pakistan.
He appointed General Azam Khan, the Rehabilitation Minister in 1959 to settle 75000
refugees in newly built dwellings (48000) in Karachi free of cost.

Schemes for Satellite Townships were launched in all big cities

Islamabad was made the capital of Pakistan, having a Supreme Court, President and Prime
Minister Houses, National Assembly and Senate Buildings etc.
Laws were passed to provide accommodation to factory labor by the owners.

Implemented Family Law Ordinance (1959) to control Polygamy and rapid increase of
population.
Family planning clinics were opened
Laws were made for the reform of young criminals
Took action to prevent people from hoarding goods and selling them on the Black Market at
inflated prices.
Profiteers had their goods confiscated and many were arrested.
Fixed the price of milk and other goods to stop profiteering which helped families manage
their weekly budget.

Marriages and divorces were to be registered and further marriage was to be approved by a
court.
The minimum age for marriage of women was 16 years and 18 years for men.
Ayub Khan opened several schools and colleges under the extensive literacy program and a
new curriculum for the textbooks was introduced which he thought would be beneficial.
New medical colleges and universities were opened.
Several centres for the training of doctors and nurses were also opened because of the
shortage of experienced medical staff in Pakistan.

Foreign Policy (Apart from Domestic Policies)

Continued the Pro-West and Pro-American Policy of the previous government
Pakistan received military and economic aid from USA
After the India-China war of 1962, relations improved and Ayub Khan was welcomed
in China
Tashkent Agreement in 1965 with India
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Relations with Russia did not improve, especially after the American spy plane which
took off from a base near Peshawar.
Ayub Khan was the first Pakistani head of state to visit Russia in 1965.
Regional Cooperation for Development of 1964 initiated cooperation with Turkey
and Iran.
Fall of Ayub Khan
In the 1965 war, neither side was victorious. Tashkent Agreement was signed in
1966. Ayub sacked the foreign minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto who then became a focal
point for opposition to Ayub Khan.
In 1968, many people were dissatisfied with the government. There were
accusations of vote rigging in elections for Electoral College and presidential
elections of 1965.
Agricultural production was rising but so were the food prices.
These reforms were successful to some extent because they had some positives and some
flaws.
Family planning scheme failed and population growth remained high.

Reforms were not implemented in proper manner in all sectors (political, agriculture and
educational)
He faced much opposition from many circles: Religious call against the Family Laws;
students against 3-years degree program.

Decade of development celebrations were not popular with the people.

Building of Islamabad cost a great deal of money at a time when many Pakistanis were
experiencing shortages.
Ayub Khan’s friends in army and in industry were making fortunes out of land speculation in
new city and it caused great resentment.
In 1968, there were student protests all over West Pakistan.
On a visit to Peshawar, Ayub was targeted to a failed assassination attempt.
Protests spread to East Pakistan when Ayub carried out widespread arrests including
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
The chief economist of planning commission revealed that only 22 families, mostly from
West Pakistan, monopolized wealth of the country.
Democratic Action Committee (Opposition Alliance) formed against Ayub Khan ultimately
brought him down.

Ayub Khan withdrew emergency powers and released many political prisoners. He also
wanted to negotiate with the opposition but failed and resigned in 1969.
Why did Ayub Khan change the capital of Pakistan?
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Karachi was vulnerable to attacks during war condition because of the presence of the sea
around it. Islamabad however, was a landlocked city.
Ayub wanted to get near the army headquarters which was located in Rawalpindi.

Ayub Khan wanted to get near to Punjab and KPK (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) because these
provinces provided the largest number of troops in the Pakistan army.
The temperature and climate of Islamabad was pleasant enough to work.
Ensure a more impartial and independent decision making process as government officials
would be less influenced by unwanted factors that existed in Karachi.
Islamabad was a city that could be developed according to Ayub’s plan (because Islamabad
was undeveloped at that time).
The government officials began to involve themselves in the profitable trade in
Karachi instead of their work. Therefore, Ayub found it incumbent to shift the capital from
Karachi to Pakistan.
Karachi was becoming overcrowded due to the massive increase in population. Therefore, it
seemed sensible to move the capital to a place where the population was less.
Karachi was vulnerable to attacks from the Arabian Sea.

Tashkent Agreement/ Declaration (1966)

Peace Agreement between India and Pakistan after the war of 1965
President of USSR (Aleksey Kosygin) invited leadership of India and Pakistan to
Tashkent.
The agreement was signed by President Ayub Khan and Indian Prime Minister, Lal
Bahadur Shastri.
According to the charter of UNO, both parties agreed to withdraw all armed forces
to restore diplomatic relations.
Both countries agreed to discuss economic, refugee and other situations. To make
efforts for increasing bilateral trade, to enhance communication and make some law
of repatriation for prisoners of war.
This agreement was criticized in India as it did not contain no-war pact for future
over Kashmir issue
Lal Bahadur Shastri died of heart attack on the same night and the agreement was
ignored by the next government.

Detailed answer
Ayub Khan’s tenure lasted between the years 1958 and 1969. He introduced various
economic and social reforms that led to the development of Pakistan as well as had some
negative aspects.Ayub Khan introduced many industrial reforms to industrialize Pakistan in
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

order to improve the living standards of the people as well as bring down the level of
inflation.
In 1962, an oil refinery was established in Karachi and a Mineral Development Corporation
was set up for the exploration of mineral deposits, both of which are still operating in
Pakistan today. An Export Bonus Scheme was set up offering incentives to industrialists who
increased exports, in order to increase the income earned from exports.
The reforms led to the average annual rate by which the economy grew in the 1960s, 7%
that was thrice of India. Production rose rapidly and economy improved significantly. The
price of consumer goods too reduced.
In order to safeguard Pakistan from famine, Ayub Khan introduced agricultural reforms as
well. A law was passed declaring that no farm could be smaller than 12.5 acres or larger
than 500 acres (irrigated) or 1000 acres (unirrigated), so that productivity could be
increased.
The large farms produced a steady rise in food output.Big landowners had to find tenants
for parts of their land and this too raised productivity as the tenants and the smaller farms
were more efficient than the larger, poorly run farms (larger than the land ceiling).

Moreover, three major dams were built to help irrigation and farmers were also loaned
money to build wells, to reduce the need for canal irrigation. Crop yields were at an all-time
record.
Furthermore, Ayub Khan introduced many social reforms to uphold the society. The
government began an extensive literacy programme, building new schools and colleges.
General Azam Khan, the rehabilitation minister was appointed to deal with shelter less
people. 75,000 refugees of the partition era were settled in newly built dwellings near
Karachi.

Laws were passed that factory owners had to provide accommodation for workers at a
reasonable rent, thus upholding their rights.
There was also an attempt to control population growth by setting up the Family Planning
Programme. Radio, cinema, newspapers etc. were used to persuade people to limit the size
of their families.
Medical facilities improved and more medical and nursing training schools were set up to
increase the number of doctors and nurses.
There was also an attempt to uphold women rights. Ayub Khan encouraged female
education and also passed The Muslim Family Laws Ordinance in 1961 that improved the
position of women and gave them rights such as, the right of divorce.
Ayub Khan’s foreign policy also proved to be beneficial for Pakistan. Industrial development
took place as a result of loans taken from more developed countries such as USA, UK, USSR
and Germany.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

In 1961, USSR agreed to begin exploring for oil in Pakistan. China began to give aid to
Pakistan in 1963, it granted Pakistan $60 million interest free loan and purchased its cotton
and USSR loaned Pakistan 11 million pounds.

PIA began regular flights to China in 1963, which increased trade with China. In 1964, an
economic union was formed with Iran and Turkey, the Regional Cooperation for
Development (RCD).
In 1968, Pakistan was receiving military aid from USA, USSR and China.

However, Ayub Khan’s reforms also had negative consequences. The industrial reforms
improved the economy but the wealth created did not benefit the large number of
Pakistanis living near the poverty line.
It was revealed in 1968 that only 22 families controlled 66% of Pakistan’s industrial assets.
These families also controlled 80% of Pakistan’s banking and insurance companies.
Hence, a small elite group of Pakistanis had almost complete control of Pakistan’s wealth. In
addition to that, almost all these families were in West Pakistan, creating an economic
disparity between both the wings. Pakistan was also becoming increasingly dependant on
foreign aid for industrial development.

The educational reforms were not very effective because there had just been a 1% increase
in literacy rate. Ayub Khan’s Family Planning Programme and steps towards women
empowerment were not supported by ulema and fundamentalists, hence the Muslim Family
Laws Ordinance could not be promulgated.

Therefore, it can be deduced from the above discussion that it is justified to term the years
between 1958 and 1969 as the Decade of Development because Pakistan’s economy had
improved and even those reforms that did not have a positive impact, were progressive and
well-planned.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Q. How justified is it to term the years between 1958 and 1969 as decade of
development? Explain your answer. [14]
President Ayub Khan governed Pakistan during the time period from 1958 to 1969. He
brought revolutionary policies and tried his best to develop the country industrially. For this
reason, his tenure was known commonly as the “Decade of Development” for Pakistan.
Ayub Khan had introduced certain agricultural reforms to introduce agricultural
productivity. He attempted to break the power of landlords as well. He appointed a limit of
owning maximum 1000 acres of land and 500 acres if it is irrigated.
The lower limit was 12.5 acres. Moreover, farmers were loaned money to afford tube wells
and fertilizers. The Indus Water Treaty was signed during his tenure as well.
It overcame the lack of water as through it, Pakistan was able to use the western three
tributaries for water supply, and 3 major dams were built, thus improving water storage
facilities and irrigation facilities.
Crop yield was at an all-time high and food was in such surplus that it was exported to
foreign countries as well. Agriculture had developed greatly during his tenure
Ayub Khan also introduced industrial reforms to improve the industrial productivity in
Pakistan, which was suffering greatly. This was mostly through assistance by the US,
Germany and UK in forms of loans.
In 1962 an oil refinery was set up in Karachi, and to explore mineral deposits in which
Pakistan was rich, a mineral development corporation was set up. Pakistan joined the RCD
with Turkey and Iraq to establish trade ties.
Due to these reasons Pakistan’s economy rose up at a rate of 7% annually.
He also wished to improve the educational condition of Pakistan, as the literacy rate was
embarrassingly low. He launched educational programs and built new schools and colleges.

A new school curriculum was also devised. Although these educational programs were
slow, they achieved literacy rate to at least some extent.
Ayub Khan shifted the capital of Pakistan from Karachi to Islamabad. He did so in hopes
that it would provide a better structure for government and prevent politicians from getting
involved in trade and export activities, which would distract them from their governmental
duties. This also enabled him to get military support in case of emergency, as Islamabad was
near to military headquarters. It was a very successful idea as both his aims were met.
We can see clearly that Ayub Khan made certain achievements, but his policies also
increased difficulties and challenges for Pakistan. His reforms led to the concentration of
wealth in the hands of the few was multiplied. By 1962, only 22 families controlled 66% of
Pakistan’s industrial assets. They also controlled 80% of banking and insurance companies.
Instead of a trickle-down system of economy, it further widened the gap between the elite
class and the poor.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

In addition, his family planning policies failed as people in Pakistan were unwilling to give
up their customs and traditions, and they saw large families as a matter of pride. It was also
true that people in rural areas depended on having large families to provide financial
support.
His industrial policies were also the cause of major debts. This is due to the fact that
Pakistan had to make major loans from developed countries in order to develop industries.
This increased both the circular and regular debt and resulted in negative balance of
payments.
Based on the aforementioned reasoning, it is clear that indeed, his tenure rightfully
deserves to be known as the decade of development. The drawbacks, although existent, are
miniscule compared to the progress Pakistan was able to make. Pakistan desperately
needed reforms like his, and he did a great job to bring Pakistan to a better position.
Failure of Mohammad Ayub Khan
Rule of Dictatorship
In 1958 Ayub’s Martial Law had been held by a popular acclaim as it put promise to put an
end to the misuse of power, corruption and political stability but when he ascended to
thrown, he started thinking of life-long rule and when he gave ‘his one rule’ legal cover
under the 1962 Constitution, the political parties and democratic minded people were not
ready to tolerate his dictatorship for a long time and bitterly opposed the system.
Presidential System
President Ayub introduced Presidential system under 1962 Constitution because he
considered strong executive of all the political ills prevalent in the country at that time, but
the fact was that he wanted to concentrate everything in his own hands. There was no real
division of powers between the legislature and the executive. As a result, the legislature
became less important and executive more authoritarian.

Federal form of Government

Under 1962 Constitution Pakistan was a federation. It is the essence of a federation that all
federating units must autonomous in their internal affairs and decisions but it was not the
case with Ayub’s federation. It was federal only in theory while in practice the units were
under the supreme control of the centre. They depended upon the centre regarding all their
matters and decisions. The centre dictated them in terms.
Indirect Election
Under the 1962 Constitution indirect system of election was adopted. The primary voters
were to elect Basic Democrats who were to serve as an electoral college for the election of
the President, members of National and Provincial Assemblies. Their strength was 80,000
equally distributed between both the wings. Later on, their strength was raised to 120,000.
His indirect system of election was criticized on the ground that the government and other
political parties could easily force the limited number of Basic Democrats to vote for their
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

candidates and the common had been deprived of their right of proper participation in the
affairs of the state or we can say that there was very restricted franchise.
Tashkent Declaration
The 1965 War proved to be a great setback in Ayub’s career. He had adopted a war strategy
according to which the East-Pakistan was left defenceless. However, the strategy remained
useless during the war. The Tashkent Agreement after the 1965 war was not welcomed by
the people because it provided withdrawal retreat of the troops to their respective pre-war
positions. That why Z.A. Bhutto declared that what Pakistan had gained in the battlefield
was lost on the diplomatic table. The core issue of the war was Kashmir dispute but it was
not mentioned in the Tashkent Declaration. Hence no advancement was made for the
solution of this problem in the post-Tashkent Agreement period, which created
disappointment not only among masses but also in the army.
Economic instability
After coming into power Muhammad Ayub Khan resolved to make Pakistan economically
developed. But he failed to stabilize Pakistan’s economy on sound footings. Wealth began to
concentrate in few hands particularly to 22 families. In 1968 Dr. Mehboob-ul-Haq a chief
economist, disclosed that these 22 families controlled 67% of the entire industrial capital,
80% of banking and 97% of insurance capital. This socio-economic injustice widened the gap
between the rich and the poor. The number of educated jobless people was increasing day-
by-day, prices of essential commodities raised to such an extent that in 1968 there occurred
serious shortage of sugar and drinking, water in Karachi. Ayub’s economic activities did not
bring any change and revolution in socio-economic position of common man. Hence the
people frustrated slowly and gradually of his regime.
Insistence on One Unit
In October 1955 One Unit was established to create parity between the two wings. Small
provinces and regional political parties had been condemning. One Unit from the very
beginning of its creation when Ayub came to power, he insisted on One Unit, which
produced instance reaction among the small provinces and regional political parties of
Bengal. For this purpose, they started agitation against Ayub’s regime to force him to
dissolve One Unit.
Elective Body Disqualification Ordinance (EBDO)
President Muhammad Ayub Khan had introduced EBDO. Many politicians of both the wings
of Pakistan were EBDOed for misuse of power. In addition, many politicians including Ayub
Khuro were arrested on specific grounds and charges. Ayub Khan’ aim of this ordinance was
in fact to remove his political opponents from political scene. This ordinance was severely
criticized by the politicians who termed it as everybody disqualification ordinance.

Opposition against Family Law Ordinance

Ayyub’s regime had promulgated Family Law Ordinance under which polygamy was banned,
age limit was fixed for both the sexes from 14 to 16 years, husbands were restricted to
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

divorce and sale of daughters was banned etc. Such laws invited the wrath of orthodox
religious leaders and people. Besides, his family planning programme was declared un-
Islamic by the staunch Ulama. All the above policies were also bitterly criticized by religious
scholars. Even some enthusiastic mullahs passed a verdict and declared him ‘Kafir’.Their
response also came in the shape of agitation and demonstrations.
Press and Publication Ordinance
Ayub khan had issued Press and Publication Ordinance in order to revise the existing laws
pertaining to the proprietorship editorship of newspapers etc. But this ordinance severely
affected the freedom of the press as it was used to propagate the idea of the Government
and to defame the Opposition parties. People and the political parties were deadly opposed
to this ordinance, which brought the press under tight grip.

University Ordinance
Under the University Ordinance of Ayub’s regime, Bachelor degree course was extended
from 2 to 3 years and a method of monthly exam was introduced. The results of monthly
tests were to be considered while determining the annual final results etc. These measures
were rejected by the students and universities staff. Students of East-Pakistan formed a
Students Action Committee to stress him to carry out their 11 Points program. The
movement gained further momentum when on 20th January 1969 a student leader was
killed by police firing in Decca.

Separation of East Pakistan

Separation of East Pakistan was an unbearable tragedy and tremendous loss. It was the
outcome of the failures of the ruling generals and greedy politicians to arrive to a political
settlement. The crevices in the federation of Pakistan started to appear right after the death
of Mr. Jinnah. By 1970, the sentiments for National Unity had weakened (in East Pakistan) to
such an extent that constant conflicts between the 2 wings and created max civil disorder.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

This tragically resulted in the separation of Pakistan’s Eastern Wing. There are multi
mentionable causes for the breakup of Pakistan. The important are as follows:
Background:

When Pakistan came into being in 1947, it consisted of two wings; East Pakistan and West
Pakistan. These two wings were separated by 1000 miles long territory on India. Right from
its birth, Pakistan became a focus of Indian conspiracy and aggression. In 1971, the Bengalis
revolted against Pakistan with active Indian support. As a result, in December 1971, East
Pakistan succeeded in seceding from Pakistan.
Causes of Separation Of East Pakistan:
Lack of Leadership of Muslim League:
There is no doubt that all-India Muslim League played a very important role in the
creation of Pakistan but after the independence Pakistan Muslim League fell victim
of party dissention and lack of leadership.
After the death of Quaid-e-Azam in 1948 and the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan in
1951, the political leaders of PML joined race for power and preferred personal
interests over national interests.
As a result, corruption, bribery, black-marketing and anti-state activities became
order of the day. In East Pakistan, PML suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of
Awami League in 1970.
Economic Backwardness of East Pakistan

The situation was much aggravated by the sense of economic deprivation on the part of
Bengalis.
One of the main grievances of the Bengalis was that the money and resources had been
systemically transferred from East to West Pakistan.

East Pakistan claimed that the development of West Pakistan had been on the expense of
East Pakistan.
Industrial development took place at a faster rate in West wing than in East wing.
The economic disparity increased during Ayub’s Decade of Development.
Ayub khan ‘s industrial reforms gave maximum benefits to the people of west Pakistan and
22 families owned maximum wealth.
Most of the banks, insurance companies or big commercial firms in East Pakistan had their
head offices in Karachi.
Briefly West Pakistan was 15% wealthier than East Pakistan and this gap grew to 40% by
1970.
The economy of East Pakistan depended mainly on the income from tea, jute and rice only.
There were no other sourced to boost the provincial revenues. Overpopulation was yet
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

another factor unemployment which led to many other social evils. India exploited this
weakness of Bengalis in 1971.
Cultural and Linguist Problem:

The culture of Bengalis differed greatly from the Punjabis, Pathans, Sindhis and
Balochis. Their food, language and ways of living were distinct from the people of
West Pakistan.
East and West Pakistan had different cultures, art, music, dance and even different
cultural heroes. West Pakistanis always considered their culture superior and it was
very annoying for the Bengalis.
Mr.jinnah decided that Urdu should be national language but it was spoken by only
56%of whole Pakistan. The people of East Pakistan spoke Bengali language which
was quite differ from Sindhi, Punjabi and Balochi. This difference created a great
linguistic problem at the national level because a large number of people of East
Pakistan spoke Bengali and they demanded that Bengali should be given the status
of national language.
Riots were started in East Pakistan on the language issue in March 1948 and later in
1956 Bengali was declared as the national language along with Urdu.

Delay in Constitution making:

Unfortunately, after the death of Quaid-e-Azam and Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan could
not get a sincere leadership like them. To make the things worse Malik Ghulam
Mohammad as the second Governor-General set new traditions of intervention and
horse-trading in the country.
The tussle between the Bengalis and the Punjabis brought the country on the brick
of catastrophe. Under these circumstances, the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan
could not frame the constitution in time and first constitution took 9 years to be
framed unfortunately for two years and it was abrogated in 1958.
Delay in constitution-making allowed the anti-state elements to prosper at the cost
of national unity.
Mujib’s Six Points:
In 1970, Mujib-ur-Rehman, the leader of Awami League put forward his famous six points
which sowed the seeds of secession of East Pakistan. According to these points, he
demanded

A federal form of government with a directly elected parliament should be

established.
A new financial policy for East Pakistan to prevent transfer of capital, was suggested.
Permission for provinces to levy taxes.
Permission for East Pakistan to maintain independent trade links with other
countries.
Permission for East Pakistan to establish its own Para-military force.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

He suggested that the center (federal government) should keep only Defense and
Foreign relations under its control.

Cyclone Bhola
Cyclone Bhola hit East Pakistan on 12 November 1970. It wiped out villages,
destroyed crops and killed nearly one million people. Nearly 85 per cent of the area
was destroyed. Three months after the cyclone, 75 per cent of the population was
receiving food from relief workers. Historians believe the devastation caused by the
cyclone, the view that the government had mismanaged the relief efforts and West
Pakistan’s blatant neglect, all contributed to the high levels of anti-West Pakistan
feeling. This led to a sweeping victory for the Awami League, and eventually the
breakup of Pakistan and the creation of Bangladesh. The catastrophe happened in
Pakistan yet it is felt that few Pakistanis even know of it by name. Fewer still
remember that it eventually contributed to Pakistan’s breakup.
Elections 1970

The result was a victory for the Awami League, which gained an absolute majority, winning
160 of the 162 general seats and all seven women's seats in East Pakistan. The PPP won only
81 general seats and five women's seats, all in West Pakistan. In the provincial elections held
ten days later, the Awami League again dominated in East Pakistan, while the PPP were the
winning party in Punjab and Sindh. The Marxist National Awami Party emerged victorious
in Northwest Frontier Province and Balochistan.

The National Assembly was initially not inaugurated as President Yahya Khan and the PPP
chairman Zulfikar Ali Bhutto did not want a party from East Pakistan in federal
government. Instead, Yahya appointed the veteran Bengali politician Nurul Amin as Prime
Minister, asking him to reach a compromise between the PPP and Awami League. However,
this move failed as the delay in inauguration had already caused significant unrest in East
Pakistan. The situation deteriorated further when Operation Searchlight occurred under the
orders of Yahya resulting in a civil war that led to the formation of the independent state
of Bangladesh.

Operation Searchlight (25 March 1971)

A planned military operation carried out by the Pakistan Army to put down the Bengali
nationalist movement in East Pakistan in March 1971. Ordered by the central government in
West Pakistan, this was seen as the sequel to "Operation Blitz" which had been launched in
November 1970. The original plan envisioned taking control of the major cities on March 26,
and then eliminating all opposition, political or military within one month. Bengali resistance
was not expected by the Pakistani army and led to many atrocities taking place that caused
some 10 million refugees to flee to India. These atrocities enraged the Bengalis, who
declared independence from Pakistan, and led to the creation of Bangladesh.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Political Reasons
Pakistan started as a parliamentary democracy but with the passage of time, due to
dictatorial work, proved, it as failure.

The political grievances of people of East Pakistan were also increased as they had a bigger
population of 54% but the political power was in the hands of the politicians of West
Pakistan from the beginning.
The long presidential long rule of Ayub increased their sense of deprivation.

East Pakistan Prime Ministers such as K. Nazim-ud-Din, Muhammad Ali Bogra and Hussian
Shaheed Soharwardi were forcibly dismissed; even though they enjoyed the confidence of
national assembly.
A very important reason was that after 1970 election, when Awami League won a majority
of seats from his government, which was his constitutional right.
In 1971 Awami League won overwhelming majority in general elections. At this stage, Gen.
Yahiya Kahn did not hand over powers to Mujib-ur-Rehman and instead launched a military
operation in East Pakistan to suppress the Bengalis. Gen. Tika Khan used brutal force to
bulldoze the opposition. This oppressive policy created hatred against West Pakistan.

Role Of India:
India was instrumental in organizing and supporting the revolt of Bengalis against Pakistan.
Indian government provided full military and financial assistance to the guerrillas of Awami
League. During the 1971 Indo-Pak war, Indian trained members of Mukti Bahni created
many problems for Pakistan army. After creating favourable circumstances India attacked
East Pakistan under the pretext of supporting the Bengalis.
After Independence in 1947, Pakistan fell victim of international conspiracy which was
masterminded by Jews and Hindu. These anti-Islamic lobbies did not want to see Pakistan to
become the citadel of Islam.
During operation searchlight India allowed the people of East Pakistan to come to its
territory as refugees and gained sympathy. The Indian intervention was firstly indirect as it
fully trained, funded and equipped the Bengali militant separatist group Mukti Bahini (The
Liberation Army) fighting against Pakistan army. It started a civil war in East Pakistan.
Pakistan army was fighting against its own people. On 4th Dec, 1971 India intervened
directly waging war against Pakistan in the East. Pakistani forces tried to divert attention by
attacking on western border but in vain. India applied naval and air blockade to stop military
supplies to East Pakistan. On Dec 16, 1971 90,000 Pakistani forces surrendered resulting in
the creation of Bangladesh.
Immediate and Social Reasons
The behaviour of West Pakistan’s officers who were posted in East Pakistan was hateful and
humiliating with this Bengalis.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

This hatred went on increasing and India’s hostility propagated and added fuel to the fire by
poising the minds of Bengalis.
East Pakistan’s share in Central government services were nearly 15% and in the Armed
Forces it was only 10%.
Although, Bengali declared the national language, after not attempt was made to popularize
Bengali in West Pakistan.
It remained a big hurdle in creating a sense of Solidarity between two units of Pakistan.

Indian Military Intervention became most important factor and an immediate season.
Indian army invaded and attacked East Pakistan from many sides in Nov, 1971.
This resulted in the surrender of the Pakistan Army on 16th Dec, 1971 when Bangladesh was
created.

Conclusion:
If there was a consistent and tragic pattern during the first 24 years in the Pakistan’s history,
it seemed to be that the more the power elite tried to preserve unity of the political system,
the more certain did its eventual disintegration became. Among the factors that resulted in
the separation of East Pakistan, two precipitous factors were:

a) The reign of terror and killings unleashed by the Pak-Army during March-December 1971.
b) The intervention of the Indian Army in the civil war in December 1971.
SOURCE A
The cyclone that broke Pakistan’s back

Cyclone Bhola hit East Pakistan on 12 November 1970. It wiped out villages, destroyed crops
and killed nearly one million people. Nearly 85 per cent of the area was destroyed. Three
months after the cyclone, 75 per cent of the population was receiving food from relief
workers. Historians believe the devastation caused by the cyclone, the view that the
government had mismanaged the relief efforts and West Pakistan’s blatant neglect, all
contributed to the high levels of anti-West Pakistan feeling. This led to a sweeping victory
for the Awami League, and eventually the breakup of Pakistan and the creation of
Bangladesh. The catastrophe happened in Pakistan yet it is felt that few Pakistanis even
know of it by name. Fewer still remember that it eventually contributed to Pakistan’s
breakup.
From The Express Tribune, 18 August 2010.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Section A
Answer the following question.

This question is about the formation of Bangladesh.

1 Study the sources (Insert) carefully and then answer the questions which follow.

(a) According to Source A, what problems were caused by Cyclone Bhola in 1970? 3]

It destroyed villages and crops. Nearly 1 million people died. 85% of the area was
destroyed.
3 months later 75% of population were receiving food from aid workers.
There were ill feelings towards West Pakistan over the amount of aid

(b) What does Source B tell us about the outcome of the conflict between East Pakistan and
West Pakistan?

It suggests that the ending of the conflict was an important event because there are
military men of high rank witnessing the signing of a peace treaty.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

The source shows that the Indian army had become involved in the conflict.
The end of the conflict led to the formation of Bangladesh.
The source suggests that this news was important so would be broadcast around the
subcontinent and probably the world.

Yahya Khan 1969-71

Successes
Abolished One Unit Scheme
Abolished Basic Democratic System/elections
LFO – Legal Framework Order – one man, one vote

Seats distributed according to Pakistan

Fair elections
Failures
1971 war with India Civil war – separation of East Pakistan
(Immediate causes) Unable to implement results of the elections

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto 1971 -1977

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was a Pakistani barrister and politician who served as the ninth Prime
Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977, and prior to that as the fourth President and Chief
Martial Law Administrator of Pakistan on 20th December from 1971 to 1973. He was also the
founder of the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) and served as its chairman until his execution in
1979.
Simla Agreement 1972

The treaty was signed in Simla (also spelt "Shimla") in India by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto,
the President of Pakistan, and Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India.[5] The agreement
also paved the way for diplomatic recognition of Bangladesh by Pakistan. Technically, the
document was signed at 0040 hours in the night of 3 July; despite this official documents are
dated 2 July 1972.Some of the major outcomes of the Simla Agreement are:

Both countries will "settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral
negotiations”. India has, many a times, maintained that Kashmir dispute is a bilateral issue
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

and must be settled through bilateral negotiations as per Simla Agreement, 1972 and thus,
had denied any third party intervention even that of United Nations.
The agreement converted the cease-fire line of 17 December 1971 into the Line of
Control (LOC).this boosted ZAB confidence and and trust among people had lost one part of
the country and suffered a defeat and imprisonment of more than 90,000 soldiers.

Constitutional reforms (1973)

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s first achievement after coming into
power was the preparation of a Constitution for the
country. The most prominent characteristic of this
Constitution was that it accommodated proposals from
the opposition parties and hence almost all the major
political parties of the country accepted it.
The National Assembly approved the 1973 Constitution
on April 10, 1973. This constitution came into effect on
August 14. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto took over as the Prime
Minister of Pakistan from this date and Fazal Elahi
Chaudhry was appointed as the President of Pakistan. It declares Pakistan as a Federal
Republic to be known as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Islam was declared as the State
religion of Pakistan.
The Constitution was parliamentary in nature and declared the President was to be the
Head of the State. The President was to be a Muslim above 45 years of age and could not
hold office for more than two terms. The President was to act on the advice of the Prime
Minister of Pakistan. The 1973 Constitution set up a bicameral legislature at the Center
consisting of two Houses, the National Assembly and the Senate.
The National Assembly consisted of 200 seats elected directly for duration of five years. The
1973 Constitution provided a free and independent Judiciary. The Constitution guaranteed a
right to the citizens; to be protected by law, and imposed two duties on them, loyalty to the
Republic and obedience to the law.
Any person who was found to abrogate or attempt or conspire to abrogate or subvert the
Constitution was to be treated guilty of high treason (article 6).

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto assumed power in critical circumstances and Pakistan had no
constitution since 1969.
This constitution gave power more to the Prime Minister (Executive head, male and a
Muslim over 40) Rather than President such as emergency powers and appointment of chief
justice
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

This constitution formed a Bi-cameral form of Government with two houses of Parliament,
Senate and National assembly.
Official name of the country would be “Islamic Republic of Pakistan” with Islam as the state
religion.
Islamic committee was also established which gave advice on legislation only.
Basic Human rights were also guaranteed first time in the constitution of Pakistan, a list of
Basic human rights was drawing and made part of constitution.

Urdu was declared as National Language and to be made official language till 1988.
This constitution stated clearly that head of state must be Muslim.
Members of the armed forces to take an oath promising not to take part in any political
activities.

In emergency, federal government to have authority to pass any laws and even suspend
fundamental freedoms.
This constitution was accepted by all opposition parties and faced no opposition.
This constitution is still practiced till this day with some amendments.
Economic reforms (policy of Nationalization)

Bhutto started a program of nationalization of industries.

Sugar, cotton, vegetable oil and rice industries, together with the banking and insurance
sectors were taken under government control. (Nationalization)
70 industrial units were placed under Federal Ministry of Production.

This helped control industrial output and channel investment into industrialization.
This also helped to raise the workers living and working standards.
This also allowed workers to set up unions.
To distribute the wealth that had collected in few Industrial houses.
Wealth was created to fund other government reforms.
Inflation fell from 25% to just 6% in 1976, economic growth began.
However, it was a huge job for the federal ministry as Pakistan was not having sufficiently
educated workers.

There was a decline in demand of goods.

There was a global recession and decline in demands.
Agricultural reforms
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Bhutto reduced the ceiling of ownership of agricultural land from 1000 acres un-irrigated
and 500 acres irrigated to 500 acres un-irrigated and 250 acres irrigated.
Bhutto believed that mechanization would help increase production on small farms.

However, Bhutto’s reforms were undermined by cunning of landowners.

These landowners transferred some of the landholdings to members of extended family
members.
Some landowners used personal influence to bribe officials to overlook transgressions of
new law.
Bhutto also introduced a reform known as security of tenure.
This law gave tenants first right of purchase of land farmed by them and landlords could not
sell land to a third party which might then evict the tenants.

Landowners still used their influence to take land illegally from tenants and tenants were
unable to stand up against the landowners
Landowners also used to bribe the revenue officers to record land as “owner cultivated”
although it was cultivated by tenants.

Security of Tenure Scheme

ZAB wanted tenant farmers to have security of tenure
Gave tenant farmers the first right of the purchase of the land they worked on
Land owners could not sell the land to a third party who might evict the tenant
farmers
Farmers were hence, encouraged to make improvements on their land
However, Land owners had too much influence and power to make the scheme
work.
Some Land owners used their influence to convince revenue officers to falsely
classify land as “owner-cultivated”, even though it was actually being worked on by
tenants. This allowed them to exploit the labor of the tenants without giving them
their rightful share.
Educational Reforms
Bhutto wanted to increase the literacy rate which was just 25%
He believed in free and compulsory education.
Many primary and secondary schools were established
Colleges, Medical Colleges and universities were established
He nationalized private schools and colleges to raise to the standard of education
Bhutto introduced educational reforms, Article 37 of government of constitution stated that
it was the duty of Government to provide free education.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Bhutto provided education for all including Women.

He ensured that school curriculum met Pakistan’s social, economic and political needs.
Although the literacy rate increased to some extent but these reforms faced a lot of
opposition.
Administration needed to coordinate the new reform did not exist
The budget allocated by Government was only 13% for education.
Many people in rural areas did not want to send their children to school because this would
reduce the number of family members working on farm.
However due to lack of funds, these quality and free education could not be implemented.
Literacy did not rise by more than 1%
Health Reforms

Pakistan had high infant mortality rate and low life expectancy rate.
Bhutto also introduced health reforms, he introduced RHCs (Rural Health Centers) for every
60,000 people and BHU (Basic Health Units) for every 20,000 people. Training colleges for
doctors and nurses set up. Once qualified doctors had to work first year wherever the
government placed them.

Doctors were assigned posts in villages and small towns

The sale of medicines under brand names was also banned. This measure reduced the costs
of medicine dramatically.
Medical service was improved but there was shortage of doctors and nurses.

Sale of medicines with patented names led to a fall in the income of chemists and as a
result, many pharmaceutical companies closed their operation in Pakistan due to lack of
profit.
Administrative reforms and controlling the army
Reduced the political influence of the army which he thought of as threat to his rule
Removed 29 important army leaders within four months of his rule. This included
head of Air force, Air Martial Rahim Khan and Commander in Chief General Gul
Hasan.
General Tikka Khan was appointed as Chief of Army Staff
Set up federal security force to assist police force. Critics called it a private army
Civil service of Pakistan was corrupt and inefficient.
Re organized Civil Service in to smaller levels and unified pay scaless
Reformed entry requirements by direct recruitment method; capable people could
join at any level.
These reforms were criticized as system of patronage
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Foreign policy
He strengthened relations with China, former USSR, Saudi Arabia, Bangladesh, Afghanistan
and the Arab world.

Bhutto visited China and China gave $110 loan to Pakistan.

In 1972 military and economic aid came from China, 60 MiG fighters and many tanks.
Bhutto visited USSR and it gave Pakistan 4.5 billion rupees to help establish steel mill, it
further gave loans to start mineral and oil exploration.

Bhutto also signed a Simla Agreement with India which cooled down the effects of 1971
war.
He played active role in uniting Muslims of the world. He hosted the second OIC with
collaboration with Saudi Arabia in Lahore in February 1974.

This conference was a historic event that projected Pakistan as a leading Muslim country. He
was trying to create an economic alliance between the Islamic countries.
Bhutto in his attempt to have strong bilateral relations with Saudia and Bangladesh,
renamed the major city of Lyallpur to Faisalabad in the honour of Shah Faisal (king of Saudi
Arabia) and built Qaddafi cricket stadium in Lahore in the honour of Maumar Qaddafi of
Bangladesh.
He signed a number of bilateral agreements with the gulf countries for facilitating Pakistani
workers to seek overseas employment.
Millions of skilled and non-skilled workers obtained jobs in the Middle East.

There was significant rise in foreign exchange for Pakistan.

Bhutto withdrew from commonwealth as well as SEATO in 1972.
Pakistan attended Non-aligned summit as observer in 1976.
Bhutto created an Afghan cell in Pakistan foreign office.

Sardar Daud visited Rawalpindi and established friendly ties.

Explain why Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s rule ended in 1977.
He was powerful.
The focal point of political power lay with the party leadership and with Bhutto in particular,
so when things went wrong, he was blamed.
The changes in education were criticized as they led to overcrowding in existing schools
whilst new ones were built/the building of new schools the recruitment of new teachers
could not be achieved quickly/was very expensive.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Many families resented the educational reforms because it meant a loss of earnings for
them. Opponents alleged that Bhutto and his party manipulated the election in March 1977,
which led to protests that were put down by the police.

Martial law was imposed in Karachi, Lahore and Hyderabad and strikes by bus and truck
drivers in Karachi (Operation Wheel Jam), caused further problems for Bhutto.
During Bhutto’s time in office the economy declined which contributed to unrest and
reduced support for his government.

His personality and style of governing upset the people. He was accused of becoming
arrogant, authoritative and ruthless in his dealing against his opponents.
PNA blamed Bhutto for rigging election 1977 and demanded fresh elections and recounting
of votes which Bhutto refused. This led to the mass movement against Bhutto.

FSF was used against the opposition and it failed to maintain law and order situation.
He antagonized army by his remarks.
He started leaning towards Russia which annoyed west and Henry Kissinger directed Bhutto,
if he would not give up his nuclear programme America would make him horrible example
in the world.

Bhutto was found guilty at the murder of Ahmad Raza Qasuri his political opponent and LHC
gave him death sentence.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

In which of the following did Zulfikar Ali Bhutto have most success?
(i) Reform and control of the armed forces
(ii) constitutional reform
(iii) education and health reforms
Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above. 2018 O/N, Q4C
Bhutto was concerned about the army and decided that he should assert his control. He
made the army and air-force chiefs resign. This made his position more secure.

A new constitution in 1973 established a Senate giving the opportunity

for professionals, academics and specialists to work together. It also safeguarded the
interests of minority provinces, which now had an equal status in the Senate. It marked the
return to a form of parliamentary democracy, the basis upon which Pakistan has been
governed to the end of the twentieth century, apart from when it was suspended due to
martial law. One of the main weaknesses of the new constitution was that the focal point of
political power lay with the party leadership and Bhutto in particular. When things went
wrong, he was blamed, which made him vulnerable
His education reforms, introduced free primary education. New schools were planned and
all private sector schools were nationalised. The aim was to increase the literacy rate and
raise academic standards. The changes in education led to overcrowding in existing schools
whilst new ones could be built. The reforms had limitations since the building of new
schools and the recruitment of new teachers could not be achieved quickly and was also
very expensive.
His health reforms attempted to improve infant mortality and age expectancy rates by
introducing Rural Health Centres and Basic Health Units. Pharmaceutical companies were
banned from charging for a particular medical brand name and so medicines became
cheaper. However, this did see the profits of chemists fall drastically and many
international drug companies closed down their operations in Pakistan,
meaning that Pakistan lost income.

(c) How successful were Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s domestic policies between 1971 and 1977?
Explain your answer.
Successes
A new constitution drawn up in 1973 established a Senate which offered the opportunity for
professionals, academics and specialists to work together.

It also safeguarded the interests of minority provinces which now had equal status in the
Senate.
He produced the 1973 Constitution in an attempt to return to a form of parliamentary
democracy and it was important since it is the basis upon which Pakistan has been governed
to the end of the 20th century, apart from when it was suspended due to martial law.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

He also tried to improve the infant mortality and age expectancy rates by introducing Rural
Health Centres and Basic Health Units.
Pharmaceutical companies were banned from charging for a particular medical brand name
and so medicines became cheaper.
Amongst Bhutto’s education reforms, free primary education was introduced. New schools
were to be built and all private sector schools were nationalized. The aim was to increase
the
literacy rate and raise academic standards.
Failures
One of the main weaknesses of the new constitution was that the focal point of political
power lay with the party leadership and Bhutto in particular. When things went wrong,
Bhutto was blamed.
Banning pharmaceutical companies from charging for a medical brand and making
medicines cheaper did see the profits of chemists fall drastically and as a result many
international drug companies closed down their operations in Pakistan.
The changes in education led to overcrowding in existing schools while new ones were built.
The reforms were not very successful since the building of new schools and the recruitment
of new teachers could not be achieved quickly and was also very expensive.
Many families resented the reforms since it meant a loss of earnings for them.
How successful was Pakistan in establishing a new constitution between 1947 and 1973?
Explain your answer
Successes:
The first attempt to set up a constitution came in 1949 with the Objectives Resolution which
tried to pave the way towards a new constitution. It attempted to set out a plan to enshrine
Islamic principles in an eventual constitution. In 1952 a revised Basic Principles Committee
presented a report which made firm steps towards an Islamic constitution by stating that
the Head of State should be Muslim and that he would appoint a committee of Islamic
specialists to ensure that all legislation conformed to Islamic law In 1956 the long awaited
constitution emerged with the important declaration that Pakistan was to be an Islamic
Republic and that Urdu and Bengali would be the official languages, which was an attempt
to placate the people of East Pakistan. In 1959 Basic Democracies were introduced by Ayub
Khan which was a 4 tier structure of government, allowing elections at various levels. The
success of these councils which were set up was such that martial law was lifted in 1962
after a new constitution was introduced. The 1973 Constitution revived the power of the
National Assembly and as a result political parties became more important.
Failures:
The Objectives Resolution of 1949 was criticized especially by East Pakistan who resented
the fact that Urdu, not Bengali was to be the official language despite the much larger
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

population. It also resented the idea of equal representation in the National Assembly, again
due to the size of its population. The death of Liaquat Ali Khan meant that constitutional
change had to wait until a new leader could be found and had time to settle in The Basic
Principles Committee’s report was criticized because the official language issue was still not
settled and East Pakistan was determined to oppose the selection of Urdu. Political
uncertainties and change meant that further discussions towards establishing a new
constitution were put on hold for a few years until 1956. The 1956 constitution was heavily
criticized since it didn’t solve the political problems of Pakistan. The constitution promised a
parliamentary system of government but whilst the President held the power to intervene
or even suspend the Assembly. East Pakistan was very unhappy at not having a majority in
the Assembly that it believed its vast population deserved. The 1962 constitution increased
the powers of the ruling elite which happened because the major landlords dominated the
elections to the Basic Democracies and often used force or bribery to influence the results
.The constitution also upset the people of East Pakistan as they felt they were going to have
little part in the governing of Pakistan and that the power was held by the military and civil
officials of West Pakistan
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Zia ul Haq 1977-1988

Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq was a Pakistani four-star general who
became the sixth President of Pakistan after declaring martial
law in 1977. He served as the head of state from 1978 until
his death in 1988. He remained the country’s longest-serving
head of state.
He arrested ZAB on 3rd September, 1977
Trial continued for two years and in the murder of Nawab
Ahmad Khan Kasuri, he was given death sentence by Lahore
High Court and Supreme Court.
ZAB refused to request for mercy to Zia and he was executed
on 4th April, 1979 in Rawalpindi.
Zia’s First Steps
He announced the end of military action Balochistan and declared amnesty for tribal
chiefs if they surrendered.
He started some development projects in Balochistan to normalize relations
between central government and Balochistan.
He started process of accountability
He banned FSF in November, 1977.
He also started investigation against ZAB in to corruption.
He wanted to seek public support for a new and honest Islamic government.
Policy of Islamization
When Zia-ul-Haq took the power in his hands, there was a popular conception that every
government paid only lip service to Islam and no sincere effort was ever made in this
direction; the ruling class had rather resisted the enforcement of Islam. General Zia was
aware of such feelings. So, he directed his attention to the taking of practical measure.
The government of Zia created such an atmosphere were acting upon Islam was
appreciated and opposing Islam was disliked and disapproved. In this regard his personal
example played an important role. He himself acted upon Islamic injunctions, performed
Umra annually, offered prayers regularly five times and his speeches or the lectures he used
to deliver reflected his devotion to Islam.
His first major step was that he introduced reforms in media as media played an important
role in creating favorable public opinion for a particular system. The promotion of music and
dancing was prohibited and instead reformatory programs were introduced. Azan was aired
at prayers time. Hajj rites were broadcast live on television and Hajj sermon could also be
heard on radio. For some time, T.V programs were stopped altogether during Iftar time to
provide calm environment to the Muslims to pray. In addition to that all obscene ads
(advertisements) were banned either on television or newspaper.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

To enforce Islam effectively the support of Ulama and Mashaikh was necessary. In this
regard, Zia concerned conventions of Ulama and Mashaikh to express their opinion freely
and to criticize government if it is following the un-Islamic path.

The Zia government tried to uphold the sanctity of chastity and privacy. with the passage of
time the T.V. censorship got relaxed and with the setting up of democratic government,
terrorists and dacoits got active, and the propaganda of safety of ‘chadar’ and ‘chardivary’
lost its charm and credibility.

Arrangements were made for attending the Zuhr prayers, in the government offices and
schools. Nazimin-i-Salat was appointed who used to arrange the managements of the
prayers, and urged the people to offer prayers.
To enforce the respect for Ramazan a special ordinance was released, according to which
smoking, drinking, eating publically was prohibited and anyone found doing that could be
imprisoned for three months or could be fined for rupees 500. Media broadcasted special
programs during Ramazan. All food markets were used to be shut down during Ramazan.
Opportunity was provided to maximum people to perform Hajj. Khuddam-ul-Hujjaj were
appointed for the guidance of Hajjis, their better residence in Saudi Arabia and medical
facilities were given due consideration by the government.
To inculcate Islamic thinking in students, general Zia ordered to review all textbooks and
anything repugnant to Islam and to the ideology of Pakistan was deleted. Islamiat and
Pakistan studies were made compulsory and were introduced in all sorts of educational
institutions. The religious institutions were officially patronized and its degrees were
recognized by government. Arabic was introduced as compulsory subject from sixth to eight
Class.
To do research in fiqh and principles of Sharia and some other disciplines, Islamic
International University was set up in Islamabad.
Amputation of hands for stealing and theft was started. These punishments were cutting of
hands for theft, hundred lashes and stoning for death for adultery and eighty lashes for
drinking and for false accusation of adultery. Appeal against these punishments could only
be made in Sharia court. However not even a single culprit was awarded these punishments.
To enforce Islamic criminal law, Sharia court was set up which enjoyed the status of high
court and it comprised of high court judges and some renowned Ulemas. If anyone claims a
law to be repugnant to Islam, after hearing the court can announce it as null and void.
However, it heard cases concerning only to Islamic law.

Few steps were taken to model the economic system on Islamic lines. For instance, the
enforcement of Zakat and Usher system. Zakat is annually deducted from saving accounts
and GDP funds when received, on the first Ramazan. Ushar was collected from those
Landlords whose yield exceeded 948 kg of wheat.

General Zia is a controversial figure in the history of Pakistan. He was opposed by the elite
class of Pakistan, who were dissatisfied with his rapid Islamization of Pakistan. Political
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Ulema supported Zia but argued that Islamizing the country was not Zia’s Job instead he
should hold elections and transfer power to the elected representatives who will then
enforce Islam.

Why did Zia ul Haq want islamization in the country?

Zia ul Haq wanted to make Pakistan an Islamic country because he believed that Pakistan
needed a strong government based on Islamic values.
He thought that his step of islamization would win massive public support and he would win
the support of the religious elements and political parties which he believed was important
to strengthen his rule.
So, he introduced the Islamic laws in an attempt to produce a strong stable government
managed by people committed to Islamic values.

He ignored the political process because he felt that Pakistan was weaker as a result of
these so-called political experiments.
He, therefore, made Islamic laws very strict in order to produce a strong government by
imposing strict legal code.
He also wanted to implement laws which punish people for showing disrespect towards the
Holy Prophet (PBUH) and this was called blasphemy law.
He ensured that Islamic education should be implemented in schools to raise Islamic
awareness among students.
He made Pakistan studies and Islamiat compulsory subjects and introduced Arabic
education program in schools.
He also wanted to distribute wealth among the poor and needy people by introducing
Islamic taxes Zakat and Usher through ordinances.
Income raised under these ordinances was given to sub-committees in villages and towns to
meet the needs of the poor.
He believed that this would help in equal distribution of wealth in society and to win people
support for his government.
He believed that without the support of international community he could not have
legitimacy to his rule.
He knew that islamization would get him support from Muslim countries and this would
help him to prolong his rule so islamization was introduced.
He got power after removing Pakistan people party government.
He wanted to suppress Pakistan people party by countering Bhutto socialist policies so he
introduced Islamic reforms to show that Islam provides an ideology which was superior and
more beneficial than socialist ideology of Bhutto.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

He also introduced Islamic reforms as he declared jihad against Soviet Union invasion in
Afghanistan.
He believed that by creating Islamic environment in the country he would be able to win
people support for his policy against Soviet Union.
He tried to show that his Islamic government was fighting against anti-religious communists.
Through his Islamic reforms he wanted to win support of the Muslim world like Saudi
Arabia.

Operation Fairplay
Operation Fair Play was the code name for the 5 July 1977 coup by Pakistan Chief of Army
Staff General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, overthrowing the government of Prime
Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. It was carried out because of political conflict in the country
between PPP and PNA (Pakistan National Allaince) which accused Bhutto of rigging the 1977
general elections. In announcing the coup, Zia promised "free and fair elections" within 90
days, but these were repeatedly postponed on the excuse of accountability. He arrested
Bhutto and his ministers, as well as other leaders of both the PPP and the PNA. [9] He
dissolved the National Assembly of Pakistan and all provincial assemblies, suspended the
Constitution, and imposed martial law.
Islamic Reforms
During 1977 -1988 Zia ul Haq introduced a series of Islamic laws in an attempt to produce a
strong and stable government managed by people committed to Islamic values.

He believed Islamic ideology provides an excellent counter ideology to Bhutto’s socialist

beliefs.
He ignored the political process and therefore the Islamic laws were very strict in order to
produce a strong government.

He revived Islamic ideology council to enforce the islamization program and he hoped that
this would win support from the religious groups.
He introduced Hadood ordinance which prescribed Islamic punishments for both men and
women. This aimed to create fear among people so that they would not commit crime and
follow Islamic teachings.
These were not a successful reform because these punishments were never implemented
due to a public fear so laws remained only on paper.
This showed lack of commitment on the part of the government to make the country
Islamic.

Islamic Advisory Council was also set up to ensure that all laws of the country were
according to Islam.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Federal shariat court was established and Islam as law of the country was also set up. The
judges were considered an authority over Islam. It heard the appeals and gave verdict
according to Shariah laws so now judiciary was also in line with Islamic laws.

He also introduced blasphemy laws and also introduced the laws which were giving
punishment to those people who were showing disrespect to holy Prophet (PBUH).
He introduced the Zakat and Usher ordinances which were the Islamic taxes on the
accumulated wealth. The purpose was to benefit the poor in the society.

The Zakat committees were also set up to collect the Zakat and distribute it among the
needy and the poor.
He also abolished interest free banking system and he introduced the new Islamic system
but only the words profit and loss were changed until real Islamic banking was not
introduced.
On Zakat, Shias had their certain reservations that they claimed that it should not be made
compulsory it should be voluntarily with consent of the people whether they wanted to pay
or not.
He also introduced Usher ordinance and it was also applied and 5% tax on agriculture
income was raised.
This broadens the tax network but the money from the tax also went to the Zakat
committees, they had to distribute among the poor and the needy people but this was not
paid and the landlords and the big guns stopped paying this tex as well.

Pakistan studies in Islamiat were made compulsory.

Arabic language was promoted through media Huffaz were given extra marks for entry into
professional colleges. Arabic was also introduced as the optional subject in schools and
colleges’ hence entire educational system was reframed in the line with Islamic ideology of
Pakistan.
Salaat committees were also set up to persuade people to pray Namaaz. Special
arrangements were also made to offer prayers in the offices.
Ordinances for the sanctity of Ramzan was also introduced which forbid people eating and
drinking in open places to maintain strict discipline during the holy month.
These laws were also strictly enforced but people continued to violate this.
Sanctity of the holy month, salat committees were seen as an attempt to force Islam on the
people. However, interest free banking was never implemented so all these reforms were
looked down upon and looks good on the paper but practically never enforced.

Economic Reforms
He reversed the policy of nationalization and followed the policy of denationalization. All
the nationalized industries were handed over to the private owners and those which
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

remained nationalized were reformed. Government also promised to avoid nationalization

in future.
Pakistanis were also encouraged to go abroad for employment and money sent by them
helped to improve the economy. Zia was able to increase the defense budget and build up
such an effective military force that he was able to sell military assistance to other Muslim
countries. Pakistan became the second largest supplier of military manpower in the
developing world. In 1985, there were estimated 50,000 Pakistanis serving abroad in
countries such as Saudi Arabia, Libya, Oman, Kuwait and United Arab Emirates.
The influx of the funds in the 1980s also allowed Zia to undertake a degree of economic
reforms. The funds from western allies were matched by even larger almost ever.
Remittances to Pakistan by workers overseas were $4 billion a year.

Laws were passed that stated that industries could not be nationalized in future except in
exceptional circumstances with their compensation paid to the owners this removed
investors fear that they might lost their money. Pakistan’s average annual growth in the
gross national product (GNP) was 6.2% the highest in the world.
Political Reforms

He banned FSF which had become a symbol of terror in the past.

This improved the image of his government and provided relief to the political parties.
He ended bloody insurgency and provided amnesty to those who gave up weapons.
Balochistan development projects were also started to end the Bloch resistance and hatred
against the central government.
He opened up corruption cases of previous government and he found plenty of evidences of
nepotism and corruption against the Bhutto government. This made his government look
more moral and just.

He set up military courts to try to offenders according to martial law regulations. These
military courts where extremely powerful even civil courts could not challenge their
decisions and to legitimize army rule over the country a provisional constitutional order
(PCO) was passed in 1979 which restricted the power of Supreme Court and High Court to
challenge the military government, 19 judges protested against PCO but they were
dismissed, now judiciary became subservient to military dictatorship.
Civil service was also brought under the control of army. Army officers were given
important posts in the civil service and the seats were also fixed for them in the civil service
this helped to strengthen his control over the country.

He set up an Islamic parliament (Majlis e Shura) since National Assembly was non -existent,
therefore, Majlis e Shura took its place. It was only advisory but had no legislative powers,
its members were also nominated by Zia. This projected him as Democratic leader running
the country with the aid of advisors and this also improved his image.
Referendum 1984
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

In 1984 he held referendum in the country to gain people’s support for his rule. The
question asked in the referendum: whether islamization should continue or not? Only 10%
voted in yes, in the referendum but overall, 10% vote gave Zia another five years to rule.
This helped him to rule the country with more authority and people's support.
New Elections 1985
In 1982, he announced new elections on non- party basis and this encouraged the political
parties to joint hands together and formed movement for the restoration of democracy
(MRD). They campaigned for democracy and party -basis elections but he did not pay
attention to them and went for non- party elections and the opposition against him
remained weak. He amended the 1973 constitution in order to make his position strong in
the country so that new elected government could not challenge the presidency. These
amendments made him very powerful in the political setup in 1985. He conducted elections
in the country and 50% people voted but MRD boycotted the elections. The new assembly
was formed which replaced Majlis e Shura this brought back democracy in the country.
Martial law was lifted and Mohammed Khan Junejo was chosen the Prime Minister who left
the party on the name of Muslim League in the National Assembly.

These elections strengthened the position of the new assembly under his rule and
presented no threat to his rule.
8th Amendment
Zia had suspended the 1973 constitution after his martial law in 1977 in February 1985
elections were held on 30th December 1985 martial law was lifted and the constitution was
restored with the 8th amendment article 58-2 B, it empowered the president president to
appoint the Prime Minister and the provincial governors as well as dismiss the Prime
Minister and the National Assembly. All previous laws of the MarshalLaws were also
validated.
Educational reforms
He emphasized on the use of Urdu as national official and educational language all
subjects in school from one to five were taught in Urdu Arabic was also introduced as
optional subject in college is Pakistan studies in Islam yard were made compulsory for
students this sudden shift in policies wasn't accepted by people immediately and created
confront the students
Foreign policy
In 1979, Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to strengthen the position of the pro-communist
government in Afghanistan, Pakistan even provided refuge to refugees pouring in into
Pakistan 3.7 million of ground refugees came to Pakistan’ USA supported Pakistan and
provided plenty of economic and military aid to Pakistan to fight a war in Afghanistan on
behalf of USA this left close relationship with USA.

His policy also helped him to get the support of the Muslim countries.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Indian army held massive military excise along the southern border and deploy troops on
the international border this increased the chances of war between two countries. Zia went
to watch cricket match in India which decreased tension between both countries.

What was the ‘Afghan Miracle’?

USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 led to an immediate impact on Pakistan’s
relationship with other countries. Zia was seen as leader of a Muslim nation on the frontline
against communist forces. Economic and military support came from the West and Pakistan
became an important base against the Soviets. Pakistan became a leading country in world
politics and this led to huge sums of money coming into the country to pay for the care of
refugees and the armed forces. Zia was able to use some of the funds to make economic
progress and reform the economy.

Ojhri camp incident

Ojhri Camp was a military storage center located in Rawalpindi. On April 10, 1988 the camp,
which was used as an ammunition depot for Afghan mujahideen fighting
against Soviet forces in Afghanistan, exploded, killing many in Rawalpindi and Islamabad as a
result of rockets and other munitions expelled by the blast. Defense Department officials
said that they believed that the explosion was the work of the pro-Soviet regime in Kabul.
Karakoram Highway
Built between 1966 and 1978 and it took 12 years to build;
The first major road built between China and Pakistan;

Largely financed by Chinese money and built by Chinese engineers;

Lots of construction workers lost their lives in its building due to the dangerous terrain;
It follows the old Silk Road;
Describe the ‘cricket diplomacy’ of 1987.

• Zia-ul-Haq [1] attended a test match between Pakistan and India in Jaipur where he met
with Rajiv Gandhi.
• To discuss Indian army exercises in the Rajasthan desert which were of concern to
Pakistan.
• The meeting helped to lessen frictions between Pakistan and India at the time.
Describe the main events of Muhammad Khan Junejo’s political career.
• Zia-ul-Haq chose him as Prime Minister in 1985
• Muhammad Khan Junejo worked to develop the new Muslim League party
• He called an all-Party Conference in 1988 to discuss the Afghan situation
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

• He announced an inquiry into an explosion at the army weapons dump/ Ojhri Camp in
1988 promising justice
• He was dismissed from office [1] by Zia-ul-Haq [1] on 29 May 1988 [1]

How does Source B help us to understand the way Zia-ul-Haq governed Pakistan?

Zia-ul-Haq is firmly in charge of Pakistan. This can be seen by him wearing a military
uniform.
He is a figure of power / authority / determination / vision / decisiveness / commitment.
This can be seen by him raising his arm / pointing his finger.
He wants to display his power. This can be seen by the decorative surroundings which
emphasise the power and majesty of the office of the President.
He wants his message to be heard / he believes what he is saying is very important /
communication is very important. This can be seen by the many microphones in front of
him.
He used martial law to demonstrate control, which was enhanced by the passing of the
Eighth Amendment in 1985.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Why did Zia-ul-Haq introduce his Islamisation reforms?

To produce a strong and stable government managed by people committed to Islamic
values.

He wanted to provide a counter to Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s socialist government which he saw
as liberal / westernised.
He made the Islamic laws strict in order to produce a strong government by imposing a strict
legal code.

He wanted to implement laws which punished people for showing disrespect towards the
Prophet and ensured that Islamic education was implemented in schools to raise Islamic
awareness.
He wanted to distribute some wealth to the poor and needy by introducing Islamic taxes
following Islamic principles.
How successful was Zia-ul-Haq’s foreign policy between 1978 and 1988?
Explain your answer.
Success
Pakistan’s relationship with China was strengthened in 1978 with the opening of the
Karakoram Highway between the two countries, opening up huge areas of both countries to
trade and tourism.
Pakistan received support from the West to assist Afghan fighters in their conflict with
Russia in 1979. The USA gave Pakistan $3.2 billion over six years to help cope with the influx
of refugees from Afghanistan (the Afghan Miracle).
Negotiations between Pakistan and Bangladesh on tourism, culture and trade, brought an
extra $40 billion a year into Pakistan by 1986.
Less success

Pakistan became a target of Russia as a result of supplying Afghans with arms. Border
villages were bombed and a series of explosions happened across the country.
Threats to law and order as a consequence of the Afghan Miracle.
Why did Zia-ul-Haq find it difficult to rule Pakistan during the late 1980s?

Zia-ul-Haq found difficulty in managing the breakdown of law and order.

Violence grew throughout the country with killings commonplace in cities such as Karachi.
Drug trafficking grew and there was an increase in levels of corruption in society.
The provinces became more difficult to administer.
Sindh had regular outbreaks of violence and there was a movement to break away from
Pakistan. The NWFP was also becoming more critical of the government.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

The explosion at the arms dump at Camp Ojhri in 1988 led to Prime Minister Junejo setting
up an inquiry.
Zia-ul-Haq could not tolerate this, so dismissed him and dissolved the National Assembly.
This led to a political crisis for Zia-ul-Haq.
The provinces became more difficult to administer
There was increasing violence in Sindh
NWFP became critical of the government

There was a surge in arms smuggling

It became harder to maintain law and order
The drug trade grew
Greater challenge from Muhammad Khan Junejo

Pressure from the MRD

Opposition from Benazir Bhutto
To what extent was the Islamisation programme the most significant domestic policy
introduced by the government of Zia-ul-Haq between 1977 and 1988? Explain your
answer.

Islamisation policy was the most significant domestic policy introduced by the government
of Zia-ul-Haq between 1977 and 1988:
Zia introduced Islamic laws to commit people to Islamic values
The introduction of Hudood, Zina, and Zakat Ordinances was intended to embed Islamic
principles in the everyday running of Pakistan
This policy would enable Zia-ul-Haq to win support from religious groups such as Jamaat-i-
Islami
The Islamisation programme would help to establish a strong and stable government
Zia-ul-Haq passed the Eighth Amendment which gave him greater power
private sector investment in denationalised industries was encouraged
Economic policies increased GDP and the economic growth rate
Changes to the governance of the civil service

He increased the visibility of women in society by increasing their representation in the

National Assembly
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Benazir Bhutto: Prime Minister 1988-1990(1st Term)

Problems:
Political

PPP gained a majority in Sindh in the elections but not in the other 3 provinces. It was the
largest party in the National Assembly but did not have a majority. President Ishaq Khan
asked Bhutto to become PM but to do so, she had to form a coalition. She made an alliance
with the Muhajir Quami Movement (MQM). But she faced fierce opposition to her rule by
the IJI (Islami Jamhuri Ithad) led by Nawaz Sharif, who controlled the provincial government
of Punjab.
The military and the intelligence agencies still held great power.
Zulfiqar Bhutto’s enemies become her enemies.

In October 1989 just 11 months after taking office, the opposition parties organized no-
confidence Motion in the National Assembly. The opposition mustered 107 votes in the 237
seat National Assembly just 12 short of the 119 it need to force Benazir Bhutto to step
down.
Differences with President Ghulam Ishaq Khan

She did not work well with the President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and the sometimes clashed
with him. A major area of disagreement was over appointments to positions in the military
and the judiciary.
Ishaq Khan considered that such appointments were the rights of the President, not the
PM. He refused to agree to several appointments and dismissals she wanted to make in the
military and this caused further tension between them.
Policies
Was keen to base Pakistan on democracy, but guided by Islamic principles

Ended the ban on trade unions and released political prisoners.

Restored student unions
Took the first step towards spreading electricity across rural Pakistan.
No new laws were introduced to improve welfare services.

Difficult to pass legislation because the senate was dominated by the opposition.
Lost support as she failed to deliver on her promised employment and economic
development programs
Inflation and unemployment were high.
Overburdened health and education systems

High population could not cope.

History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Drug abuse problem continued.

Problems in Sindh
Bhutto made the study of Sindhi compulsory in schools and also reserved a number of posts
in the administration for Sindhis.
Large number of Muhajirs opposed special rights for Sindhis and supported MQM.
Could not stamp out violence and protect the interest of all the people in Sindh. So, tension
between Sindhis and Muhajirs continued.

On 30th September, 1988 gunmen on motor bikes, believed to be Sindhis militants, fired
into a crowd in Hyderabad, causing 250 causalities, mostly Muhajirs.This led to widespread
riots in Karachi.
In August 1989, MQM ended its alliance with PPP.

Pucca Qila Massacre

Violence continued with hundreds more deaths in 1989-90.
On 27th May 1990, Sindh government launched a crackdown in Hyderabad. A shoot-on-
sight curfew was imposed and police house-to-house search operation. The Muhajirs
protested at this treatment and fighting broke out. 31 women and children were killed,
leading to relations in Karachi and elsewhere and over 300 more deaths were followed. This
came to be known as the “Pucca Qila massacre”.
Foreign Policies
Took Pakistan to Common Wealth.

Hosted the 4th SAARC Summit Conference in December, 1988 and Pakistan and India signed
3 separate peace agreements.
In June, 1989, she visited USA, restored good relations between the two countries.
Secured transfer of already purchased weapons

Uprising of Kashmiri Muslims in Kashmir. Pakistan sent an army to support and protect the
local Muslims

Dismissal of Government

Government was accused of corruption and BB’s husband, Asif Ali Zardari was jailed for 2
years on the basis of corruption and blackmailing
Ghulam Ishaq Khan used the 8th Amendment to dismiss the prime minister and dissolved
assemblies in 1990 due to corruption, inaction and incompetence.
Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi formed an interim government until elections were held in Oct, 1990.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Confrontation with the Punjab government; growing popularity of Nawaz Sharif.

Failure to control violence in Sindh
Operation against MQM in Karachi and Sindh

Failure to overcome economic crisis and corruption.

Nawaz Sharif 1990- 1993
Following the dismissal of Benazir, Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi was formed a caretaker
government until elections were held in October, 1990.

In the elections, IJI had won a comfortable victory and Nawaz Sharif from ML (N) became
PM of Pakistan. (106 seats vs 44 seats of PPP)
Reforms
Nawaz announced to carry out a national reconstitution program to industrialize Pakistan.
to solve the problem of unemployment
He opted the policy of privatization of industry which had been nationalized under Zulfiqar
Ali Bhutto, which would boost the economy
He also opened important industries such as shipping, electricity supply, airlines and
telecommunication sectors for privatization

Launched Barotha Hydro Power Project and Gwader Mini Airport in Balochistan to control
unemployment
He also imported 1000’s of yellow cabs to overcome un-employment.
One of his major projects was to establish a fast transportation network in form of
motorway which completed in his 2nd term, 1997 for fast transportation.
He also continued the nuclear project that completed in 1998.
Reasons for downfall
Loss of US aid
Nawaz Sharif’s polices were undermined by lack of capital for investment.
US support reduced after Soviet Afghan War and Pakistan’s nuclear weapon policy was
badly criticized by US.
Reduction in overseas remittances and government’s high expenditures exerted high
pressure on Pakistan’s finances.
BCCI Scandal
One of the banks working in Pakistan, Bank of Credit and Commerce international (BCCI),
which employed thousands of Pakistanis collapsed in 1991.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

It was soon discovered through a British investigation that that billions of rupees of loans
were provided to Sharif family business and Ittefaq Group.
Yellow Cab Scheme

Self-employment scheme
40,000 families were given loans to buy taxis and trucks
Only a few loans were repaid which burdened the economy

Cooperative Societies Scandal

Collapsed in 1991.
Allegations of corruption and exploitation of public money
700,000 people lost their savings including some who invested their entire life
savings
Relatives of Nawaz Sharif were in charge of two of the cooperatives
Sharifs family has borrowed from the cooperatives.
Even though the loans were repaid, it damaged Nawaz Sharif’s reputations

Kalashnikov Culture
Karachi’s condition became further deteriorated gun- carrying became part of culture after
the Afghan War
Kalashnikov guns were copied and cheaply sold in Pakistan

Kidnapping murder and bombing were very common.

Drug Abuse became common
Government established “Speedy trial courts” but received criticism for suppressing basic
rights.

Shariat Bill was introduced in 1991 making Quran and Sunnah the law.
Afghan refugees were also burden on Pakistan’s economy.
Direct conflict with President Ghulam Ishaq as PM wanted to change the 8TH Amendment
and he dismissed Nawaz Sharif’s on 19th April, 1993.

Benazir Bhutto 1993-1996 (2nd term)

Benazir returned as Prime Minister as PPP got 89 votes while Pakistan Muslim
League got 73 seats.
She joined forces with independent parties to create a coalition government
Farooq Ahmad Khan Leghari was also from PPP and was elected and President; He
promised to revoke 8th Amendment
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

PPP campaigned for Agenda of Change with regards to social and health issues that
women faced.
BB was determined for separate police stations, banks, and courts for women.

Problems
Opposition by Nawaz Sharif
Nawaz Sharif was a prominent opponent who was frustrated at the loss of his power
Sharif carried out demonstrations in Peshawar, Islamabad and Lahore
Planned and organized Train March from Karachi to Peshawar
Organized strikes in 1994.
Many opposition leaders were arrested

Family Feuds and the death of Murtaza Bhutto

Disagreement of BB with her mother, Nusrat Bhutto over control of PPP as she
preferred her son, Mir Murtaza Bhutto after ZAB
Murtaza Bhutto was the founder of Al- Zulfiqar Organization which was used against
BB. He accused her of betraying their father’s legacy
He opposed Asif Ali Zardaris involvement in the PPP due to corruption charges
against him.
In 1993 elections, he won a seat as an anti-Bhutto candidate.
Jailed on charges of terrorism in Pakistan
Benazir also removed her mother from a prominent position in the PPP
Murtaza Bhutto was killed by the police in Karachi, which was infact, the last nail in
the coffin of Benazir’s government. There were rumors that the government was
involved in the killing

Privatization and Economic policies

Economist by profession so took charge of the economic policies
Planned privatization of banks, power and telecommunications, but was criticized by
politicians and wealthy industrialists
30% decrease in the value of rupee as compared to the US dollar
More than 40 Million rupees were raised from the nationalization of industries, but
as a result of Pakistan’s Nuclear Program, US financial and military embargo was
imposed due to which the economic conditions of the nation were deteriorating
GDP decreased from 6% in 1980s to 4%
The demand for raw material had reduced which affected Pakistan’s trade deficit
Slight rise in the foreign exchange reserves as the import of consumer goods
decreased.
She took loans from International Monetary Fund and the World Bank
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Removal of Judges Chief Minister of Punjab

20 judges were dismissed by Supreme Court including 3 woman judges in 1996
Efforts to threaten the Chief Justice caused significant harm to the government’s
reputation
Government’s objection to the decision caused further problems Manzoor Wattoo
displeased the PPP by ruling in an independent matter and was dismissed.

The United Bank Scandal

BB planned to privatize the bank to raise funds for the government in 1996
Offers received were much lower than expected
Government proposed of selling the bank to a supposedly Saudi Based Company, but
there were allegations of corruption and that buyers were actually Pakistani
businessmen
This was a blow to the government of BB

Foreign Policy

Entered in to an alliance with the United Nations and sent 5000 troops to Somalia for
help
President Clinton, in 1993, was keen to restore relations between the two countries.
He claimed that the Presslers Amendment was unfair and that production of
weapon- grade uranium should be stopped.
Benazir visited USA in 1996, and the Us government approved the Brown
Amendment and Pakistan was now given the opportunity to receive money back for
the payments they made for F-16 fighter jets.
They also provided $388 million for military equipment which showed improvement
in relations. This was further emphasized when Hillary Clinton visited Pakistan
Financial and Military Embargoes were imposed by US after the Nuclear Program of
Pakistan

Deteriorating relations with President Farooq Ahmad Leghari

Used the 8th Amendment in November 1996 to dismiss the government on basis on
corruption and mismanagement, despite his promise to cancel the Amendment
initially.
Asif Ali Zardari was accused of being involved in political murders and for receiving
financial benefits for influencing government contracts (corruption)
Malik Meraj Khalid became the caretaker Prime Minister and elections were held in
Pakistan in 1997

Dismissal of BB government
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Involvement of Mr. Zardari in various corruption cases and her failure to prove him
innocent.
Serious differences with MQM and growing unrest, violence and economic
problems.
Family feuds were a blow to the government
Nawaz Sharif 1997-1999 (2nd term)
Introduction of Policies

Muslim League won 2/3rd seats in the National Assembly and Nawaz resumed power
Introduced 13th amendment given the PM authority to revoke the authority of the President
to dismiss the PM and the National Assembly.
The President also lost the power to appoint the 3 chiefs of staff of the armed forces and
the Provincial Governors.
Introduced 14th Amendment (anti defection bill) prevented politicians from switching
parties in order to help form conditions to oppose or support from government.
15th Amendment/ Shariat Bill gave authority to the Prime Minister to enforce religious laws.
The office of the Prime Minister was now secured

Repressive measures
Journalists who wrote critical articles about Sharif, were arrested.
Tax authorities started examining the tax records and financial affairs of newspaper editors.
In May 1997, Sharif’s secret police attacked the home of a leading critic of the government,
Najam Sethi and kidnapped him. He was released only after international protest.

Dispute with the Supreme Court

Constitutional crisis had begun as Sharif tried to control the authority of Supreme Court and
wanted to reduce the members from 17 to 12
Chief Justice, Syed Sajjad Ali Shah appealed to the President to reinstate the 5 justices, a
motion was passed by the national assembly though sharif’s order to dismiss the chief
justice. However, the president refused.

Sharif was defending himself in the Supreme Court against accusations of corruption, his
supporters stormed the building and proceedings had to be suspended.
President Legahri resigned on 2nd December 1997. Thus, M. Rafiq Tarar, the PML(N)
candidate, replaced him. On 23rd December 1997, Ajmal Mian replaced Sajjad Ali Shah as
Chief Justice.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Nuclear Testing
In 1998, Pakistan carried out a series of nuclear tests in Balochistan in secrecy under Dr
Abdul Qadeer Khan. These brought wide spread international criticism and economic
sanctions from countries such as USA and Japan. (Cut off of Military and Financial aid by US
under the Presslers Amendment in 1989)
Nawaz Sharif increased fuel prices and asked for bank loans as a measure to avoid
bankruptcy

Imposed a state of emergency in Pakistan, restricting civil rights and liberties.

Kargil Conflict
Clash of India and Pakistan after death of thousands of Kashmiris
Well planned army action to seize Kargil in 1999

Clamied to be “Kashmiri Freedom Fighters” Initially

Defeat of Pakistan with 4000 men killed and they had to retreat
The army and the government blamed each other and Sharif denied any knowledge of the
conflict, directly accusing the army.
Sharif tried to gain support of US president Clinton to settle the matter, but failed.

Clash with the army

When Chief of army staff, General Jahangir Karamat demanded a position in the National
Security Council of Pakistan, Sharif forced him to resign.

He was replaced by General Pervez Musharraf

He had lost the support of the army.
Sharif was giving support to the Taliban in Afghanistan which damaged relations with the US
who refused to return Osama bin Laden, suspected of bombing the US Embassy in Kenya.
Mass opposition rallies showed that he had also lost the support of many of his people.
Sharif feared a coup led by Musharraf and decided to replace him with Genral Zia ud din
Butt but the army refused.
As Musharraf returned from a visit to Sir Lanka on 12th Oct 1999, Sharif ordered the Civil
Aviation Authority not to give permission for his plane to land. The Army took over Karachi
airport and allowed Musharaff’s plane to land.
Musharaff exiled Nawaz to the kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

EXPECTED QUESTIONS:
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Question no.1: was the promotion of Islamic values the most important achievement of
General Zia between 1977-88? Explain your answer. (14) Nov 2000 Q.5 c
Question No.2: which of the following contributed the most to Pakistan’s domestic
policies?
Liaqat Ali Khan
Ayub Khan
Zia ul Haq

Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above. (14) June 2001 Q.4c
Question No.3: how successful have governments been in the Islamization of Pakistan
between 1947 and 1988? Explain your answer. (14) June 2002 Q.5 c
Question No. 4: In which of the following did Zia have most success between 1977 and
1988:
Islamization
Economic affairs
Political affairs
Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above. (14) June 2003 Q.4 c

Question No.5: Islamic reforms were the most important of Zia ul Haq’s domestic policies
between 1977 and 1988. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. (14) Nov 2005 Q.5 c
Question No. 6: why did Zia introduce his Islamic reforms between 1977 and 1988? (7)
June 2006 Q. 5 b

Question No. 7: Zia’s foreign policy was more successful than his domestic reforms. Doyou
agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. (14) June 2007 Q. 5 c
QuestionNo.8: why did ZIA introduce a series of Islamic laws between 1979 and 1988? (7)
June 2008 Q 5 b
Question No. 9: how successful have governments been in Islamization of Pakistan
between 1947 and 1988? Explain your answer. (14) Nov. 2009 Q. 5 c
QuestionNo.10: Islamic reforms were the most important of Zia’s domestic policies
between 1977 and 1988. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. (14)

June 2010 Q. 4 c
Question No. 11: Why did ZIA introduce his package of Islamic laws between 1979 and
1988? (7)
June 2011 Q.5. N2012/Q5 C, J2013/Q5B, N2013/Q5A. N2014Q4C. J2015Q5C J2016Q5B
J2018Q1 N2018Q5A
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

PAKISTAN FOREIGN RELATIONS

Q: Why did Pakistan join United Nations?
United Nations was founded after World War II. Pakistan joined the UNO in September
1947. There were several reasons for this:
Firstly, as a new-born independent country, Pakistan was anxious to be recognized as an
independent country in the world. Moreover, since India was already a member of UNO
even before 1947, Pakistan was also keen to get its membership. As a sovereign state, it was
important for Pakistan to join UNO to make its identity accepted by the world.
Secondly, just after the partition Pakistan was faced with the problem of the accession of
the states of Junagarh, Hyderabad and Kashmir. It was vital for Pakistan to seek the
membership in order to present her case before the Security Council effectively.
Furthermore, on 1st April 1948, India had shut off the water supplies to Pakistan (Canal
Water Dispute). So to find a solutions to such problems, Pakistan joined UNO. UNO
supported Pakistan by helping it draw a treaty with India (Indus Water Treaty, 1960) with
the help of World Bank.
Thirdly, Pakistan was keen to play its role in supporting the independence struggle of several
Asian and African countries. So to play its role as a peaceful nation against colonization,
racial discrimination, territorial and regional aggression, Pakistan joined the UNO in 1947.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

INDIA
SUCCESSES

Pakistan’s inclusion in the UNO was supported by India.

Liaquat Nehru Pact signed in 1951 regarding the safe guard of the minorities on both sides
of the border. Both India and Pakistan joined the CENTO and SEATO in 1955.
The Indus Water treaty was signed in 1960 to resolve the canal water dispute.

The Tashkent agreement was signed between Pakistan and India in order to cease fire.
INDIA 1972-1999 India tested her nuclear device in 1974 in the border town of Pokhran and
sent a very clear message of attempting to dominate the region on the basis of the nuclear
edge.

Pakistan responded sharply and announced her nuclear program.

The Pakistan PM Mr. ZAB said that Pakistan will get the nuclear powers even if it has to eat
grass.
This showed the Pakistan government’s commitment towards the goals of attaining Nuclear
power.

In 1983, the Pakistani and Indian governments accused each other of aiding separatists
in their respective countries, i.e., Sikhs in India’s Punjab state and Sindhis in Pakistan’s Sindh
province.
The relations of both the countries deteriorated sharply when India blamed Pakistan to
help the Sikh Separatist Movement in the Indian Punjab.
Pakistan however did not show any signs of helping the Khalistan Movement during the
1980.
Following the incidents in Amritsar (the Operation Blue Star), one of the Sikh body guards of
the Indian Prime Minister Mrs. Indra Gandhi gunned her down in October 1984.
The son of Mrs. Indra, Mr, Rajiv Gandhi blamed Pakistan for the assassination of her mother.
The relations were strained during 1987, when the border skirmishes between the two
countries continued and almost led to a large-scale war when India started her large-scale
military exercise in the Rajhistan desert.
The Pakistan government continued to claim Kashmir and the Siachin glacier that kept
the situation heated between the two countries.
The destruction of the Babri Masjid in Ajodhiya, India in December 1990 further dented the
relations between the two governments.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

The relations between India and Pakistan remained cold on the issue of the Signing the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990, when Kashmiri separatists from Pakistan occupied
Kashmir backed by the Pakistan’s ISI perpetrated violence in Indian Kashmir.
However, Pakistan secretly occupied certain border areas forces in Kashmir.
By early summer, serious fighting flared up in the Kargil sector. The fighting lasted about a
month till the Pakistani forces were driven out of the areas that had been secretly occupied
by them.
Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister in November 1984 and after
a group of Sikh hijackers were brought to trial by Pakistan
in March 198 Pakistan and India became the members of the SAARC in 198

This organization was not only to improve the economic conditions of the member countries
but also to avoid the wars between them.
The sporting relations between the two countries were resumed and the Cricket and the
hockey teams visited across the border
Both the countries exchanged the group of actors and laid emphasis on joint productions
for the healthy cinema.
The SAF games were held in 1988 in Pakistan and India participated with full enthusiasm in
the
In December 1985, President Zia and Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi pledged not to attack
each other’s nuclear faciliti A formal “no attack” agreement was signed in January 1991.
In 1986, the Indian and Pakistani governments began high-level talks to resolve the Siachen
Glacier border dispute and to improve trade Subsequent high-level bilateral meetings
relieved the tensions between Pakistan and India, but relations worsened again after
terrorist bombings in Bombay, in March 1993.
Talks between the Foreign Secretaries of both countries in January 1994 resulted in
deadlock.
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif moved to resume an official dialogue with India.
A number of meetings at the foreign secretary and Prime Ministerial level took place, with
positive atmospherics but little concrete progress.
The relationship improved markedly when Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee
traveled to Lahore for a summit with Sharif in February 1999.
FAILURES

The refugee problem soon after the independence

History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

The Canal water dispute remained a major cause of poor relations as long as the IWT was
signed.
The division of financial and military assets.

The Kashmir issue was one of the strongest reasons for the rift between the two countries.
The hostility between the two countries continued throughout the 1950’s.
The Indo China war and the support rendered by Pakistan to China further drifted both the
countries away from each other.

The Runn of Kutch issue in the borders areas in the south eastern region created a war
like situation between the two nations.
Pakistan tried to uprise the Kashmiris against the Indian authorities to liberate them from
India, however the attempt was a failure due to the lack of support from the Kashmiris.

Pakistan and India went to a large scale war in 1965 which was a major failure.
The Agartala Conspiracy was blamed on India as it was an attempt to create a situation
in East Pakistan. The RAW was established in 1967 and Pakistan blamed it for insurgency in
East Pakistan.
The support for the East Pakistan and later the creation of Mukti Bahini further deteriorated
the relations between the two countries.
India was the first country to accept the state of Bagladesh and Pakistan threatened to
break the diplomatic ties with India.
USA

SUCCESSES
Pakistani PM M Liaquat Ali Khan visited USA after receiving an invitation in 1950 and
established the Pakistan Embassy in USA.
Pakistan needed a powerful ally in the world to get military, economic and technological
assistance
Pakistan signed the Anti-Communist pacts of SEATO and CENTO in 1954 and 1955, to help
against communist aggression, after it had signed the famous Baghdad Pact
Some politicians described Pakistan as the “most allied ally” of the USA in the 1950s

Pakistan remained a most favorite ally of USA throughout the 60’s.

Eisenhower visited Pakistan in 1959, during the reign of an army dictator, Ayub Khan,
despite the US claims of condemning the military regime
Pakistan went out of the way to support the US on the U-2 incident in 1960
and subsequently became the victim of the fury of USSR in the process.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

USSR attacked Afghanistan on December 2, 1979 and Pakistan subsequently decided to

become the front-line state in war against communism.
Pakistan became the darling of the international community as it was fighting against
the devastating USSR.
USA sent aid as $1.6 billion and a further $1.5 billion at low interest rates for Pakistan to buy
weapons.
Pakistan became the second largest recipient of the US aid in 80’s.

Pakistan was pampered enough to reject an aid of US$ 300 million, considering it to less for
the effort they were putting in.
In 1993, President Clinton agreed that Presslers Amendment was unfair and that if Pakistan
stopped producing weapon- grade uranium, he would agree to the sale of F-16s

BB visited USA in 1996 and ensured the sale of F-16s under the Brown Amendment
First Lady Hilary Clinton and her daughter Chelsea visited Pakistan in 1996.
The US officials often visited the affected areas of Pakistan, particularly Peshawar to boost
the Afghan and Pakistan soldiers.
The relations started improving with the arrival of Benazir Bhutto in the office of the Prime
Minister as she promoted pro US.
She continued to seek the help of US on the Kashmir issue to mediate and resolve the
matter.
The US president Bill Clinton visited Pakistan in 1998 to show solidarity to Pakistan on
various issue including the Kashmir USSR
FAILURES
The USA took several years before sending an ambassador to Pakistan. This frustrated
Liaquat Ali Khan for the coolness of the Americans towards the alliance with Pakistan.

Pakistan was not happy on the US stance of supporting united India during the Second
World War. Pakistan was not initially recognized by the USA.
Pakistan was not happy with USA when it gave arms to India during the Indo China War of
1962. Pakistan had thought that these arms were to be used against Pakistan.

Pakistan wanted USA to force India to accept arbitration on the Kashmir issue in turn of
receiving the military aid
USA did not support Pakistan openly during the 1965 war
Instead, it stopped the supply of Arm to Pakistan.
Pakistan had to face an arms embargo during 1967, meaning that the supply of US arms was
suspended. Pakistan was upset when USA openly refused to give any support to Pakistan in
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

the Bangladesh episode. USA showed serious concerns over the commencement of the
nuclear Program of Pakistan.
In 1971 war, USA did not help Pakistan but instead took few measures to support India.
(They did however warn India not to attack Pakistan)
Relations deteriorated as Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to power as USA was concerned that he
was not as pro-American as his predecessor.
Pakistan withdrew from SEATO in 1972

Z.A Bhutto even accused the Americans of organizing the opposition against him 1977
After the end of the Afghan Miracle Pakistan was again seen as an untrusted ally and the aid
to Pakistan was suspended even before the complete withdrawal of the Russian Forces.
It was around the end of 70’s when Zia took over and Pakistan’s international credibility fell
again.
In 1979, the US Embassy in Islamabad was burnt down and all aid programs were cancelled.
After the Russian Afghan War, USA stopped its aid to Pakistan in 1988
US authorities were again unhappy with Pakistan on the crime of over throwing a
democratic government. In March 1986, the two countries agreed on a second multi-year
(FY 1988–93) $4-billion economic development and security assistance program.
On October 1, 1990, however, the United States suspended all military assistance and new
economic aid to Pakistan under the Pressler Amendment, which required that the President
certify annually that Pakistan “does not possess a nuclear explosive device.”

The Pakistan US relations were further deteriorated when Nawaz Sharif came to power
in 1990 and extended his anti-west policies, as he was himself the legacy of Zia’s rule.
In 1992, USA came close to declaring Pakistan as a state sponsor of terrorism and placed
sanctions on Pakistan

The US aid to Pakistan was literally suspended during the first regime of Nawaz and serious
questions were raised about the nuclear capability of Pakistan.
The Pak US relations were again dented when Benazir Government accepted the Taliban
regime of Afghanistan in 1995 as the Taliban were purely anti US.

The relations hit low ebb in 1998 when Pakistan, ignored all the international pressure in
general and US in particular and tested her nuclear devices in reply to the Indian tests in
May earlier.
Pakistan’s insistence of not signing the CTBT (Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty) until India
does was probably the last nail in the good relations of the US with Pakistan.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Further deteriorations were seen when General Pervez over threw Nawaz
Shairf’s government in 1999 October and Washington showed clear disliking about this act
of the army yet again in Pakistan.

USSR
SUCCESSES
Pakistani PM Mr. Liaquat Ali Khan received an invitation to visit USSR before any other
country.

The USSR accepted Pakistan and voted in favour to become a member of the in 1963
Pakistan and USSR drew closer because of an away drift between Pakistan and USA due to
Indo-China war
Pakistan was given 11-million-pound aid by the USSR

in 196 USSR remained neutral during the India Pakistan war in 1965 which was sigh of
relieve for Pakistan.
USSR continued to force Pakistan to close down the Peshawar Air base what
Pakistan agreed in 1968. ZAB improved the relations as he had an anti west policy which
kept him away from the

Pakistan was given the Steel Mills in 1972 by the USSR which further improved the relations
The relationship remained warm throughout the ZAB
FAILURES
The Pakistani PM went to US rather than USSR which straight away created a rift between
both the countries.
Pakistan was not happy when USSR supported India on the Kashmir issue.
The USSR was also supporting the Pakhtoonistan cause of the Afghanistan which was yet
another disliked issue to Pakistan

The USSR offered Pakistan to take the steel Mills but was refused.
The USSR was furious on the Pakistani decision of signing SEATO and CENTO by 1955.
The USSR was extremely unhappy when the shot down plan U-2 flew from the US air base in
Peshawar. USSR clearly threatened Pakistan to destroy the base if Pakistan was found guilty
of helping the US in any such regards.
In 1971 the USSR was supporting India and even threat China to attack if it ever tried to help
Pakistan in the war.
The relations hit the lowest ebb when Pakistan decided to become the front line state in the
war against communism.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

The USSR was furious and went on to attack the border areas of Pakistan throughout the
war between 1979-1988.
When Zia tried to attend the funeral ceremony of the Russian president Andropov in 1984
but he was not entertained.
When the Geneva Accord was signed in 1988, the relationship between the two countries
became worst and the by the time USSR was disintegrated and the Russian blamed Pakistan
for the tragedy.

Pakistan’s Relations with Britain and Commonwealth

• With the Independence, Pakistan became the member of British Commonwealth.

• Being the member of the commonwealth Pakistan got economic benefits. For
example, Colombo Plan helped Pakistan in exploring natural gas in 1950's. Pakistan
had not always been supported by the Commonwealth like no support was given to
Pakistan over the Kashmir Issue.
• Both Pakistan and Britain worked together in SEATO and CENTO
• Pakistan criticized Britain over the Suez Canal issue in 1956.
• Ayub Khan made official visit to Britain in 1960's to improve Pakistan's relations with
British Common Wealth.
• In 1965 when Indo - Pak war broke out Pakistan did not get any help from UK and they
put arms embargo on Pakistan.
• During 1971 war, UK again refused to assist Pakistan militarily. Pakistan also left SEATO
in 1972. Nuclear weapons program of Pakistan was also one of the major issues
between Pakistan and UK.
• Pakistan quitted the Common Wealth membership after 1971 war when Bangladesh
was made the member of Common Wealth.
• Pakistan's relations were improved with Britain in 1980 when Pakistan got both
military and economic aid from them on the pretext of the Afghan Jihad against Soviet
Union and rehabilitation of the Afghan refugees.
• In 1986 Margaret Thatcher visited Pakistan which improved the relations. The trade
volume between both nations was of £ 376 million.
• Pakistan joined Common Wealth again in 1989.

AFGHANISTAN
FAILURES
Afghanistan became the only country to vote against Pakistan’s inclusion in the UNO 1947.
Afghanistan claimed that some areas of the present-day Pakistan had actually been a part of
the Greater Afghanistan (Pakhtoonistan)
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

They claimed this because they believed that these were the areas which were captured by
the Afghan invaders like Mahmood Ghaznavi and Mohammad Ghauri.
Afghanistan clearly backed India on the Kashmir issue and the Canal water dispute.

Jinnah invited a meeting of the Afghan officials in Karachi in 1947 and offered a trade transit
route. Against this offer Jinnah expected the Afghanistan to give up their claims of
Pakhtoonistan.
The Afghan government refused to accept this offer.

The relations further deteriorated when the Afghan mob burnt the Pakistan embassy in
Kabul.
The Afghan government did not take any actions against the suspects and subsequently the
diplomatic ties were broken.

The Afghan government remained neutral during the Indo-Pak war of 1965 despite the fact
that the people remained on Pakistan’s favour.
The Afghan government supported the Indians officially during the 1971 war.
The pro-communist regime of Dr Najeeb continued to blame Pakistan for the insurgency
and the poor law and order situations with in Afghanistan.

The Indian influence in Afghanistan was yet another reason for the poor relations between
the two bordering countries.
Success
The first major step towards better relationship between the two countries was taken in
1956 when Iskandar Mirza went to visit Afghanistan.
ZAB Islamic socialism also targeted Afghanistan and he visited Afghanistan.
Sardar Daud, the Afghan PM also visited Pakistan on numerous occasions.
The friendship continued even after the execution of ZAB because the ZIA believed that a
peaceful and strong Afghanistan ensured a secured Pakistan.
Afghanistan was attacked by the USSR in 1979 and Pakistan decided to help the Afghan
brothers.
The Pakistan government invited 3.5 million Afghanis and hosted them. Pakistan’s support
to the Afghanistan Mujahideen was immense.
Pakistan was even a victim of the Russian fury and was attacked on very frequent basis.
Pakistan catered all sorts of the needs of the Afghanis throughout this era.
The civil war between 1988-1995 was a tough period for Afghanistan and Pakistan
supported them in all aspects.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

The government of Pakistan accepted the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and the first
embassy was opened in Islamabad.
The foreign ministers of both the countries paid bi lateral visits and trade was improved.

The Taliban government continued to support Pakistan on the Kashmir issue for the first
time in the history.
CHINA
Pakistan did not accept the communist regime of China till 1951.

The relations remained strained when Pakistan became a part of the anti-communist pacts
SEATO and CENTO in 1955.
The Chinese government did not help Pakistan on the East Pakistan issue and urged
the Pakistan government to resolve the issue internally.

The support of China on the matter was also missing as the pressure from USSR was far
bigger than the friendship with Pakistan.
The Chinese government was not also much pleased when Pakistan backed out from
the Kargil Hill on the US pressures rather than banking on the Chinese support and defeating
India.

The first break came when India and China went on war on the borders disputes and
Pakistan and China came closer.
Both the countries had found a common foe and therefore the coexistence became more
Pakistan accepted a $60 million interest free loan from the Chinese gover, PIA became the
first airline to start regular service to Beijin Pakistan also negotiated the talk between the
Chinese and the US government in the early 60’s.
The positive stance of Pakistan on the communist regime issue of China helped
Pakistan earn a strong strategic ally and a great support on the Kashmir issue.

Pakistan became a closer friend of China when it helped Pakistan in the war against India in
1965. Pakistan became an important purchaser of the Chinese arms after the 1965 w ZAB
paid visit to China and convinced the Chinese government to convert the loans to aid that
had been given to Pakistan in the past few Pakistan and China came closer as they
announced the expansion of the famous silk rout.
The Chinese expertise and the collaboration with Pakistan finally resulted in the Karakoram
Highway. The relations hit the highest points when both the countries signed the treaty for
nuclear cooperation in 1986.
China continued to extend her support for the Pakistan government over the Afghanistan
issue.
In the 1990s, China designed and supplied the heavy water Khusab reactor, which plays
a key role in Pakistan’s production of plutonium.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

A subsidiary of the China National Nuclear Corporation also contributed in Pakistan’s efforts
to expand its uranium enrichment capabilities by providing 5,000 custom made ring
magnets, which are a key component of the bearings that facilitate the high-speed rotation
of centrifuges.
China also provided technical and material support in the completion of the Chasma
Nuclear Power Reactor and plutonium reprocessing facility, which was built in the mid
1990s.

China has also launched Pakistan’s first satellite to orbit in 1990.

Pakistan’s Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) is Pakistan’s
national space agency and was established in 1961.
A 300-megawatt nuclear power plant, built with Chinese help in Punjab province, is c China
is helping to build a second 300-megawatt nuclear plant due to be finished by 2010.
Q: Why has Pakistan supported the Palestinian cause?
Pakistan has been supporting Palestinian cause for three important reasons.
Firstly, even before the partition, Muslims of the subcontinent had supported the cause of
Palestinians and had rendered political, moral and material support to them. The spirit of
Islamic brotherhood continued even after the partition. The torching of Al-Aqsa Mosque in
1969 by Jews added fuel to the fire.
Secondly, one of the cornerstones of Pakistan’s foreign policy was the support of
suppressed nations. Pakistan has always been against oppression, colonialism,
discrimination and had supported the right of self-determination of every nation. Pakistan
has always condemned Israel and supported the Palestinians on all international forums.
Thirdly, Pakistan has not recognised Israel. Ever since the emergence of Israel state in 1948,
Pakistan has opposed the unjust and unfair policy of western powers who arranged and
supported the settlement of Jews from all parts of the world or unlawfully occupied Arab
lands.
Pakistan has raised on the forum of OIC for the rights of Palestinian people and withdrawal
of Israeli forces from the occupied territories.

Q: Why did Pakistan leave SEATO in 1972?

Pakistan had joined SEATO in 1954. But due to certain reasons Pakistan was forced to
withdraw itself from SEATO.
Pakistan signed the treaty, but the United States warned that the Pact applied only to
communist aggression so Pakistan could not hope to use treaty if attacked by India. The
decision of the Foreign Minister, Zafarullah Khan, to sign the treaty was contested by the
Pakistan government, and it was not until January 1955 that government of Pakistan agreed
to ratify the treaty. Therefore, weaknesses were apparent.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Moreover, Pakistan had tried to secure further aid as a result of its membership of SEATO
and pushed for a permanent military force to be established to protect all member states.
Neither of these moves was successful, as the other members refused to agree.

Pakistan’s disenchantment with the treaty increased when SEATO did not support Pakistan
in either of its wars with India (1965 and 1971 wars). It was the Bangladesh crisis in 1971
which finally led Bhutto to declare the withdrawal of Pakistan from SEATO in 1972.
Therefore, due to these reasons, Pakistan left SEATO in 1972.

Q: How successful had Pakistan been as a member of world organisations between 1947
and 1999? Explain your answer. [14]
Pakistan has been taking keen and active interest in international organizations. Pakistan
joined UNO in September 1947. In the beginning Pakistan remained involved in arguments
about rights of Kashmiris and the solution for the Kashmir problem in which Pakistan was
not successful.
But later, Pakistan has been very active in the proceedings of the United Nations and the
Pakistani delegations made effective contribution for the independence of many states,
which were under colonial rule in 1950s particularly in case of Muslim states such as
Palestine. Pakistan has contributed effectively and regularly to the United Nations peace-
keeping missions in African and Asian countries. Pakistan was elected thrice as member of
the Security Council. Pakistan was effective in getting resolutions passed in General
Assembly asking for withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan and always supported the
Palestinian and Arab cause. Chaudhry Zafarullah Khan of Pakistan worked as a judge of
international Court of Justice for a number of years. Thus, on the whole Pakistan has been a
successful member of UNO.
Pakistan was far more enthusiastic about CENTO because other member states were mostly
Muslim. Pakistan regularly tried to persuade the other members to establish a unified
command for CENTO. However, despite regular meetings, the group never developed a
permanent structure or a system for raising troops for mutual defence. The USA supported
CENTO, but never actually joined. Thus by 1979 the organisation had quietly dissolved. In
September 1954, Pakistan joined SEATO, but the decision faced opposition from within the
Pakistan government and so the treaty was not ratified until 1955. The treaty also applied to
only against the communist aggression, thus Pakistan was to receive no help for its wars
with India. Pakistan had also hoped for a permanent military force to protect all member
countries against any attack – it was, however, not accepted. It did not support Pakistan
during 1965 and 1971 wars. Finally Bhutto withdrew from the organisation in 1972 after the
Bangladesh Crisis. Therefore, the membership of SEATO and CENTO has not been successful
on part of Pakistan.
Since the foundation of OIC, Pakistan had been an active member of it and had been
actively participating in the activities of OIC aimed at Islamic unity, solidarity and stability.
Pakistan has also taken part in all summits and conferences held under the banner of OIC.
Pakistan also contributed her due share in all respects for the achievement of its objectives.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

It had raised voice for the Palestinian Cause. Sharif-udin-Pirzada, the former minister of
Pakistan, have been the Secretary-General of OIC. The summit showed that Pakistan had
many friends all over the Muslim world. One result was that Pak was receiving aid from
fellow Islamic countries, like Iran (giving loans totalling $730 million). Thus, Pakistan also
remained a prominent member of OIC.
On 21st July 1964, largely as a result of the work of Ayub Khan, Turkey, Iran and Pakistan set
up the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD). This encouraged the three countries to
develop closer trade links and help each other with industrial projects, such as setting up
mills, and factories.
In case of Canal Water Dispute, the UN played a significant role when the President of the
World Bank made a recommendation that it should provide financial and technical support
to resolve the disagreement. This proposal formed the basis of the Indus Water Treaty
signed in September 1959. The World Bank also provided finance to help establish hydro-
electricity and soil reclamation programmes which have been vital for the stimulation of
Pakistan’s economy and industries.
Pakistan has been an active member of NAM organisation and took active part in its
deliberations. Pakistan has been an effective member of Common wealth except during the
1972-1989. Pakistan has always stood for justice, equality, peace, security and rights of the
people.
On the whole Pakistan has been quite successful as a member of world organisations.

Q: How successful were Pak-USA relations since 1947 to 1999? Explain your answer.
Ans: After partition in 1947, Pakistan decided to ally itself with USA. But at this time, USA
was working towards an anti-communist alliance with India, so it was sometime before they
embraced an alliance with Pakistan with any enthusiasm. During independence struggle, the
America had often talked of need of unity between Muslims and Hindus, but Muslims
wanted a separate homeland, so they were disturbed by this. It also took several years
before USA sent an ambassador to Pakistan.
Liaqat Ali khan was frustrated by coolness of Americans towards an alliance with Pakistan.
He accepted the offer to visit Soviet Union in 1949. He was successful (by this visit) in forcing
Americans into closer alliance. An offer came immediately to visit USA and Liaqat Ali Khan
made his visit in 1950. He made arrangements for a Pakistan Embassy to be built in USA.
India was reluctant to sign an anti-communist alliance in return for military and economic
aid. Agreement was signed and American aid began to flow into Pakistan. The relations
became warm and good.
In 1954, Pakistan and USA signed Mutual Defence Assistance Agreement. In same year
SEATO was set up. Pakistan also joined, but the decision faced opposition from within the
govt. so the treaty was ratified until 1955. But Pakistan soon realised that its membership
was of little importance as treaty only applied to help against communist aggression. So,
Pakistan was received no support in its wars against India. In 1972, Bhutto withdrew
Pakistan from the organisation. In 1955, Baghdad pact was also signed which was renamed
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

‘The Central Asian Treaty Organisation’ [CENTO] after Iraq left in 1959 because of a
revolution. However, despite regular meetings, the group never developed a permanent
structure or a system for raising troops for mutual defence. USA supported it, but never
actually joined. To sum up, these treaties explain why Pakistan was called the ‘most allied
ally’ of USA in 1950s.
However, during 1960s and 1970s relations were often strained. In 1962, China went to a
war with India. As China was communist so USA provided military aid to help India fight.
Pakistan was angered over this because USA did not consult Pakistan before providing aid.
In 1962, Ayub Khan visited China and in 1965 he visited Soviet Union. As both were
communist, so these visits displeased USA. Pakistan was not provided any help or special aid
during its wars with India (in 1965 and 1971) by USA. Although Ayub displeased USA by
visiting communist countries, he is known as architect of good relations with USA. He
allowed them to build air bases in Pakistan and remained loyal to USA even during the
embarrassing ‘U2 Affair’. So relations were good. But when he was deposed and replaced by
Bhutto, Americans became concerned as he was not as pro-American as his predecessors
and relations deteriorated. Bhutto even accused Americans of organising opposition against
him in 1977. When Zia came, relations reached rock bottom as Americans did not approve
of military regimes. In 1979 US Embassy in Islamabad was burned. USA accused Zia of
complicity in the attack. It also recalled many of its senior officials and all aid programmes
were cancelled.

However, during same year, situation changed overnight when soviets attacked
Afghanistan. USA began to provide military and economic aid to Pakistan to help it buy
modern US weapons and also to support Afghan rebels. Relations became very good and
warm. Pakistan enjoyed rapid economic development and became leading military nation in
the region. But when peace agreements were signed in 1988, Pak lost its strategic
importance to USA. Aid was reduced dramatically which became a big problem for new
govt. of Benazir Bhutto. Americans were previously concerned about Pakistan’s nuclear
programme. Bhutto had to work to maintain the relationship with the USA as American
officials were not convinced that Pakistan had no nuclear weapons. In 1985 the Pressler
Amendment had said that the USA could only give aid to a country after American President
had declared that country had no nuclear weapons and was not developing them. After
Afghan crisis was over, President Bush refused to declare that this was the case with
Pakistan and he blocked aid to country. He also stopped sale of 28 F-16 fighter jets which
Pak had ordered (and paid for). Pakistan complained bitterly that the Pressler Amendment
seems to apply only to Pakistan, not India and was not fair. President Clinton, wanting to
restore relations b/w two countries, agreed that Pressler Amendment had led to unfair
treatment and suggested that if Pakistan stopped producing Weapon grade Uranium he
would agree to sale of F-16s.
In 1995, Defence secretary, William Perry, visited Pakistan and declared that Pressler
Amendment had been a mistake. In 1996, Brown amendment authorised the US govt. to
reimburse Pak for F-16 payments and provide $388 million in military equipment. The thaw
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

in the relations was further highlighted when First Lady Hillary Clinton and her daughter,
Chelsa, visited Pakistan in 1996.
Thus, relations b/w two varied in the period, but were generally good. However, it could be
said that they were not successful because USA would probably have preferred to have
allied with India and only had good relations with Pak when events meant it was necessary.
Q: Why did Pakistan lose 1965 and 1971 wars? [7]
Ans: In 1965, Pakistan had never expected a full-scale war with India over Kashmir, and
therefore the Lahore was caught unprepared. One reason for this failure was that India was
stronger and more determined than Pakistan had realised. Another major reason was that
during the war, the USA and Britain had both placed an embargo on selling weapons to the
two combatants. As Pakistan was dependent on the West for parts to service its military
equipment, it was hit harder than India.
By 1971 the balance of military power had definitely tilted in favour of India. It had a
stronger economy and larger population and was able to develop an army considerably
larger than Pakistan could put in the field. India could also rely on support from Soviet Union
after signing the treaty of Peace, Friendship and Commerce in August 1971. Whereas
Pakistan was not having any such support from any of its Allies.
Moreover, Pakistan lost the war in 1979, as India took advantage of civil war in East
Pakistan. The Indian army attacked East Pakistan. The ensuing was led to the downfall of
Decca and the subsequent surrender of Pakistani forces with a larger number of Pakistani
soldiers being taken as prisoners by India.
Thus, because of these reasons Pakistan lost 1965 and 1971 wars.
Q: What was the Kargil Conflict?
In April 1999, Muslim Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the Line of Control and captured the Indian
occupied towns of Kargil and Drass. The Pakistan govt. denied any involvement. In May,
India launched a counter-attack during which it fired over 250,000 shells and rockets. Two of
its aircrafts crossed into Pakistani air space and one was shot down. During May and June
1999, Pakistani forces were pushed back and eventually Sharif was persuaded by US
President Clinton to withdraw all Pakistan forces from Indian held territory behind the Line
of Control. The Kargil conflict proved to be a major blow to Pakistan-India relations.
Q: How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with India between 1947 and 1999?
Explain your answer.
Ans: Given the historical background to partition, the dispute over assets and Kashmir
conflict, it is perhaps not surprising that India-Pakistan relations have rarely been good.
The relations between the two states have mainly been plagued by failure. Since partition,
the main thorn between the good relations have been the Kashmir issue. Kashmir has been
the main bone of contention between the two over which the two sides had fought various
wars. In 1948, there was a war because of the forceful accession of Hindu Maharaja to India.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

UNO ordered a cease-fire, promising to hold plebiscite, but over till now, no such plebiscite
has been organised. In addition, in 1965, there was another war on the same issue, resulting
from the Pakistani tries to free Kashmir by force as after the Indo-China war, the Pakistan
army had believed that these events showed that Indians had ‘no stomach’ for a fight. Thus,
began to think in terms of military solution to the Kashmir dispute. The Indians, however,
dropped their objections to western military aid and began a vigorous rearmament
campaign after the humiliating defeat they suffered at the hands of Chinese. The stage was
now set for a military showdown between India and Pakistan.
The two sides also went to a war in 1971 over Bangladesh-East-Pakistan Crisis. India had the
golden chance to cut down it rivals. They availed the opportunity and separated the two
wings of its enemy. India also had grievances over Pakistan’s involvement in Defence Pact
with USA, but USA confirmed India that this was only against any communist aggression.
Pakistan was shocked when India tested its nuclear device in Rajasthan in 1974. As
Pakistan’s relations with India further deteriorated, both countries stepped up their nuclear
development programmes. In May 1998, India shocked the world by testing five nuclear
devices. Just a few weeks later, Pakistan detonated its own nuclear devices in Ras Koh hills.
This initiated the nuclear arms race between the two states which continues to this date.
In early 1980s, India accused Pakistan in helping separatist elements of Sikhs who were
demanding a separate homeland, Khalistan, for Sikhs. Pakistan rejected this allegation. Later
on, the aftermath of the assassination of Indira Gandhi had adverse effects on relations with
India. Rajiv, son of Indira Gandhi, again accused Pakistan for his mother’s killing. Both sides
were almost on a brink of an undeclared war. India started ‘exercises’ near borders of
Pakistan, but it was a great master stroke of Zia which saved the two countries from war.
The Kargil conflict in 1999, further pumped up the Indo-Pak hostility. In April 1999, Muslims
Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the Line of Control and captured the Indian occupied towns of
Kargil and Drass. The Pak govt., however, denied any involvement. In May, India launched a
counter-attack during which it fired over 250,000 shells and rockets. Two of its aircrafts also
crossed into Pakistan air space and one was shot down. The Kargil conflict was a major blow
to Pakistan-India relations.
Other problems like division of assets and Canal Water Dispute also contributed to the poor
relations b/w the two.
On the contrary, there were also some successes in the relations. In April 1950, there was a
formal agreement, called the ‘Minorities Agreement’, signed between Liaqat Ali Khan and
Nehru. According to the agreement, both governments were responsible to protect the
religious minorities in their states and to encourage them to stay on rather than to migrate.
Moreover, another agreement had also been reached in December 1948 which allowed for
a neutral tribunal to demarcate the exact borders between East Bengal and Assam.

The Tashkent agreement of 1966 after 1965 war helped the two states to agree to resolve
disputes peacefully. The Simla Agreement was also a major step in developing good ties
between the two states. India agreed to free 90,000 war prisoners of Pakistan and Pakistan
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

agreed to talk over Kashmir issue bilaterally and not going to the world community. The
Indus water treaty, 1960, also helped in establishment of good relations.
Thus, the two states have had very poor relations since 1947. Pakistan had remained
unsuccessful in having good ties with India. This is due to mainly Kashmir issue which they
have failed to resolve. The nuclear arms race had made it nuclear flash point in the world.
Q: How successful was Pakistan’s relationship with the USSR between 1947 and 1999?
Explain your answer. [14]

Ans: Relations between Pakistan and USSR have undergone many ups and downs
between 1947 and 1999. Russia has always tried to have sincere relations with Pakistan but
Pakistani leaders never thought in this context.
From 1947 to 1950, Russia had remained neutral in her relations with Pakistan. In 1950,
USSR invited Liaqat Ali Khan to visit Moscow. However, at the same time USA invited him to
visit Washington. Liaqat Ali Khan chose to go to Washington. This, clearly, snubbed the
Soviet Union and in turn relations between the two suffered for some time. By 1950, the
Soviet Union started to back over with India over the Kashmir issue. When Pakistan joined
SEATO and CENTO in the mid-1950s, the Soviet Union took this as a firm declaration in
favour of the USA. This greatly worsened the relations between USSR and Pakistan. In 1955,
USSR officially backed India over the Kashmir problem and promised whole-hearted
support; moreover, USSR also began to Press Pakistan over the Afghan claims in
‘Pakhtoonistan’.

However, Soviet Union always desired to have good relations with Pakistan. In 1956, it
offered Pak aid together with a promise to build a steel mill, if only Pak broke off its alliance
with USA. Pakistan refused to do so. The relations reached the rock bottom when in May,
1960, an American Spy Plane (U2) flew from an American base near Peshawar and was shot
down while flying over Russia. Russia gave a serious warning to Pakistan.
On the contrary, the relations after 1960s greatly elevated. In 1961, the soviets, as a gesture
of goodwill, agreed to begin exploring for oil in Pakistan. When India accepted help from
USA in its war with China, the effect was to drive Pakistan and the USSR closer together.
When China began to give Pak aid in 1963, the soviets decided to take even more decisive
steps to ally with Pakistan. In 1963, it loaned Pakistan £11 million and shifted from its
previous inclination towards India over Kashmir to neutral stance.
The relations sky-rocketed when Ayub Khan paid an official visit to Soviet Union and further
agreements on trade and oil exploration were reached. After the Pakistan-India was of
1965, the Tashkent Agreement took place through the efforts of Russian president.
Relations, however, were at a very low ebb during 1969-71 because Pakistani’s effort to
bring USA and China closer greatly annoyed USSR. In 1971 Russia fully supported India with
military aid and Pakistan lost its East Wing.

The Period of 1972-77 was a period of good relations because Z. A. Bhutto visited Russia in
1972. Bhutto had no liking for USA. Russia had become neutral on Kashmir issue and Russia
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

helped Pak in setting up a steel mill at Karachi which has been a great asset to Pakistan –
thanks to the good relations between the two.
However, the improved relations were short-lived. The soviet occupation of Afghanistan in
1979 caused an open rift when Pakistan accepted American aid to support the mujahidin
rebels. Although Zia visited Moscow in 1984 for the funeral of Andropov, he got a cold
reception. Later that year, the Soviet Union, which also disapproved of Pak’s nuclear
programme began bombing raids on Pakistan. Hostile relations continued until 1988, when
the soviets finally withdrew from Afghanistan.
Several high levels of exchanges of trips have taken place between the two sides since 1991.
Russian foreign minister in April, 1993, and first Russian deputy foreign minister in 1994
visited Pakistan. A broad range of bilateral issues were discussed during these visits. Russia
had moved away from its unconditional support to India on all issues. Pak and Russia
cooperated in UN sponsored talks at Tajikistan. The Russian president extended the
invitation to Pak’s Prime Minister to visit Moscow. In April 1998, Pak PM visited Moscow.
During this visit many important bilateral issues were signed.
On the whole, Pakistan was not successful in keeping good relations with USSR because
periods of improved relations were short lived.
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Q: How successful the governments have been in the Islamisation of Pakistan between
1947 and 1988? Explain your answer. [14]
Ans: The Constituent Assembly passed the Objectives Resolution in March 1949 which was
the first step towards constitution of Pakistan. This resolution made several references to
Islamic laws like social justice, equality and religious freedom, and Muslims were also
enabled to lead their lives according to Islamic teachings. But the religious wings were not
satisfied with these provisions. They wanted complete implementation of the Shariah Laws.
Together with other reasons, the resolution was withdrawn in November 1950 for further
considerations.
Khawaja Nazimuddin revised the proposals of the same resolution in 1952. Now the Head of
the state would be Muslim over 40. He would appoint a board of religious scholars who
would advise on central and provincial legislation. In case of objections on religious grounds,
the bill had to be sent back to the assembly for amendment. Now fears arose in many circles
that the Religious Advisory Board would have power of veto over new laws. The Prime
Minister withdrew the proposals in 1953.
When the first constitution of Pakistan was prepared in 1956, it changed the name of
Pakistan to Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The Religious Advisory Board was still retained for
monitoring the legislation with right of veto. The constitution also declared that the
President was to be a Muslim.
Ayub Khan was a bit liberal. He introduced Muslim Family Laws Ordinance according to
which marriages and divorces were to be registered and minimum age limits were defined
for marriage. Women were empowered. In spite of opposition from religious wings, these
laws were imposed. He established Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology to advise him the
religious aspects of policies. He also founded Islamic Research Institute. These institutes
were just symbolic; he never welcomed their proposals.
In the 1973 constitution, Bhutto gave no consideration to the implementation of Shariah
Laws. It was almost based on the 1956 constitution. Islamic committee was still set up, but it
could only advice on legislation. After the 1977 elections when Pakistan National Alliance
was protesting on the roads against rigging, he tried to appease the religious factions by
banning gambling, restricting sale of alcohol and declaring Friday to be the weekly holiday.
These were just desperate actions. However, there was also a little success on road of
Islamization. Both President and Prime Minister were to be Muslims and had to believe in
the finality in of Holy Prophet (PBUH). The Legislation also gave a definition of a ‘Muslim’.

General Zia ul Haq tried to be a pro-Islamic leader. He established Federal Shariat Court in
1979 to consider existing laws and judgments in the light of Islamic principles. He set up a
Federal Shariat Court to consider existing laws and legal judgements and decide if they were
in keeping with Islam. He introduced Hudood Ordinances which gave Islamic punishments to
people involved in drinking, gambling, theft and adultery. A new offense of disrespect of
Holy Prophet was introduced, with imprisonment or a fine as a punishment for offenders.
He also introduced the Council of Islamic Ideology to suggest ways for bringing the legal
system closer to Islamic ideology. He also introduced Zakat and Ushr Ordinances imposing
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

2.5% wealth tax and 5% tax on agricultural income respectively. Islamiyat and Pakistan
Studies were made compulsory subjects in the schools and colleges. Memorizers of the Holy
Quran were given extra marks in the Civil Service examinations. Arabic language was
promoted through TV and Radio programs. No woman was allowed to appear on the TV
without scarf. Many people from the civil society raised a voice against some of his actions,
but in many areas, he has support from Ulamas
Of course, the reign of Zia ul Haq saw maximum implementation of Shariah Laws. He won
the support of many religious political parties, ulamas and religious factions.
In conclusion it can be said that although several and serious efforts for Islamisation were
made, but implementation of clauses of Islamisation remained in question. Desired results
were not achieved because of lack of will and proper implementation. The fact remains that
governments have not been successful in their efforts for Islamisation in Pakistan.
Q: Why did Pakistan face so many problems with the provision of education between
1947 and 1999? [7]
Ans: Pakistan governments have been facing many problems with the provision of
education due to many reasons.

According to independent estimates in 1998, less than 30% of the Pakistan population is
literate, and female literacy is estimated at 14% nationally. This was due to lack of financial
investment in education by successive govt. who viewed defence as being more important.
During the first three decades after independence, education in Pakistan was accorded a
very low official priority. In 1960, Pakistan was only spending 2% of budget on education
which, by 1990, had grown to 2.9%. However, even after the mass nationalization of 1970s,
state expenditure on education never rose above 3% of the budget.
A major problem has faced primary education with serious under-funding compared to
secondary and higher education (in 5-Year-Plan 1956, 56% educational budget was allocated
to secondary compared to only 18% for primary!) Little money remains for non-staff costs to
spend on the primary sector.
A number of problems have, therefore, dogged all official attempts at improving the literacy
rate. Rates of absenteeism and drop-outs are very high. More than half the students joining
primary school leave within 5 years. One-third of girls drop out within a year. Education is
also very expensive in Pakistan. Children are expected to buy their own books and uniform,
and many children drop out of schools. In the secondary sector many private schools have
been formed which have been for the wealthier parts of the population which further
emphasises the gap between the rich and the poor.
However, educational reforms were enforced from time to time. In 1972, all private schools
and colleges were nationalized. But the policy had a devastating effect on the standard of
teaching and standard of education in the country.

Q: How successful have the successive governments been in the provision of health and
education in Pakistan since 1947 to 1999? [14]
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

Pakistan governments have been facing many problems with the provision of Health and
education since 1947 to 1999.
According to independent estimates in 1998, less than 30% of the Pakistan population is
literate, and female literacy is estimated at 14% nationally. This was due to lack of financial
investment in education by successive govt. who viewed defence as being more important.
During the first three decades after independence, education in Pakistan was accorded a
very low official priority. In 1960, Pakistan was only spending 2% of budget on education
which, by 1990, had grown to 2.9%. However, even after the mass nationalization of 1970s,
state expenditure on education never rose above 3% of the budget.
A major problem has faced primary education with serious under-funding compared to
secondary and higher education (in 5-Year-Plan 1956, 56% educational budget was allocated
to secondary compared to only 18% for primary!) Little money remains for non-staff costs to
spend on the primary sector.
A number of problems have, therefore, dogged all official attempts at improving the literacy
rate. Rates of absenteeism and drop-outs are very high. More than half the students joining
primary school leave within 5 years. One-third of girls drop out within a year. Education is
also very expensive in Pakistan. Children are expected to buy their own books and uniform,
and many children drop out of schools. In the secondary sector many private schools have
been formed which have been for the wealthier parts of the population which further
emphasises the gap between the rich and the poor.

However, educational reforms were enforced from time to time. In 1972, all private schools
and colleges were nationalized. But the policy had a devastating effect on the standard of
teaching and standard of education in the country.
Another important problem was that policies introduced by one government were
abandoned by the next govt. For example, the scheme of ‘Nai Roshni Schools’ was started in
1985 to educate a large number of children up to primary level. But the scheme was
discontinued by the next elected govt. of Benazir in 1988. There has also been a lack of
schools. A govt. report in 1989 admitted that over 60%of govt. school building were unsafe.

On the other hand, provision of health has also remained an enormous problem for
Pakistan. One of the many problems inherited by the state of Pakistan was the very poor
health care available to public. Since 1947, there has been a rapid increase in population.
The annual growth rate in Pakistan in 1990 was estimated to be over 3% per year. At the
same time, life expectancy is only 55 years for both men and women and maternal mortality
is also one of the highest in the world. Furthermore, child mortality rate is also rampant: at
90 per 1000 births. Children die of diseases like diarrhoea, measles and whooping cough etc.
Government estimates in 1990 suggest that 200,000 children a year died because of
diarrhoea. Malnutrition is also prevailing in many parts of Pakistan, especially rural areas.

The belief in traditional medication is also one of the major causes for poor health in
Pakistan. People usually trust on ‘Hakeems’ and Homeopathic medicines in rural areas,
instead of going to professional qualified doctors. In addition, there has been a lack of
History and Culture Revision Guide for Section 3

doctors, nurses and hospitals since 1947. Public health expenditure was around 0.75% of
budget in 1990. With such low investment it is indeed very difficult to improve health
facilities in Pakistan.

National health planning started in 1960s, but the first large national health plan was
introduced in 1972 with establishment of BHU (for every 20,000 people) and RHCs (for every
60,000 people). However, the reform failed due to poor management and lack of funding.
By the 1970s, nine Unani medical colleges were established. However, indigenous midwives
(dais) are still an overwhelming choice for rural and urban women during childbirth and
have escaped any formal regulation and training. There are over 8000 NGOs registered in
health sector in Pakistan such as Edhi Foundation which is both effective and well-run.
Thus, on the whole, Pakistan governments have remained unsuccessful in the provision of
health and education as the statistics show a very poor condition in both of the sectors.