What is Environment?

The word Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which means “surrounding”.
Our surrounding includes biotic factors like human beings, Plants, animals, microbes, etc and
abiotic factors such as light, air, water, soil, etc. Environment is a complex of many variables,
which surrounds man as well as the living organisms. Environment includes water, air and land
and the interrelation ships which exist among and between water, air and land and human beings
and other living creatures such as plants, animals and micro-organisms (Kalavathy, 2004).

The natural environment consist of four interlinking systems namely, the atmosphere, the
hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere. These four systems are in constant change and
such changes are affected by human activities and vice versa (Kumarasamy et al., 2004).

Environment is a system which provides natural surroundings for the existence of organisms
(including humans) and which is a prerequisite for their further evolution.

Abiotic components of environment (atmosphere, water, minerals, energy etc.) and biotic
components of environment (organisms – from the simplest to the most complex) are its main
elements. To summarize, it is all which surrounds us. It is noteworthy that this is essentially an
anthropocentric (non-biological) definition perceiving environment as one in which a man can
live.

Ecological Approach: Environment is a set of all factors with which a living subject interacts and
of all surroundings which encompass it. Thus, it is everything that a subject influences, directly or
indirectly. A subject can be an organism, a population, a human or whole human society. Usually,
the notion of living environment is conceived in the sense of human environment.

Biological Approach: 'environment' denotes the surroundings of an organism or a species,

eventually the ecosystem in which an organism or a species lives. At the same time, it is a physical
environment and other organisms with which the organism or the species enters into contact
(interacts). The notion of biome is very similar to a living environment.

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CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT

The term Environment can be broadly defined as one’s surroundings. To be more specific we can
say that it is the physical and biological habitat that surrounds us, which can be felt by our physical
faculties (seen, heard, touched, smelled and tasted.)

The two major classifications of environment are:

(A) Physical Environment: External physical factors like Air, Water, and Land etc. This is also
called the Abiotic Environment.

(B) Living Environment: All living organisms around us viz. plants, animals, and
microorganisms. This is also called the Biotic Environment.

Earth’s environment can be further subdivided into the following four segments:

(1) Lithosphere

(2) Hydrosphere

(3) Atmosphere

(4) Biosphere

LITHOSPHERE

The earth’s crust consisting of the soil and rocks is the lithosphere. The soil is made up of inorganic
and organic matter and water. The main mineral constituents are compounds or mixtures derived
from the elements of Si, Ca, K, Al, Fe, Mn, Ti, O etc. (Oxides, Silicates, and Carbonates). The
organic constituents are mainly polysaccharides, organo compounds of N, P and S. The organic
constituents even though form only around 4% – 6% of the lithosphere, they are responsible for
the fertility of the soil and hence its productivity.

HYDROSPHERE

This comprises all water resources both surface and ground water. The world’s water is found in
oceans and seas, lakes and reservoirs, rivers and streams, glaciers and snowcaps in the Polar
Regions. The distribution of water among these resources are as follows:

2
 Oceans and Seas 96–97 %

Glaciers and polar icecaps 2–3 %

Fresh water < 1%

Only less than 1% of water resources are available for human exploitation. Water is considered to
be a common compound with uncommon properties. These uncommon properties (e.g. anomalous
expansion of water) are mainly responsible for supporting terrestrial and aquatic life on earth.

BIOSPHERE

The biosphere is a capsule encircling the earth’s surface wherein all the living things exist. This
portion extends from 10000 m below sea level to 6000 m above sea level. Life forms do not exist
outside this zone. The biosphere covers parts of other segments of the environment viz.
Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and Atmosphere. Life sustaining resources like food, water and oxygen
present in the biosphere are being withdrawn and waste products in increasing quantities are being
dumped.

ATMOSPHERE

It is the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth and extends upto 500 km above the earth’s
surface. The constituent gases can be classified into –

a) Permanent gas: N2, O2, Ar

b) Variable gases: CO2, H2O (Water vapor), CH4, He etc.

The composition of the atmosphere is given below:

Gas name Chemical formula Percent volume (%)

Nitrogen N2 78.08
Oxygen O2 20.95
Argon Ar 0.93
Water H2O 0 to 4
Carbon-di-oxide CO2 0.036
Methane CH4 0.00017

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 Ozone O3 0.000004
Nitrous oxide N2O 0.00003

*The trace constituents include Helium, Neon, Krypton, xenon, SO 2, NO2, Ammonia, Ozone, and
Carbon monoxide etc.

The atmosphere, which is a gaseous cover, protects the earth from cosmic radiations and provides

life sustaining Oxygen, the macronutrient Nitrogen and Carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis.
The atmosphere screens the dangerous UV radiations from the sun and allows only radiations in
the range of 300 nm – 2500 nm (near UV to near IR) and radio waves. The atmosphere plays a
major role in maintaining the heat balance of the earth by absorbing the re-emitted radiation from
the earth.

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS

The sun is the source of all our energy. It is a continuously exploding hydrogen bomb where
hydrogen is converted to helium with the rele of energy. This energy is mostly in the region of 0.2
to 4mm (Ultraviolet to InfraRed). Around 50% of the radiation is in the visible range. The energy
reaches the earth at a constant rate called the Solar Flux or Solar Constant, which is the amount of
radiant energy crossing unit area in unit time. This value is approximately 1.4 KJ per sq. meter per
second.

Chlorophyll bearing plants convert this energy from the sun into carbohydrates and sugars using
carbon di oxide and water. This process is known as Photosynthesis. The generalized form of the
photosynthetic reaction is:

6CO2 + 12H2O —→ C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

The carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis undergo further modifications such as production

of proteins and nucleic acids by combining with nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur. Starch
polymerizes to cellulose.

The sun’s energy thus enters the living beings through photosynthetic reactions and is passed from
one organism to another in the form of food. The flow of energy is unidirectional and is governed

4
by the thermodynamic law that states that Energy is neither created nor destroyed and can
transform into different forms.

When energy travels from producers to different levels of consumers in an ecosystem there is loss
at each level due to the energy dissipated as heat during the metabolic processes of the organisms.
Hence as we move step by step away from the primary producers the amount of available energy
decreases rapidly. Hence only 3 to 5 feeding levels are possible. These are referred to as Tropic
levels.

Figure 1: Energy flow within an eco-system .

*Self- study:

a) Explain – Environmental science is a multidisciplinary study area .

b) Why the textile engineers need to study environmental science?

c) Mention the major textile related environmental problems, their sources, consequences and
possible steps to mitigate/ control

5
TE-4204 Environmental Engineering and pollution control
Total Class hour for the course Total Class Total Credit for the course
hour/week
30 2 2

Chapter Two
Pollution and its Effects on the Living World
Lecture 6: Definition of pollution, The Atmosphere and its structure
Pollution: Pollution refers to the presence of a substance or substances in the environment
that are harmful or toxic. The substances or pollutants may be harmful to human health, other
animals, and plants.
Pollutants may be natural or anthropogenic. If something is anthropogenic, it originates from
human activity. Volcanic ash, for example, is a natural pollutant, while fumes from vehicles
are the result of human activity.
Pollutants damage the land, water, and air. In other words, they damage our environment.
The Atmosphere and its structure:
Atmosphere: Atmosphere refers to the gases surrounding a star or planetary body held in
place by gravity. A body is more likely to retain an atmosphere over time if gravity is high
and the temperature of the atmosphere is low.

The atmosphere has, broadly speaking, categories of constituents- major, minor and trace.
For pollution free dry air at ground level, the components as percent by volume, as follows-
Major-
Nitrogen (78.09)
Oxygen (20.94)
Water vapour (0.1-5)
Minor-
Argon (9.34 × 10-1)
Carbon dioxide (3.25 × 10-2)
Trace components-
Neon (1.82 × 10-3)
Helium (5.25 × 10-4)
Methane (2 × 10-4)
Krypton (1.14 × 10-4)
Nitrous oxide (2.25 × 10-5)
Hydrogen ( 5× 10-5)
Xenon (8.7 × 10-8)
Sulphur dioxide (2 × 10-8)
Ozone (trace)
Ammonia (1× 10-6)
Carbon dioxide (1.2 × 10-5)
Nitrogen dioxide (1× 10-5)
Iodine (trace)
The parameters of the atmosphere vary considerably with altitude. The density of the
atmosphere shows a sharp decrease with increasing altitude. Pressure drops from 1
atmosphere at sea level to 3 × 10-7 atmosphere at 100 km above sea level, while temperature
varies from -92o to 1200 oC.
Region Altitude Range (km) Temperature Range Important Chemical
(oC) Species
Troposphere 0-11 15 to -56 N2, O2,CO2, H2O
11-50 -56 to -2 O3
50-85 -2 to -92 O2+, NO+,
85-500 -92 to 1200 O2+, O+, NO+

Layers of atmosphere:

The atmosphere is comprised of layers based on temperature. These layers are the
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. A further region at about 500 km
above the Earth's surface is called the exosphere.
Scientists divided the atmosphere into four layers according to temperature: troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. The temperature drops as we go up through the
troposphere, but it rises as we move through the next layer, the stratosphere. The farther away
from earth, the thinner the atmosphere gets.
TROPOSPHERE

This is the layer of the atmosphere closest to the Earth's surface, extending up to about 10 -
15 km above the Earth's surface. It contains 75% of the atmosphere's mass. The troposphere
is wider at the equator than at the poles. Temperature and pressure drops as you go higher up
the troposphere.

Q: Why is the troposphere wider at the equator than at the poles?

The Tropopause: At the very top of the troposphere is the tropopause where the temperature
reaches a (stable) minimum. Some scientists call the tropopause a "thermal layer" or "cold
trap" because this is a point where rising water vapour cannot go higher because it changes
into ice and is trapped. If there is no cold trap, Earth would lose all its water.

Most of what we call weather occurs in the troposphere. The uneven heating of the regions
of the troposphere by the Sun causes convection currents and winds. Warm air from Earth's
surface rises and cold air above it rushes in to replace it. When warm air reaches the
tropopause, it cannot go higher as the air above it (in the stratosphere) is warmer and lighter ...
preventing much air convection beyond the tropopause. The tropopause acts like an invisible
barrier and is the reason why most clouds form and weather phenomena occur within the
troposphere.
The Greenhouse Effect: Heat from the Sun warms the Earth's surface but most of it is radiated
and sent back into space. Water vapour and carbon dioxide in the troposphere trap some of
this heat, preventing it from escaping thus keep the Earth warm. This trapping of heat is
called the "greenhouse effect". However, if there is too much carbon dioxide in the
troposphere then it will trap too much heat. Scientists are afraid that the increasing amounts
of carbon dioxide would raise the Earth's surface temperature, bringing significant changes
to worldwide weather patterns ... shifting in climatic zones and the melting of the polar ice
caps, which could raise the level of the world's oceans.

Q: Why is the amount of carbon dioxide in the troposphere increasing?

2. STRATOSPHERE

This layer lies directly above the troposphere and is about 35 km deep. It extends from about
15 to 50 km above the Earth's surface. The stratosphere is warmer at the top than the bottom.
The lower portion has a nearly constant temperature with height but in the upper portion the
temperature increases with altitude because of absorption of sunlight by ozone. This
temperature increase with altitude is the opposite of the situation in the troposphere.

14 October 2012: Austrian daredevil Felix Baumgartner made an extreme skydive from the
edge of space, leaping off a capsule more than 24 miles (39 km) above the Earth ... that's in
the stratosphere. At this extreme altitude and low air pressure, a tear or crack in
his pressurized suit or helmet would cause instant depressurization and his blood to "boil".
The latter is a condition called "ebullism" that could cause gas bubbles to form in bodily
fluids; and blood literally boils.
Q: What is the relationship between atmospheric pressure and boiling point of a liquid? The
Ozone Layer: The stratosphere contains a thin layer of ozone molecules (with three oxygen
atoms) which forms a protective layer shielding life on Earth from the Sun’s harmful
ultraviolet radiation. But this ozone layer is being depleted, and is getting thinner over Europe,
Asia, North American and Antarctica. "Holes" are appearing in the ozone layer.

Q: Why are there "ozone holes" in the stratosphere?

3. MESOSPHERE

Directly above the stratosphere, extending from 50 to 80 km above the Earth's surface, the
mesosphere is a cold layer where the temperature generally decreases with increasing altitude.
Here in the mesosphere, the atmosphere is very rarefied nevertheless thick enough to slow
down meteors hurtling into the atmosphere, where they burn up, leaving fiery trails in the
night sky.

4. THERMOSPHERE

The thermosphere extends from 80 km above the Earth's surface to outer space. The
temperature is hot and may be as high as thousands of degrees as the few molecules that are
present in the thermosphere receive extraordinary large amounts of energy from the Sun.
However, the thermosphere would actually feel very cold to us because of the probability
that these few molecules will hit our skin and transfer enough energy to cause appreciable
heat is extremely low.

The thermosphere corresponds to the heterosphere, a zone where there is no uniform

distribution of gases. In other words, the gases are not well-mixed; instead they are stratified
that is layered, in accordance to their molecular masses. In contrast, the gases in the
homosphere (consisting of the troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere) are uniformly
distributed.

Q: Why are the gases in the thermosphere stratified?

Lecture 7: Types of Pollution and pollutants.

Classification of pollution:
Pollution can be classified according to the environment and types of pollutants.
Pollution can be broadly classified in two categories –
a) Natural pollution: Natural pollution is caused due to natural sourses. e.g.,
Volcanic eruptios, release of CH4 by paddy fields and cattle, release of CO2 by
planta and animals, emission of natural gas O3, nitrous oxides, cosmic ray, UV-
rays etc. Other things which I can think of Earthquakes which also adds up in the
pollution in 1 way or another like water gets contaminated by bio wastes e.g. dead
body of humans or animals causes contamination and toxicity in natural
resources.
b) Artificial pollution: The Man-made pollution is called Artificial pollution, it is
being made by humans and have huge affect on our environment and definitely
ourselves. The reason of increasing the pollution daily is because of raising of
population of the world since it is getting bigger there is need to contact to the
environment to provide the necessaries of humans.
If we want to mention some specific pollution, then
1. Air pollution: Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants like toxic gases,
biological molecules, and particulate matter into the atmosphere. The
pollutants can be derived from several sources including both natural
processes and human activity. Volcanic eruptions, limnic eruptions,
automobile, and industrial effluents, etc., are some examples of air pollution
sources. Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, aerosol
sprays, etc., are some examples of air pollutants. Such pollution can be highly
detrimental to the health and well-being of all life forms on earth.
2. Water pollution: In simple terms, the contamination of water bodies likes
lakes, rivers, ponds, aquifers, etc., by pollutants is called water pollution. Like
air pollution, water pollution is one of the most harmful types of pollution. It
can have extremely disastrous consequences for all living beings using the
contaminated water. A major volume of the all the pollutants produced on
land end up in water bodies. Toxic wastes released by industries, pathogens
released in sewage, harmful chemicals present in agricultural runoffs, etc., are
some of the top water pollutants. The contamination of water can lead to
epidemics and even pandemics that can wipe out the population of an entire
species or even more than one species. Thus, water pollution has a highly
adverse impact on the environment, society, and economy of a place.
3. Noise pollution: When the environment is filled with unnecessary or
unpleasant sounds that are harmful to animals and plants, it is called noise
pollution. Transport vehicles, machinery, industries, loud music, people
yelling, etc., are some of the most common sources of noise pollution. This
type of pollution on the long-term can give rise to chronic diseases like
cardiovascular diseases. The psychological health of people can also be
affected by noise.
4. Soil/ terrestrial pollution : When the soil of an area is contaminated, it leads
to soil pollution or land degradation. The soil is essential to the growth of all
plants including crops. Thus, a degradation in the soil quality translates to
lower yields and poor health of crops grown on such soil. Industrial and
agricultural chemicals are the common pollutants contaminating the soil.
5. Radiation pollution: When radioactive substances are present in areas where
their presence is undesirable or unintended, it results in a type of pollution
called radioactive contamination. Such substances are highly toxic to all life
on earth. Radioactive substances trigger mutations in the genetic material of
living organisms, leading to different types of cancers. Exposure to such
toxins can also adversely impact the different systems of the body. Death or
disfiguration are common effects of exposure to radioactive waste.
Irresponsible management of such wastes or radioactive disasters are the
common causes of radioactive contamination.
6. Thermal pollution: An induced change in the temperature of large volumes
of water causes thermal pollution. This type of pollution leads to the
degradation of water quality as the warm water does not provide ideal living
conditions for aquatic flora and fauna. For example, when water used as a
coolant in power plants or that used in industries is released into a natural
water body, the warm or hot water mixes with the rest of the water to raise the
overall temperature of the aquatic ecosystem. Higher temperatures also alter
the composition of dissolved elements in water. The flora and fauna living in
the area that was earlier adapted to a particular temperature range can be killed
by this abrupt change in the water temperature. Thus, aquatic life experiences
a thermal shock due to thermal pollution.
7. Industrial pollution: Industrial pollution is generally referred to the
undesirable outcome when factories (or other industrial plants) emits harmful
by-products and waste into the environment such as emissions to air or water
bodies (water pollution), deposition on landfills etc (land pollution) or
emission of toxic chemicals into the atmosphere (air pollution).
8. Light pollution: The pollution of the night environment by anthropogenic
light is known as light pollution. This type of pollution is caused by an
excessive lighting of the streets, flood lights used in stadiums, lights used in
 an industrial area, etc. The negative effects of light pollution include the
spoilage of the aesthetic environment of a place, creating disturbances in the
ecosystem, and also harming the health of living creatures.
9. Plastic Pollution: As the name suggests, plastic pollution is caused by plastic
accumulation in the environment. Plastic, a non-biodegradable substance, is
extremely harmful to all life on earth. Every year, thousands of animals lose
their lives due to plastic pollution. Ingestion of plastics or entanglement in
plastic objects kill these animals. Most of the plastic waste generated in the
world end up in the oceans where they cause great harm to the marine
ecosystem.
10. Visual Pollution: Everyone loves to see clean and green spaces and beautiful
vistas. When human activity installs ugly barriers to this vision of open and
clutter-free landscapes, it is called visual pollution. The installation of
billboards, open storage of trash, networks of electric wires crisscrossing each
other above the street, etc., create visual pollution. This type of pollution
generates distraction, eye fatigues, diversity in opinions, and other
psychological problems.
11. Littering: When waste products generated by humans is not disposed of
properly, it is called littering. Here, waste can include anything that is
discarded by humans after use like bottles, glass, packaging material,
electronic waste, metal waste, etc. Some of these pollutants like electronics,
batteries, tires, etc., are hazardous to the health of the environment. When
chemicals from such wastes leach into the soil or enter the water bodies, they
cause soil contamination and water pollution. Finally, these chemicals enter
the bodies of organisms to cause disease and death.

Pollutants:
A pollutant may be defined as, “anything, living or non-living or any physical agents (e.g.
heat, sound etc.) that is in its excess makes any part of the environment undesirable. For
example- polluted water is undesirable for drinking, recreation, visual enjoyment or as a
habitat for the aquatic life normal to it.
According to the Indian Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
A pollutant has been defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in such
concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to the environment.
 Types of pollutants:
In terms of ecosystem, the pollutants can be classified into two basic groups –
a) Non-degradable pollutants: Non- degradable pollutants are not broken down by the
natural process like action of microorganisms. These pollutants get accumulated in
the environment by the process of “Bioaccumulation and biomagnification “
b) Degradable pollutants or bio-degradable pollutants:
These are the natural organic substances which can be decomposed, removed or
consumed by natural process (biological and microbial action)

Degradable Pollutants V/s Non Degradable Pollutants.

Degradable pollutants Non degradable pollutants

i) Degradable pollutants can be decomposed i) Non-degradable pollutants cannot be
or degraded easily. easily decomposed.
ii) ii) Decomposition takes place by ii) ii) It requires more time and different
microorganisms and it requires less time. techniques for decomposition.

iiiiiii) These pollutants again enter the iii) These pollutants will remain on the
earth for years and create environmental
biogeochemical cycles and become part of the pollution.
natural nutrient cycle.
iv) iv) Degradable / Bio-degradable pollutants
may be of two types: a)Non-persistent/
rapidly degradable pollutants (e.g- Domestic
sewage) iv) Non-degradable pollutants can be
further classified as: a) waste (e.g- glass,
aand b) Persistent/ Slowly degradable pollutants plastics etc.); b)poisons (e.g- active
substances, pesticides, smog, heavy metal
(e.g- degradation of synthetic compound and
like- mercury, lead and their salts).
radio-active elements like iodine 137,
Strontium 90 etc.)
The types of substances and energy forms which result in a lowering of the ambient quality
of natural environment and which we therefore regard as pollutants are many and various.
The following typology indicates just some of the categories into which they might be placed.
Cumulative and non-cumulative pollutants
 Cumulative pollutants tend to be retained in the environment over time in roughly the
same amount as when first emitted. Radioactive wastes decay so slowly ( e.g. the
half-life of the Carbon-14 isotope is 5, 700 years) that they can be regarded as almost
permanent. Most plastics and some chemicals are non-biodegradable (i.e- cannot be
broken down by micro-organisms in the soil) and so are often placed in the category
“cumulative pollutants”
 Non- cumulative pollutants tend to dissipate quickly after being emitted, for example
noise. A few plastics and many chemicals are biodegradable and may therefore be
placed in this category.
Global, regional and local pollutants
The geographical scale of the impact of the pollutants is sometimes used as a means
of classification
 Global pollutants are those which, while emitted from a local source, have potentially
worldwide impacts. The impact of CFC( Chlorofluorocarbon) emissions on the ozone
layer in the world’s stratosphere is an example of a global pollutants
 Regional pollutants

Agents causing pollution / Sources of pollution:

Depending upon the nature of the pollutants and their interaction with environment process,
the pollution caused by different agents can be classified into the following categories:
a) Pollution caused by solid waste:
Garbage, rubbish, ashes, large waste formed due to demolition and construction
process, agricultural waste.
b) Pollution caused by liquid waste :
Organic pollutants – sewage, which contains fecal matter, urine, kitchen washing
and oil washing
If the BOD of waste water remains,
below 1500 mg/L, the sewage is termed as weak waste ,
within 4000 mg/L, the sewage is termed as medium waste water; and
more than 4000 mg/L , then the sewage is termed as strong waste water .
 Inorganic pollutants- industrial waste

If the liquid industrial waste containing acids, alkali and poisonous substances enter
to the river, the aquatic life is affected and self- purification system of water is
impaired. Pesticides and herbicides which enter into the water through run-off, it may
kill some organisms and accumulate in the fishes through the process of
bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
c) Pollution caused by gaseous waste :
Gaseous waste includes carbon monoxides (CO), Oxides of Sulphur (SOx), Oxides of
Nitrogen (NOx), ozone (O3) and smog gases.
d) Pollution from waste without weight:
It is also known as pollution by energy waste.
It may be as follows- i) radio- active
ii) noise
iii) heat

Ref. Sen Nag, Oishimaya. "How Many Types Of Pollution Are There?" WorldAtlas, Oct. 9,
2018, worldatlas.com/articles/how-many-types-of-pollution-are-there.html.
Lecture 8: Greenhouse effects, Photochemical smog
Green house:
A well-tended greenhouse is a peaceful and visually pleasing place to visit or work, although
the environment is perhaps overly warm and moist for some people's tastes. Concerns about
greenhouse gases and their effects on the Earth's climate, however, are anything but alluring,
and concerns about global warming grow more worrisome by the year. While real
greenhouses aren't responsible for the effect that bears their name, the underlying principles
make for an interesting study of some basic physical principles.

What makes a greenhouse special? Primarily, it is the amount of light, the controlled
temperature, and the easily manipulated amount of moisture plants receive. . Greenhouses
have glass ceilings, which serve to both admit a high amount of light and trap heat inside the
structure. When the sun goes down, the heat doesn't dissipate as quickly as it does outdoors,
allowing for plants that don't tolerate cool nights well to flourish.
From a physics standpoint, what warms a greenhouse is the same thing that warms the interior
of a car on a sunny day. Shorter-wavelength infrared light enters the structure through the
glass, and after these invisible but warm rays bounce around, they become longer-wavelength
electromagnetic energy and tend to stay inside, getting absorbed by their surroundings. These
surroundings, in a greenhouse, include the leafy surfaces of plants, which use sunlight to
drive photosynthesis, or the creation of glucose (food) for energy.
What Are Greenhouse Gases?
 If there is an absence of atmosphere, then the temperature of the earth will be -18
degrees Celsius. Greenhouse gases absorbs infrared radiation balance of energy of
planet gets damage and along with this, there will be a dissimilarity in temperature.

Major Greenhouse Gas % of Greenhouse Effect

Water vapor (H2O) 36% to 66%
Water vapor & Cloud droplets 66% to 85%
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 9% to 26%
Methane (CH4) 4% to 9%
Ozone (O3) 3% to 7%

Minor Greenhouse gases are

nitrous oxide (N2O)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
These gas molecules are more loosely connected than most molecules, so that when heat
strikes them, they tend to vibrate. These vibrating molecules release heat, much of which is
then absorbed by neighboring greenhouse gas molecules. This cycle keeps the air in the
vicinity unusually warm.
Most of atmosphere consists of nitrogen, which makes up over three-fourths of the
atmosphere, and oxygen, which accounts for about one-fifth. Both of these gases include two
identical atoms (N2 and O2). The bonds holding these molecules together are tight and allow
for little vibration, so they do not retain heat well and hence do not contribute significantly
to greenhouse effects.
Greenhouse Effects:
As noted, even though only a tiny fractions of the gases in Earth’s atmosphere qualify as
greenhouse gases, these have a substantial effect on climate, whether they got there as a result
of natural processes or owing to human activities.
The quantity of greenhouse gases is increasing in proportion to the quantity of fossil fuels
being burned, which expels not only greenhouse gases but also air pollution into the
atmosphere. Greenhouse gases find their way into the atmosphere from other sources, too.
Livestock release methane gas in the course of digesting food. Additionally, seemingly
benign processes can contribute non-trivial amounts of CO2 to the mix. For example, as
cement is made from limestone, carbon dioxide is released.
With more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, creating something like an invisible ceiling
(not unlike a real greenhouse), heat passing upward is more likely to be stopped than to pass
out of the atmosphere altogether, because the additional greenhouse gases absorb, and then
radiate, this heat as infrared radiation. Some of the heat will head away from the Earth, but
some of it will be absorbed by nearby greenhouse-gas molecules, and some will return to the
Earth’s surface again. Thus, through a variety of mechanisms, as greenhouse gases
accumulate, the planet continues to warm. Glaciers recede, ice at both of Earth's poles melts,
the oceans warm and become more acidic, snow cover worldwide is diminished and
catastrophic weather events such as hurricanes become more commonplace.
Figure: These two simple cartoons show the multiple paths sunlight takes as it enters Earth's
atmosphere (left) and the basic mechanism of the greenhouse effect (right). The portion of
incoming sunlight that is absorbed by Earth is re-emitted as infrared radiation. Some IR
energy escapes directly to space, but most is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
This warms Earth's atmosphere; our atmosphere would be roughly 30° C (54° F) colder if it
contained no greenhouse gases.
Characteristics of greenhouse gases are as explained below:
Greenhouse gas Sources Sinks Importance for the
climate
Carbon dioxide gas (CO2) Generated due to Photosynthesis Absorbs infrared radiation
deforestation and of plants and and affects ozone
burning of fuels uptake of ocean
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Generates from By soils Absorbs infrared radiation
fertilizers, and affects ozone
combustion of fossil
fuel and burning of
biomass
 Methane (CH4) It is generated from Have reactions Absorbs infrared
burning of biomass with OH and radiations, affects ozone
and from paddies of uptake of soil and generated carbon
rice dioxide
Ozone (O3) Generated from The catalytic Absorbs infrared
photochemical reactions that radiations and ultraviolet
reactions that involve distinct radiations
involve oxygen species
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) It is generated from Dry deposition Aerosols are formed and
volcanoes and and wet they scatter solar radiation
burning of coal and depositions are
biomass the sinks
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Generated from the Troposphere Absorbs infrared radiation
industries and and affects ozone
stratosphere
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Generated from Have reactions Generates carbon dioxide
emissions of plants with OH and and affects cycles of OH
and industries uptake of soil

Photochemical Smog:
The atmosphere is loaded with large quantities of automobile exhausts, trapped by an inversion
layer (stagnant air masses) which is exposed to intense sunlight to produce photochemical oxidant.
This gives rise to the phenomenon of photochemical smog. It may be mentioned that ‘smog’
originally means an odd combination of smoke and fog prevalent in London. Photochemical smog is
characterized by brown, hazy, fumes which irritates the eyes and lungs, and also leads to the
cracking of rubber and extensive damage of plant life.

Figure. Photochemical smog over Shanghai

The Probable mechanism of smog-forming reactions is illustrated in the flow chart.

Figure: (A) Smog formation reaction (B) PAN formation reaction

 i) Reactive hydrocarbons (those with C=C groups) from auto-exhaust interact with
O3 to form a hydrocarbon-free radical RCH2*.
ii) RCH2* rapidly reacts with O2 to form another free radical RCH2O2*.
iii) RCH2O2* reacts with NO to produce NO2 and free radical RCH2O*
iv) This new free radical next interacts with O2 to yield a stable aldehyde, RCHO,
and hydroperoxyl radical HO2*.
v) HO2* then reacts with another molecule of NO to give NO2 and HO*.
vi) HO* is extremely reactive and rapidly reacts with a stable hydrocarbon RCH3 to
yield H2O and regenerate the hydrocarbon-free radical RCH2*, thereby
completing cycle. This goes on and on as a chain reaction. One Complete cycle
yields two molecules of NO2, one molecule of aldehyde RCHO, and regenerates
the free radical RCH2* to start all over again. Very soon there is a rapid build-up
of smog products.
vii) The aldehyde RCHO may initiate another route by interaction with the HO*
radical, leading to the formation of an acyl radical RC=O, peroxyacyl radical
RCOO2*(by reaction with O2), and finally peroxyacyl nitrate, PAN (by reaction
with NO2). PAN is one of the most potent eye irritants found in smog.
Photochemical smog shows characteristics variation of the parameters (smog ingredients)
with the time of day. The hydrocarbon level is maximum during early morning traffic rush
hours, then decreases the remaining daylight hours as it is consumed in the smog-formation
reactions described above.
Nitric oxide concentration has peak value at the same time and then falls as NO2
concentration increases. Subsequently, there is a risk in the concentration of oxidants
(aldehyde, PAN), Which are active oxidizing agents and contains the irritating ingredients of
smog.
Figure 2. Photochemical smog formation; sunlight reacts with NO2 which then interacts with
other molecules in the air to form smog.
Effects
Photochemical smog has many adverse effects. When combined with hydrocarbons, the
chemicals contained within it form molecules that cause eye irritation. Radicals in the air
interfere with the nitrogen cycle by preventing the destruction of ground level ozone. Other
effects include reduced visibility and respiratory ailments.
Ground level ozone is also produced which has various effects on the human body.
Lecture 9: Ozone layer formation and depletion
Ozone is the important species in the atmosphere, acting as a protective radiation shield for
living organisms on the earth. The maximum ozone concentration is around 10 ppm in the
stratosphere at an altitude of 25-30 km.
Ozone is formed by photochemical reaction, followed by a three-body reaction:
O2 + hv (242nm) → O + O
O + O2 + M (N2 or O2) → O3 + M

The third body absorbs the excess energy liberated by the above reaction and thereby stabilize
the O3 molecule.
Ozone strongly absorbs ultraviolet light in the region 220-330 nm and thereby protects life
on earth from severe radiation damage. Only a small fraction of the ultraviolet light reaches
the lower atmosphere and the earth.

Ozone layer depletion:

In September 1980, scientists reported a large hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica where
ozone level dropped by 30 percent. CFC was the prime suspect for causing ozone depletion.
It was established that one molecule of CFC is capable of destroying one lakh O3 molecules
in the stratosphere. In the stratosphere, CFCs are subjected to photochemical dissociation by
intense UV-radiation.

The net result is regeneration of Cl* radical which sustain the chain reaction. It is known that
one Cl atom/radical can destroy one lakh O3 molecule. CFCs have lifetime of the order of
100 years.
 Pollution and Pollutants

The term “pollution” is most commonly applied to situations in which man-made activities
reduce the ambient quality of a particular environment. In this view, the introduction of any
substance or energy form that lowers the ambient quality of the environment (i.e. pollutant) can
be regarded as pollution.

Pollution , which may also called environmental pollution, the addition of any substance ( solid,
liquid, gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound or radioactivity) to the environment at a
rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled or stored in harmless form.

The major kind of pollution are- air pollution, water pollution, land/soil/ terrestrial pollution,
noise pollution etc.

Pollutants :

A pollutant may be defined as, “anything, living or non-living or any physical agents (e.g. heat,
sound etc.) that is in it’s excess makes any part of the environment undesirable. For example-
polluted water is undesirable for drinking, recreation, visual enjoyment or as a habitat for the
aquatic life normal to it.

According to the Indian Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;

A pollutant has been defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in such
concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to the environment.

Types of pollutants:

In terms of ecosystem, the pollutants can be classified into two basic groups –

a) Non-degradable pollutants :
Non- degradable pollutants are not broken down by the natural process like action of
microorganisms. These pollutants get accumulated in the environment by the process of
“Bioaccumulation and biomagnification “
b) Degradable pollutants or bio-degradable pollutants :

1
 These are the natural organic substances which can be decomposed, removed or
consumed by natural process (biological and microbial action)

Degradable Pollutants Vs Non Degradable Pollutants.

Degradable pollutants Non degradable pollutants

i) Degradable pollutants can be decomposed or i) Non-degradable pollutants cannot be easily

degraded easily. decomposed.
ii) Decomposition takes place by microorganisms
ii) ii) It requires more time and different
and it requires less time. techniques for decomposition.
iiiiiii) These pollutants again enter the
iii) These pollutants will remain on the earth
biogeochemical cycles and become part of the
for years and create environmental pollution.
natural nutrient cycle
iv) iv) Degradable / Bio-degradable pollutants may
iv) Non-degradable pollutants can be further
be of two types: a)Non-persistent/ rapidly
classified as: a) waste (e.g- glass, plastics
degradable pollutants (e.g- Domestic sewage)
etc.); b)poisons (e.g- active substances,
aand b) Persistent/ Slowly degradable pollutants
pesticides, smog, heavy metal like- mercury,
(e.g- degradation of synthetic compound and
lead and their salts).
radio-active elements like iodine 137, Strontium
90 etc.)

Types of pollutants

The types of substances and energy forms which result in a lowering of the ambient quality of
natural environment and which we therefore regard as pollutants are many and various. The
following typology indicates just some of the categories into which they might be placed.

2
On the basis of retention time of pollutants, pollutants may be of two types- a) Cumulative
pollutants and b)Non-cumulative pollutants

∑ Cumulative pollutants tend to be retained in the environment over time in roughly the
same amount as when first emitted. Radioactive wastes decay so slowly ( e.g. the half-life
of the Carbon-14 isotope is 5, 700 years) that they can be regarded as almost permanent.
Most plastics and some chemicals are non-biodegradable (i.e- cannot be broken down by
micro-organisms in the soil) and so are often placed in the category “cumulative
pollutants”
∑ Non- cumulative pollutants tend to dissipate quickly after being emitted, for example
noise. A few plastics and many chemicals are biodegradable and may therefore be placed
in this category.

On the basis of the geographical scale of the impact of the pollutants is sometimes used as a
means of classification. On this criteria the pollutants may be classified into three categories:
a) Global pollutants b) Regional pollutants and c) Local pollutants

∑ Global pollutants are those which, while emitted from a local source, have potentially
worldwide impacts. The impact of CFC( Chlorofluorocarbon) emissions on the ozone
layer in the world’s stratosphere is an example of a global pollutants
∑ Regional pollutants are those which, while emitted from a local source have impacts
which extend geographically far beyond the source, though not world wide. This can
involve regions within a country, but more usually regions involving geographically
adjacent countries.
For example, the formation of acid rain ( Oxides of Sulphur and Nitrogen emitted via the
combustion of fossil fuels in particular localities have been held as responsible for “acid
rain” deposited by various types of precipitation (rain, snow, hail), which has degraded
forests, lakes and buildings in geographically adjacent countries.

On the basis of source of pollutants, pollutants can be classified in two categories: a) Point
source and b) Non-point source

Point Source: Pollutants are those for which the actual point of discharge can readily be
identified, i.e- SO2 emission from power plants and organic wastes from sewage outflow.

3
 Non-point Source: Non- point source of pollutants are those for which no well-defined point
of discharge can be identified, such as- runoff of various agrochemicals used in large-
0farming into numerous streams.

On the basis of emission of pollutants, pollutants can be classified further in two types,

a) Continuous pollutants and b) Episodic pollutants

Continuous pollutants are those which follow some type of uninterrupted time profile, such as-
emission from production units which are in operation for 24 hours- power plants, waste
treatment plants.

Episodic pollutants occur on a ‘one-off”, intermittent basis- oil and chemical spill

Agents causing pollution / Sources of pollution:

Depending upon the nature of the pollutants and their interaction with environment process, the
pollution caused by different agents can be classified into the following categories:

a) Pollution caused by solid waste:

Garbage, rubbish, ashes, large waste formed due to demolition and construction process,
agricultural waste.
b) Pollution caused by liquid waste :
Organic pollutants – sewage, which contains fecal matter, urine, kitchen washing and
oil washing

If the BOD of waste water remains,

below 1500 mg/L, the sewage is termed as weak waste ,

within 4000 mg/L, the sewage is termed as medium waste water; and
more than 4000 mg/L , then the sewage is termed as strong waste water .

Inorganic pollutants- industrial waste

If the liquid industrial waste containing acids, alkali and poisonous substances enter to
the river, the aquatic life is affected and self- purification system of water is impaired.
Pesticides and herbicides which enter into the water through run-off, it may kill some

4
 organisms and accumulate in the fishes through the process of bioaccumulation and
biomagnification.
c) Pollution caused by gaseous waste :
Gaseous waste includes carbon monoxides (CO), Oxides of Sulphur (SOx), Oxides of
Nitrogen (NOx), ozone (O3) and smog gases.
d) Pollution from waste without weight:
It is also known as pollution by energy waste.
It may be as follows- i) radio- active
ii) noise
iii) heat

Classification of pollution:
Pollution can be classified according to the environment and types pf pollutants.
Pollution can be broadly classified in two categories –
a) Natural pollution
b) Artificial pollution

If we want to mention some specific pollution then

- Air pollution,
- Water pollution
- Noise pollution
- Soil/ terrestrial pollution
- Radiation pollution
- Thermal pollution
- Industrial pollution
- Light pollution

5
6
 6G
A Tt,tt fitt,,A rt/ I.lrtyttt,rtrtrt ntttl ( .ht,nti\tt,l. ll/ttlr:r I'rtllttliott
6-l
indiareceivcsabout 1400-lgOOmmof rainlltlllurrrrr:rlly. point of vicw- Non-dcgra<rable chcmicars,
tlat' 969o of this watcr.is uscd for irglricurturo, Itt:;(:r;trrrt,tcd such a.s arkyr bcnzene srilphonare
l.o/r, tt>t industrial acLivity: An
r,/,, r'<tr rt.rrrr.:;rir; r';t: :r,(t from synthctic dctcrgcnus ottcn lcad k,
lrcrsistcnt foams. volatirc substo,ccs,
analyii.s ci>rrtlrrctt.rt irr l()l{.1 rr:vt.;rlt.tl such as alcohols, alclchy<lcs, crhcrs an<I gasolinc ,,uy
ittx:tt 7 O Vo of al I the ava i lab I c wa tc r i n-.r,,. llr.lrt
scWcrs.
;r;;-;_i,or,o, ,"
or this siruation. sevcrar srcps arc t"i,,r, ,,,rlli1:i::;i1::;'l,ilil,iliil,illl]ll
"..,,,,

Cla,sification of Water pollutants 1u, tr^lwage ancr agricrrrt.urar run-off. sewage and run-oif from ag-
ricultural rrLntls suppry ptar,i ,.J'.iierii.G, whiiii.may Iumrrat"
,n" o,
The various typcs of watcr porrl:rr)Ls crr. algac and ot-hcr arluatic wccd-s in the.receiving water
trc b.adry c:r.s:;irr[,t inr<> My. 1'his "-*,n
unwicrdy
Itre f,rllowing five malo. curcl;rlic, , plant-growth rcsurl.s in rlrc clcgradation of thc varue
o[ thc u,atcr body,
(l) Organle Follutants intendcd f<rr rccrqati.nar anrl other uscs. Further, the watcr
bo<ly loscs
alr iLe D'o' in rhc rong run duc .o the natural biological process of
The organic pollutants may bc furuher curript i*rinn
categorized as follows :
and crrrls up as a dcad pool of water.
(a) oxygen-dcmanding wastis- Thesc (c) ()il. oir polrution may uke place because of oil spirs from
incrude domesdc and animar
sewage, bio-degradabte organic compounds cargo
and industriar wastcs from focxr- oil hnkcrs on thc scas, Iosses during off-shore exproration and procruc-
proccssing planrs, meat-packing plT!,
slaughter_houscs, papcr and pulp
rnills, ranncrics ctc-, as vc, as agricutiurar -tion ol oil, accidenhl frres in ships and oir rankcrs, accidentar or intcntional
irn-ofr A[ thesc wastcs un- oil slicks (as in the Gulf war bcrween Iraq and u.s.-red ailied forccs in
rlcrg' llsglsdarion rrccomposition by bacteriar actiuiry the year l99l) and leakage from oil pipe-lines, crossing walerways
dnd_
clissorvcd oxygcn (D.o.) This resuls-in rapid .,1 in-pil"i., an(i
depretion of D.o- tirx, rrrt: reservoirs- oil porlution resuhs in reduction of light tranimission
watcr, which is harmful to aquatic o.girir_S. trrrougtr
The opdmum D.O- in n:rrur:rt surface watcrs, thcreby rcducing photo_synthesis b'y marine ptanrs-
w,rer"s is 4-6 ppm' which isesscntiar forsupporting
aquaric rir.. any a."..,rr" it reduces thc D.o. in watcr and cndangcrs warcr birds, coastal pranrs
n*fri,
in this D"o' varuc is an index of pollution and
iy rhe above mentioncd oxyScn- animals. Thus' oil porrution leads to unsightly and hazardous
conditions
<l<:rrranding wrctcs. Many aquatic
o.gar,isms cannot survivc at lowcr D.o. which are dclctcrious to marine-life and sea-food.
lcv<:ls ;n *",aa- oir polution in scas
has bccn uru*rcasing in rbccnt ycars duc to the increcsc
in oil-bascd t*lrnorogics,
(b) Di'seasc-causing wastes. Thcsc includc pathogenic ' massivc oir shipmens, accidcnral oil spilrages and intentionar oir
microorgan, sricks
isrns which may enter the water along with during inrcmational hostilitics.
sewage and other wastcs a,d
irrrv causc rremcndous damagc io pubrI
rrrainly of viruses and bacterig, can
nearr-tr. ,,,&;i;#r, iirn.r,r* (2) Inorganic pollutants
cause dargerous waler-bornc disqsc.s Inorgarric lxrtluLurLs c.nrJrrisc of mineral u"i,tr, inorgurric
strclt as cholcra. typhoid, oyscitry, po'" sarts, finery.
r"J ini""rious hepatitis in humans. dividcd mchls .r l,cr:rl c'nr;xluntrs, trace elements, cyanities, sulphates,
I lcncc, disinfection is the primary
step in water pollution control. nirratcs, organonrcurllic: crrnpounds and complexes
of nretars *rtr, oija.ric.s
prcsgnt in naturar warcrs. -r-hc mctal-organic interactions involve ,i",*ur
organic specics, such :us fulvic rcids and synthetic organic
species, such
as EDTA- Thcsc inrcractions arc influcnced
by or infl uence redox equiiiuria,
acid-base rcactions, c.il,irt fonnation and reactions involving
micto-or-
ganisms in watcr. Algal growths in water and meral
toxicity in aquadc
ccosystcms arc al.so influcnccrt by thesc intcractions.
Various rrrcl:ils antl mctallic compounds relcased from anthropogenic
activitics a<ld rrp l, rhcir n:rrurar b:rckground levels in water.
some lrii.r"
lrace mctals play esscntiat roles in biological processes,
but at higher
conccntralion.s, drt:y nray bc toxic to biota.
Thc mosl toxic among the trace elemenB are the heavy
metals, such
 69
Water'Pollution
A Text Book of Environmenlal Chemistry
6lt proper culrivarion pract.ices and efficicnt
soil erosion can be controlled by
and Pb and mcbtloids, such as As' Sb and Se' The hcavy soil and forest management techniques'
as i'lg, Cd is gencrally highcr tltan tlret
,,,.,a1-.r'hur. o great afl-inity fot sulphur and arnck the
-SH bonds in enzymes' The organic mattcr content in sediments
cations with rhc
thcrcby irnmobilizing the latter' irotein carboxylic acid groups CCOOH)
l in soils. sediments anir suspended particles.exchange for trace metals such
the hcavy me^tal ions' act as repositories
and amino-groups (-NHr) may also be attacked by surrounding aquatic medium and as su( and coal
a;:*i, l,,rn, c;;;J tuo' suspenoid'sblids such
I

The heavy metals titut *iV Ue Uouna to the cell membranes intcrfere.:;itrr
aiso tcntl to
I ;r'il; cause asphyxiation'
the uansport phcnomeng'across thc c;li war'' de:Iv!-ifretats
l *"y ll,;r..i the gills of the IIsh and
phosphatc biocompounds or catalyso rheir decomprosidon.
water
pr*.ipioi" (4) Radioactive Materials
polluiion by heavy metnls occurs mostly due !o sreet dust' domestic s,owagc
from the following
The radioactive water pollurants may originate
and industrial effluents.
- nqrients and thus are anthroPogcnic actiYities :
Polyphosphates from detergents serve as algal
(o) Mining and processing of ores' e'g'' Uranium tailings'
significant as water Polluurnts' in research-',i1i:.Yl*t"'
(D) Incrca^sing use of radioactive isotopes
(3) Suspended solids and sediments indusrrialrrnomcoicat(tliagnosticaswellaStherapcutic)ap-
plications,;-;., i';';;;, bod' cu*' 5rs' c"'ooso'
Ir132 and CsI37
Scdimcntsaremostlycontributedbysoilerosionbynaturalprcr,c-
esscs,agricultural<Icvclopmcnt,stripminingandconstructionactivities- power planm and nuclcar
and mincr^ls crodc(l (c) Radioactive matcnals from nuclear
SuspcnJeO solids in watcr mainly comprise of silt, sanrl e'g', 5'eo' CslrT' tuzas' Amul'
arc reactors,
from rhe lancl. Soil crosion by water, wind and othcr natural forccs and use of nuclear weaponry'
very significant for tropical counlries like India. It is estimatcd thirt out I (d) Radioactivc marcrials from testing
of the total land arca of 328 million hectares' 175 million hechres
arc e.g., Sreo, Csr3?

susceptibleto<legratlarionbysoilerosion.Itisalsoestimatadthatthc
t Thc radioactivc isctopcs found in
water include Sreo Irlr' Cslar'
years' About 6'0O0 "tt,'
continents are losing 5-8 cm of surface soil every l@O Co*, Mnt, Fcr5, Puxe, 3oro, K4, Rau'
away into the sea every year' which means For instance' Sreo;
metric tonnes of soil are washed 'I'hcsc rirtlioactive isotopcs arc toxic to lifc-forms'
rhatabout5.3TmilliontonnesofNPK(nitrogcn,phosphorousandpotassium) weapons, accumulatcs in boncs
qualitative which cmanatcs from testini of nuclear
ferrilizers arc tvashed away into the sea. This erosion lcads to in human treings' The maximum
soil may be gctting and tccth and calrscs o"nui tlisorrlcrs
and quantitativc degradirtion of soil in land area. Thus, l0 pico curies per liter (1 pico curie
. pcrmissiblc lcvel o[ Stoi in t'ot"t is
removedfromagricultural-Iandtoaleaswhereitisnotatallrcquircd,
such as water reservoirs. Soit p.irticlcs eroded by
running water ultimately - l012 curic)-
.find their way into water rescrvoirs and such a process is called (5) llcat iuto
.silurtion,.Reservoirsanddarmszrrefille<lwithsoilparriclesarrdolhersolid t n which heat is converted
Wastc lrt:at is procltrced in all processes *""-r
capaciry of poliution results
materials, bccause of silntion. This rdduces the water storage rnechartical *,'rt' r'ntL' t"'*ioltui"
therural ln::11
their life' Such problems are electricity generatrnEl
rhe dams and reservoirs and thus shortens
Bhakra powcr plarrts, po*f"'iu'fy ']t" n:"l"ot:l^",Ir-based used as a coolant' thc waste
faced wirh our reservoirs such as Ram Ganga, Hirakud, Nizamsagar, water is
plants, In suclt industries' where the
and Murirhan, and thc resultant reducdon in live storagc capacity
of thc ;;" wa[er bodies' I-Icncc thc tcmpcraturc of
hot watcr is rcturtrcd ";;i""1 rlecreases the DO contcnt
thc rvatcr bo,ly increase'' if itiit"
rescrvoirsrnaylcadtoseverelossofirrigationpotenrialofourcountryand in temperature
life' Moreover' any rise in
by the cnd of this ccntury. Apart from the filling up of
I
the reservoirs
ol watcr, whiclr advcrsely aifects the.aquirtrc tlre toric
biotl to
harbor.s, thc strslrcnrlcd ,.,tidtp'"t"ttt in waterbodies may block the sunlight ten)l)('rirtrrrc,,,,,y lnttt:"J thc susceptibility of itqu;ticand som polycyclic
This may also smother as methyl *"t"u'y
require<I for photosynthesis by ihe bottom vegetatioa' cf{c-cts ol- sotttt'- watcr may alter
.n"tt nrn,"oials and othcrbottomlife forms. Deposition of solids in quiescent rurr>nratic t-ryO'ocotbJi'' n"a'"tion of DO in
"tl""''itui''" 'uch
&nc
to livc the that temperatttre
or sucams impain thc normal aquatic life
strctches in the streams- Further, rlic spr:t:ttttrtt .rf otguni**' that can aclopt
sluclgc blankcr-s conrrining organic solids decompose,
leading to anaclobic
condilionsandfOrmatior,ofobno*ioussascs.TheEemendousproblemof
 7-
a

7A A Iett tJook o/.[ittvirontrtt.rttul ()ht,rnirlrv Wattr I>t>llution 1I

that Do level. suspended solitts. i'.water r,ay als. caLr.sc rr.tr rxr.urs
'l-his givcs fie routl soli<ls content of the sample, which includes the dissolved
and tastes and also may promote conditrons ravourllrrc rirr gr.wrrr a.s wcll .as suspcnclc<I solids.
,r.
patho6lenic bacteria.
I / of DO gives a ready
vDissolved oxygcn (DO)- The measurernent
If
the pollutant concentration in lhe receiving wrrcrs i.\ 1()r wrrlrr, assessment of purity of wutci.'Ihc dctcrmination of dissolved oxygcn is
the acceptable limits, adequarc stcps mus[ be rrkcn to nrinirrrizc ()r r(,rn()v(: l the basis of BOD (Biochcmical Oxygen Demand) test, u,lrich is commonly
thcm by suitable treauFrlt techniqucs e.g., scdimcnrrtion, l-iltr:rri9rr, 111611iir.,irl I uscd to evaluatc llrt'Irollrrtion strcngth of waste waters. The determination
oxidarion, chemical procipitation or adsorption by activatetl c:rlr.rr. of DO content is also csscntial for maintaining aerobic conditions in the
to' recciving watcrs irrrrl :rlso in the aerobic trcatmcnt of scrvage and industrial
/,f.hsracteris.ttion of Waste Wrters wlrslt' wiltcrs.
Wasrc wahrs are characteriscd on the basis of various physical, chcrrricll 'l'hc tX) contcnt of a watcr sample is detcrmincrl iodornctrically by
and biological characteristics apart from flow dau deuils :
lhc nrorlil'ic<l Winktcr's mcthod. The principle involved in this merhod is
Physical Characteristics- Colour, Odour, Dissolved Oxygcn
_ ^,!tfInsoluble lh;rt whcn nl:rng:ln()us sulphate is added to the walcr sample containing
(D-o-), Substances (seuleable sdriai sulpended soli<is), Corrosivc alk:rIine potassium iodidc, manganese hydroxide is formcd. This is oxidised
propertias, Radio-ac tivi ty, Temperat,rre .arrge5oamability, ctc. to basic manganic oxidc by the DO present in the waler samplc. When
(2) chemicar characteristics- chemical oxygen demand (c.o.D.), sulphuric acid is added, the'basic manganic oxide liberares iodine, which
ptl, Acidity or Alkalinity, H:rdness, Toral carbon, Total dissolved solirrs, is equivalent to the DO originally present in the water sample. 'Ilhe libcrarcd
a_!loll"_ dcmand, known organic and inorganic componenb such as iodine "is titmted with a standard hypo solution, using srarch as indicator.
Cf, 52, SOi, N, P, Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr, As, surfacnns, phcnols, hyrlrocarbons Interference due to nitrite can be eliminated by adding sodi
:',1::^ ll'
oils and greases- to the alkaline potassium iodide solution used above.

J)rc-scncc
(3)Biochemical characterbtics. Biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D-),
of pathogenic bacteria etc., and toxicity to man, aquadc orga.nisms,
I MnSO. t 2 KOH
2Mn(orf), + o, (rrom
Mn (OH), +
. -,'.i

l,lilnr.s arrd other life forms.

'I'ho actual metho<ls
-, ,_*"j""1Y1""::,p,
-; :r,l
,' i
:'r'
."

used for the treatment of a waste depend upon MnO(OFI), + 2llrSOo ---=-> Mn(SQ), + 3FIrO
tlrc characteristics of the particular waste.
/ Manganic sulphatc
' jiuspended sorids. The suspended solids are determined
by filtering Mn(SOo). + 2 Kl MnSOr+KrSOo+I^
lrrr aliq,ot of the sample rhrough a previously weighed sinterei 'i
crucibrc 2NarSrO. + I,
or :r larcd cooch crucible and drying the crucible at 103"c ro lo5"c t. NqS.Oo + 2NaI
c()nstant wcight, The difference in weight indicated as mg/l gives thc .Srxliryn thiosulJrate Sodium tclrathi(inatc
-I-hc
D() is rrsrrally cxprcssed as mg/l (or ppm)
srrs;:cnded solidS ssntent of the sample.
,settleabre solids The settleable solids content of a samplc is .lr '/Bitxhenrical Oxygen Demand (BOO1. Biochemical oxygen dernand
t;ri.crl by allowing l litre of the sample to settre for about l hour al z(){ .
rrr iln Irrrhoff cone, which is a lapcrcd conical
rube. The volume pf s:c11.;r51.
rn:rltcr in the cone is recorded as myl. Thc settleable solids nray :rls,
rx.
lr
lr
reprcscnls thc quantity of oxygcn required by bzrctcria and other micro-
organisms during lhc birchcmical degradation and transformation of organic
mattcr prcscnt in wllstcwatcr untlcr aerobic conditionS. BOD test is a very
t,xPrcs.sc<I in mg/I which can be calculated by the
differenci trcrwct.rr rrr,,/ valuablc lost in llrc analysis o[ rcwage, industrial effluents and grossly
I r;rr;1x:rrtlcrl xrlids minus mglr non-settleabre matter determined
hy trrr. Prrr pollutcrl w:rlcrs. ln spitc of the inherent limirations, the BOD test is still
r r.rlrrrr. rlr::;<:ritrcd as above- valuctl ils ll|(: lx:sl lt:s1 J,rt asscssing the OrganiC pollution. BOD is considered
'l'.r:rl Solids. The t<rtel solids contenr of a sample is detcrnrirrcrr lry as the nr;r.jor (lriu.l(lcrislic uscd in stream pollution control. It gives very
v.rl\rr;itrilll a known volume of lhe sewage or wasle water samplc,:rrrrl valuable irrl'orrrr;rliorr rcgarding the purification caprcity of streams and
'
rrrvrrrl' rrrr'rr:si<rue for24 hoursat l03qc to 105t, followed scrves as:r lqrrirlc-linc for thc Regulatory Authoritics to check the quality
by weiglri.11.

I
 I

/2
A Te.rt Rook o/ Environmentat Chemistry
'."/ Pollution
lVLttert ' 7l
(,1'clllucllts r.lischargc.l inro such water bodies.
'r'lrc BOD g' Preliminary Treatment.
iest essendaily consisrs of measurcmcrrt
oxygcn concent of rhe sample, before and after or Dissorvcd The principal objcctives of prcriminary Eear.rnent
incubation at 20.C for arc the removar
-5 clays. If rhe sampll g*, not conlain any oxygen, of gross solids (i'e', large floating and suspended solid maltcr,
ir is supplietl wirh grit, oir
and the depretion causcd is carcuratcd as and grease if they a_re present in considerable quantitics
'xygcn lhe rrrcl.surc of BOD.
While carrying out the BOO tesl microbial organism (called .,secd,,)
may i Large quantities of floating rubbish such as cans, croth, wood
also have to be provided if necessary. The BOD and
is usually o,
{ othcr largcr objects prcscnt in waste warcr are usually rcmovccl
mil. (/days ar 20.C). "*f..rr"O uy ,"nr
bars, acting likc strainers as the waste water moves beneath
them in an
__
Oxygen Demand (COD). The chemical oxygen opcn channcr. Thc vcrocity of thc watcr is lhen rcduced in a grit-settring
(COD) is a measure.of rhe oxygen equivalent to rhat ponion" demanrl
-..'Chemical
ch:rmbcr of a larger size than the previous channel.
matter presenl in the waste water sampre that of o.guni"
is susceptibre to oxidation Rcmovar of gross solias is generally accomplished by passing
by pot"sslun dichromate. This is an important waste
and quickly mezrsured watcr ftrough mi.xcd or moving screens. Different t.ypcs of thesc
forstream, sewage and industrial wastesamples fo.o^"r.. screens
todetermine theirpollurional arc availahlc, which incruJc bar screcns (describcd abovei,
strength. hand rakcd or
moohanical rakcd screcns, drum screens and wire rope screens.
According ro the Amciican Society of Testing
and Matcrials (AS.I_M), Thc modcrn mcchanical screcns cum filtcrs
COD is defined as lhe amount of oxygcn (exprc.sscrl
in mg/l) con.sumcil -incruclc r.rary, scrf-
cleaning, gravity iype unis and circurar overhead fed vibratory
under spccified conditions in ore oxicl,tion
of organic ano oxicris:rtrtc r,rorganr. ,r,its. Th"sc
mailer, correcled for thc influcnce of chloritles. are costlier, as comparcd to the conventional bar scr6ens, but. are-vcry
effective in reducing the suspended solids and BoD. sometimes,
in-srcad
The principle involved in the detcrminarion of screening, the gross solids in thc.sewage are cut into smail pieces
of coD is rhar whcn with
the- rvaste watcr sample is rcfluxcd with thc hclp of maccralors or comminutors_
a kn,own excess of p'ras-sium
dichromate in a 50o/o Hriq solurion in presence
and. HgSOn (ro eliminate interference
of AgSO. (as caralysr) crit (or dctriius) is rcmovccl in thc carly sregcs of rreatmcnt in grit
due to chrorid"), I-,e .ir-g^ri. channcls or Lanks to safcguard ag^inst any darn,age to pumps
of rtre sample
is oxidised to water, co2 and ammonia. -^,". end othcr
The excess dichromare crlrripnrcnt by abrasion and also to avoiri scttling irr pipc ucncts
rernaining unrcacted in the solution is titratecl inct channe ls.
wirh a standard solulion of (irit, bcirrg hc;rvicr th;rn organic soli<Is, can be scparated
ferrous amrnonium surphate. The coD of th".r.-pr" iraulcuratetl from organic solicrs
as foilows: by carclirl rcgularirn of rhc flow vclocity in rhc grit tanks- Thc grir
sertling
(V,-V,)Nx8xt000 chambcrs arc Jx:ri<xricaily rrisconnccted from tlre main system
to remove
.,,COD in mg/l = thc grit rnanually, f.r possiblc use in land-filling, road making
ancr on sludgc
X drying bcds. Il' thc wastc warers contain appreciable qua'd1ies or oil anfl
where V, and V2 are the volumes of greasc, thcn it is advisablc to rcmove as rnuch of these
ferro sulphate (of as possible, in
normalitv, N) runiown in the blank aird i
the preliminary lrcarmcnt itsclf to avoid adverse effects
test respeclivelv and on the rest of
X is rhq roiurr," oi ,r," *-ple taken f.. ,hJ[Xr]ents
":t-^Ti::l'm the plant. T'his is achicve<r by pa^ssing the waste lvatcr through skii"nmrng
I

Since in the COD rest, both the biologically i tanks whcre oil and grcasc arc skimmed off. This process .un u" rendcred
oxidisable and thc bio-
logicirlly inert roatrer are oxidised, the more efficient by acration, chlorination or vacuum flotation.
highcr rhan BOD value
cod varue
for a sample is always r
I If thc oil arrrl grc:rsc arc in emulsificd condition, as in wool-scouring
Metho<ls and Equipment used in f w:rsrcs, orclinnry skirnming mctho<ls are ineffective. In such
cases, tlrcy
Vyaste Water Treatment
Thc various methods used in sewage
are as follow.s :
and industrial wastre lvater treatment t may bc rcrn,vcrl witlr thc hcrp of chcmical reagents in prima')r
tanks.
sedimentation

.GD Primary Treatment

Altcr the rcmoval of gross solids, grirty materials and excessive
 74 Wottr lrollutiort
A Texl Bo<tk tt/ l,-rrvirrtrtttl,rttrtl (.ltt.nt,ttrt, 75
to hcrp in thc rcmovar of cnlcrlained gases
qr[fntitiCs OI Oil and grCXSe, thc nCrt stcp is t() r^ilt()],(: tlrr. rt.rrr:rrrrril11 like CO, and HrS and improve<,
i flocculation and .scpararion of oil ,id gr"u""-
suspcndcd solids as nruch as possiblc- Trris stcp is uitrcrl ar r(.(rg(.i11: rlr()
sr.rcngth of thc wasle walcr and also t.o Iacilitatc scr:onrl:rry rr(.ilrrr(:rrr_
I
I
I
Coagulation is thc mssl ettective anrt economical
imprrrities. means lo remove
'seclimcntation. Thc suspcndcd m.:ucr can bc rcrnt>vr:rl r:lr'it.it.rrrly ;rrrrr
economically by sedimentation. This process is.particullrly rrv:lrrl t.r somcrinrcs' in ad(tition to the coagurants,
other chemicars calrec
i "coagurant ai.s" arc arso uscd in vcf
trearmcnr of wasles con[aining high lrcrcenuge of sctdcablc solitts .r wlrt.rr I sma, quantities ,o promotc thc
the wa;te is subjected to combinctl treafncnt with sewagc.
da formation of rirgc.anrt quick scttling noc
ano thereby enhancing coagu-
lation' Ac r ivar cd s ir ica and polvererJvtes (such.
The sedimentation tanks arc.designcd to cnable smaller urtl lrlirrrt.r as p";;;;f;nam idc,
acrylic or rrrcthacrylic acids and thelr dr
particles to setde under gravity. Thc most common equipment uscd irrt.trrrtt.
horizontal flow sedimenration ranks and cenrre-feed ciiiurar clariricrs. .r.rrc
nr, r I c.
"
[i;; ;; y,, ;;";;; ;
rr r:

or :rcryrrnilrirc)
r, * ; i
arc rhe most commonly used coagurani
;;;;#::'Jff #r:,?.fijfi
j
l" li :
scttled sludge is removed from the sedimenhtion tanks by mechanical rrolyrcs arc gcncrally uscd in dilutc solutions
*or]pory"r".-
scrapping into hoppcrs and pumping it out subsequentry. In a weil-<tesigned (_O.2ippm). O;ir; ro fteir
sotccrivc propcrry, care should bc aken
continuous flow se<I irnentation tank, ab61ut 5O% of the suspended solid
malter 1xllyclcctrolytcs.
i, suitable ;.d;ff;;;;;.
is settlcd out within two hours of detention rime. An efficicnt sedimenurrion
systcm is e xpccted to remove about govo of the suspendert soli<Is and 400k The synthetic coagulant aids work
fo,owing two nrcchanisms:
by the
of organic matter (thus reducing rhe BOD). 0)
The coagulant aids, having long chain
molccular srucrure, are
In waters containing largcr proportion of industri.r wastes, :r absorbed on two or more particles,
thtrs drawinf ;;;*;;;.
"rr'aste
long detenrion time helps in mixing and balancing (or equalizing) (ii) By rertucing the charge on the panicles and
of thc thus reducing the
various wrlstcs irnd s:rfcguarcls against urrdury hcavy roads repulsive po\yer of the like charges
.bci,['passcd on ,h" particles.
on to the.biological purification plants subsequenrly.
The scqucncc 'rl'opcralions in thc chcmicalry
'sedimentation aids. Finely tlividcd suspcnded (a) Addiiion of rimc, if rhcre
aidcd coagulation arc
solids and co[oidar is no: sufficient alkarinity, (b) Addition of
particlcs cannot bc efficientry removed by simple sedimenhtion coagutanrs, fo'owcd by rapid mixing
by g.aritf. for 4 6 minutcs,
In such cases, mechanicar flocculation or chemical coagurarion
is emitoyeo. coagurant aids. forowc. by gcnrlc
ulit
r,o i.i nJJiuon or
rio, or slow .rJ"s'f";out 40
Mechanical floccuration, rhe wastewater is passed through m i Dulcs-
. .,'{n a tank
wirh a dctenrion time of 30 minutes and fitted with paddles I',1'rrriz:rti,'' S,rrrc
rJating ar intrustries produce different
typcs of wastcs,
T gpri.Tf* peripheral speed of 0.43 m/s. Under rhis gentle srirring, rhe haviiig trirli:r crlr ch.r.crcrisrics at different
intervals of time. Hence, uniforrn
finely divided suspended solids coaresce into Iarger parricles and trcatrncnt is not lxrssitrle. In ordcr
settr"e out. to obviate this problem,
oirrerent strearns
specialised equiprnent such as clarifloccuralar is also available, o[ c"ucnr's arc hcrd in big hording tanks
flocculating chamber is a part of a sedimentation tank.
*h";; for specifierl p.i.J, ,i--.
Each unit vrru,c o[ wasts is mixe-cl "r
thoroughry wirh ofrer unit volumes
of olhcr waslc.s to protluce a homogeneoo,
_"rn chemical coaguration, the sewage or other waste water is treated *o
effluent. Aeration equalized
with certain chemicals which form a floc (floccurent precipitate) or mccharrir:.. a1;irariun with paddles usually
rtrarausorrs gire Uette. *i"ing of ,i,"
and cntrains the suspended and colloirrar particles p.o.nt. The dilfcrqnt rrrrit volrrnrqs of eittucnts.
coagulants
in common use are (l) Hy<bated lime (2) Alum, Alr(SO)r.faH"rO
1:y "J'rfu''rr:rtiz;rlirxr..IIighry acidic or highly alkaline wastes shourd be
FeSOo.THrO (4) Fenic chloride and (5) CtrtorinaiJa propcrly
I,tfry
Itsol.cl (mixture of ferric surphate and chroride). Arum is the most"ojp"..rr, ' 'culrirrrr(:(r
irctorc- being discharled. Acidic wastes
a. usu.ttv
popurar ncurrarizcrr by trt:atrrrr:nt with rime ,ron" -* lime-slurry
',:rgul:urt used borh in walcr and waste wal"r lr".rtmenr. For best resurls, dcpcndirrl; tt;rrtt llt,: ty1rc antl quantity or causdc soda,
tlrr' chemicals used for coagulation are weil mixed with of the waste. Alkaline wastcs rnay
rhe wastcwarcr trc ncutr.trlirr:(l l)y trcnr,ncrt o,itt
rrr lr:rflled channels foilowed by mechanical
fluc
rutpl1u.i. ;;;;";;i"*rr.,
floccu-ration before sedimcn-
l rl r.. Pre-aeration for about l0 minutes bcfore
gir-s. ";;;;
-scrlimcntation is also fou,rt
76 ,.1 Te-rt Boorc o1[ Envirttnmenlal Cheni-t/ry Water Pollulion
77
If both acidic and alkaling wastcs are produced in^the same plant thcn convertcd by methanc bactcria to co, and CHn. Anaerobic
or at ncarby plants, storing them in separate holding tanks and mutual ncu- I treatment
I ,ro.css can bc ca-.ricd out in depth without the neecl for large surface arca.
tralization by mixing them'in appropriate proportion is thc ctreapest mcth()d.
(iii) Secondary Treatment
I i
{ " 1an .tak3
uraintaincd
place in mixcd or enrichcd curt.ures and can-, thcrcforc,
easily on large scalc. Thc process can be applic<t to most r.ypcs
blc

t, o[ sub.strares exccpting a lbw rikc rignin and mincia] oir. The process
In sccondary rearnent, the dissolvctl and colloidal organic mattcr
is lcss cxpcnsivc but thc {rnal e[fruent is
presdnt in waste walers is removed by biological processes involving bactcril rcs.s satislactory, as compaiccl
' to that lrom acrobic trcatment, because of the dark colour,
o<rour and higher
and otlrer micro-organisms. These proccsses may be aerobic or :rnaembic. rcsidual BOD.
In aerobic processes, bacteria and othcr micro-organisms consumc organic
matrer as food. They bring about the following scquential changes :
Anacrobic rcatmcnI is rnainry employed for the digestion of srudges.
'' Ilowcvcr, organ ic riqLrid wastes from dairy, slaughter house eE.,
were reatcd
(r) Coagulation and flocculation of colloidal Inatter,
- by rhis mcthod cccrnorricaily ard cffcctivery. The ctficicncy
o[ this proccss
(i0 Oxidation of dissolved organic matter to CO, and dcpends upon pH, [cmpcrature, wasre loacling, absencc of oiygen
and toxic
(rir) Degradation of nitrogenous organic matter to ammonia, which matcrials.
is then converted into nitrite and eventually [o nitratc. somc ,f thc commonry uscrl biorogical trcatment proccsscs arc descnlxd
BoD. It also rernovcs aJrprcciible
Thus, secondary treatment reduces bclow : - )-
arnounts of oil and phenol. However, commissioning and maintcnancc o[
seconda4r treaLmenl. systems arc cxpcnsivc. . -lil $.+g lggg.l. Thcsc are large holding Lrnks or ponds having
a dcpth of 3-5 m and are rined with ccment, polythene or rubbcr. Thc
The effluent from primary scdinrcntation tanks is t-rrst subjcctctl to clfluenrs lrom primary treatment p*rccsscs are coilcctccr in thcsc Lanks
an(r
acrobic oxidation in systems, such as acratc<l lagoons, trickling l'iltcrs, are acrated with mechanical devices, such as floating
acrators, fcrr abort
activatcd sludge units, oxidation ditches or oxidation ponds. Then thc sludge ? t. 6 days. During rhi.s Iimc, a hcrlthy floccurcnt srudgc is formcd
which
obtained in these aerobic processes, together with that obtained in the primary brrrgs abour oxirlation ,t thc tlis.solvc<l or.ganic mattci. Ilol) rcmoval tu
sedimentation tanks, is subjected to anaerobic digestion in the sludge di- thc cxtcnt of 9ovo could bc achicve<I with cfficicnt opcration. Thc
opcrarion
gesters. antl ,r.i,tcnancc .rc rcrativcly .simplc. -Ihc major disadvantages are the
largcr spacc rct;uircnrcnls a'd the bacteriar cont^mination of the lagoon
Cerur.in micro-organisms, in presenceof dissolvcdoxygen and in propcr
cl'llucrr wlrich rrcccs.siurtcs furthcr biological purifica6on in maruration
environmental conditions, urilise organic waste as *tei. food, and convcrt |oncl
into simpler compounds such as CO, HzO, nitratcs and sulpfiates, which
or by soc()r)(l;rry scrtirncrrtation and sludge digestion.
are non-pollutants. This process, there[ore, can be used to remove organic 6iif 'rricl<ling Firtrrs. 'rhe trickling filters usually consist of circurar
subslances from wastes. Alrnost all organic subs[ances, with a few excep- .r rcct:rngul.rr hetls, I m t() 3 m dcep, made of wclr-lraded media (such
tions, such as tryOrocartons and ehers, can & oxidised by aerobic biological as brokcn sloncs. PVC. coal, cokc, synthetic resins, grarel or clinkers) of
treatment, Complex cell tissues and protein materials arc a-lso synthesised size 40 mm to 150 mm, ovcr which wastewater is"sprinkred uniformly
during t}is process, which are then agglomerated and rcmoved from th€ on the entire bcd wirlr rhe help of a slowly rotating distributor (such as
waste by scttting. Germicidal and resistant organics, such as cyanides and a rotary sprinkler) cquipped with orifices or nozzles. Thus, the wasre water
phenols also can be destroyed by special types of micro-organisms, aftcr trickles through the mcdia. The filtcr is arranged in such a fashion that
prolonged acclimatization periods. air can entcr at lhe bottom, countcr curent to the effluent flow and a rratur:rl
I dralt is produccd. A gelatinous film, comprising of bacreria and aerobic
Under anaerobic conditions (i.e-, in the absence of dissolved oxygcn i
or gascous oxygen), certain groups of micro-organisms, c.9., hydrolyte anrl i, I micro-organi.sms known as "Zooglca", is formcd on thc srrrface of thc filrer
mcdium, which thrivc on the nutricns supplied by rhc sewage or the wasre
methanc forming organisms, can carry out the digestion of cr:mplex orgaflic
wastcs. Tlrc hydrolyte organisms convcrl complex orqenic cornpounds l.<r i water. Thc organic impurities in the waste watcr are adsorbcd on the
gclatintrus film during is passage and then are oxidiscd by tle bactcrie
sirrrnie nn,'l krw-nrolccular .*'r:ight o--g:raic aci,Js :rrir:i erir:ctial-;, Tlial:{l af,j.
antl thc othcr micro-organisms prcscnt thercin. whcn thc thickness o[ the
78 ,'l e.r t I] ot t k / I,) n t' i r', t tt tt I (' h t, n
T t t
r r, t t I r t i.s I tt Woter. Pollution
19
filrn on the nredium incrcascs, a pan or it gcLs dctaclrt:rl ;r,rl currit:rl awuy size and unitormitv or. thc f,tcr
mcdium, uniformity of waste
along with thc cfl'lucnt. Hcnce, thc cfllrrcnt frorn rlrt: trit:klirr1,i litrcrs is tribution ovcr thc I'iltcr :rnrt propcrui; water dis-
II .;;;;;.
allowcd to setde in a scttling tank [o rctain thc slrrrllit: l):rrri(:l(:s:rn(i is Thc trickring firtcr has grcctcr resisLucc
I to toxic waste, a-s comparcd
then dischargcd- The sludge is then punrpcd to thc slrrrllic tlrlit.sri'rr rrrir.
A Schematic rcprcsentation of a typical 1-rickling liltr;rlrorr l)r(r(:s:i li\'; to rhc "Acrivated Sludgc process,,
an ovcrdose of loxic materials.
*d ;;;;;rpcmrie morc promprly from
no',,ere., sf,oct toa,t, ,. ;;;;;;,;.g",
is givcn in Fig. 8- crnci cncv or m
i ;:'Jl:,";'#ffi lil "" n r'e,,n rg tr t be i m pairec,"***n,,
1
Qotory.r)rinhlcr t
i
B rd hdda ol
Firtr

fllls.ht t.oh
Chlrino tb
hrcat 3dy
rao ttnrilt Srltllng l6^L
I
I ll llu.ol lo
lrllory iraotmtnl
qr n.rdad,

Slud9. (or Xuq.!

to di9 a rlt
Trickling filters are effectively userl
wastcs from dairy, distillery,
for the *eatment of industrial
brewery,
papcr mills, pharmaceudcals, "*"".y, food processing,
pctrochcri.rtr,'strughter
pulp and
housc an d poultry
Fig. E. Trickling Filrer proccssing indusrries.
Although trickling filtratioir is classified as an aerobic process, it is .(iiD{Gtivated
-. on Sludge process. This is rl
indced a faculLative system. Aerobic bacterial spccics, e.g., spore forming ox i d,
"* "y ".r ror rhc *",-;, ;:ri;;l ;HII'"'TH',H
m c rh od
ti
pi
bacteria and bacillus are mostly present in the upper layer,of the filter, dissolvcd solids, colloilrTU
whcreas anaerobic spccies, such as Desulfo vibrio, are present. in the inter- :o--".
(Fig' 9)' thc scwagi or industriar
,rUU'"rr_r" matrcr. In this proccss,
faces of the stones. Facultarive bacteria, such as Pseudomonas, Alceligens, wasrc water'rs o.ut..I in a rercdon
tank
Fl,vo bacterium, Enterobactericeae and Micrococcrrs are also present in
thc trickling lllters- Algae, fungi, ciliates, protozoan, worms, snails, insect
larvae that fced on micro-organisms are also prcsent- lAtlrr Cloritr a.rolion tont S.drmrhlottoh tonk
rodhtDtolto E llrvc^t to:
By and larle, smaller media give better results but thcy tcnd to choke .
It. I ioty.trrqtmaht
9ront )
casily. Synthetic plasric media are found to be particularty uscful lor I rr s@p{y
t
industrial wastes of higher loading. Moreover, they can afford maximum Sludga
surface area for the formation of microbial film and their light weight t
hclps in greater economy in laying the undcrdrain of the filter.
ctvrn iloOge
The microbial film formed is very sensitive ro remperature. ThQ surDlus rludg. tq
rrrctabolic activity is proportional to the temperature of the waste warct rludg? Oig6tat
1xr-ssing through ttre filter. Thus, thc efficiency of the filter decreases in
willtor SeaSOn. f ig. 9. Activated Sludge press
'lhe efficicncy of the filter depends u1rcn r]rc compnsition I in which somc rrricr.bi:rr floc is
of the wa.src, bring abou r rri.r.1i icar dcgratrarion
suspended- !!e 3e10bic bacterial flora
of hydraulic loading,
"f il ;;; ;, ;;;; #Cd J,n, *
'.tr, nl,ith tempcrature, ptl, dcpth of the filter, rlr,,
 ilr) I .fur
liook of Environntenial Chemislt Water Pollution
"_ gl

consurning somg organic matter for synthcsising bacrcria. The bbcterial Activated sludge process produces u hig!
ll.ra grows and remains puspendcd in the form Lf a floc, which is cailed I areas- w i th L'u1!ty_efll,u_qng _w-!_e relarively
sma ef fi c ien r s ysrcm s, abou t-95 -2jt5;_-
"Activared sludge". The effluent lrom the rcacrion rank is scparited
I

The disadvantages incturte hi_qlr

;;;; ;;it ;;;,,;i;.
from
the sludge by scttling and is clischrrged. A part of the sludgi is recycletl
f
for carefur auenrion anrt selrdiiivitv 99st
or opJiton u,,;;rl;;"#;l::";
to stpgqlora,
to the same tank 1o provide an effeciive
mii'iobial popiiiariSn ror u rr".t
treatmenr cycle. The surplus siudge is oige!1eo in a sruoge aig".re., at.,r,g
,J
ii; j -su-bstancgs.
Activated sludge process was used satisfactoriry.
o_f':*i"'"io J.*""i.

*ith rhe primrLry slutlgc obuinctl from primary sedimenratio"."rn for the trearmenr of
' effl uen rs trom food processine, r;r*,
"ir,ri".,
aeration for 3 to 6 hours is adcquate for sewage, whereas for indusrrial facturing industries, etc.
I
tlntgg.19g*_Jjlg; an u,r" i.',il
wasrcs, 6 u"t 24 hours of aeration ii rcquire'd tor rilis process. BOD removal
to the exten,t of 9O-95Vo can bc achieved.
ii' scverar modifications of the conventional
activated srudge process
havc comc inro vogue and rhey mosily diffcr
Them in the mcthod ,rppfy.
of li
These include : comprc.ssed "ii;
air process, tapcred aeration pro."ri"*"no"o
asration pr.cqss, dispcrsed aeration p-"""r,
conlact ,rurirr"u"r,
as
treatmcnt prccess, simpler proccss., aeraLion ffi *,"
young lighr sludge is preferred to old 1o"!i.
Swcdish INKA process.
rotor process and
because the latter would bc mineralised and become dcvoid of oxygcn-
For this process to be efficient, at lea;t 0-5 pp44, oxygen must bc present (iv) Oxidation Dirch. This can bc
a modifi cation of
all the time. oxygcn is supplicd either by mcchanical aeiation or by rliftusctl thc convcn donal Acrivated
Oxidation ditch (Fig. I
conslsls of an oval snipO continuous v
acraLion systems. aboutlto2mdccp and
lined wirh plas[c, rar or butyl rubber Waste
water, aftcr scrcening or
comminution in thc prim ary EeatmcnL is allowcd
into $rc oxidation dirch.
The nrixed liquor con taining the sludge solids
(MLSS) is aerarcd in rhe
channel with thc hclp of mechanical rOtOrs
Longer rctcntion timcs art:
nccrlcd. Thc u.su:rl trydraulic rctention rime
is 12 to 24 hrsr and for solids,
it is 2O-30 days. Mosr of rhe sl udgc formcd is recycled
for the subsequcnt
I
tr&llrncnt cyclc. 'I'he surplus sludgc can bc
without odour on sand
dryirrg bc<ls.

The presence of s.Jlrhetic detergents, suchas alkyl benzenesulphonarr:s

(ABS) :r.rd polyethylene glycols, are not susccptible for microbial dcgcr Or;dolion d;lch !..i{dt{
!rth h.(r!^,col ccotrl
dation. 'lt'hey lead to frym formarion. and make the process difficult anrl
llotla EF Stdimlnlglron
dangerous. Antifoaming compounds are used in such situations. 1 lah F.hozy
E tl luonl
lalolhol
The performance of the activated sludge process can be assessctr wirlr li
the.help of micp,p-l{ indicators, as observed by regular microscopic exarnirurtirxr ,,i ud9.
{l { S I

of thc activated sludges. A good activated sludge contains a relatively higlr Irtsrn 3[tat! 5.rr9tsi iiud9.
populzrtion of free swimming (e.g., stylonichia) and sralked ciliares (e,s.. I

t
vorticclla) apart from a fiw rotifers. A very high population of dispcrscrl J
t
bacteria indic:rtes a poor aclivated sludge system. The presence of filamcrr Sfodt. arrirE b.d
Y
tous micro-organisms indicates the deficiency of N and,/or p, low pH alrl
low oxygen levels. It may bc notcd that lilamentous bacrerial giowths'
rcl,*rl fl<r compaction and settling and result in turbid effluens. I'1" Io Si*,r0li:i .q;t-.tC,rilj;.-, (ra r)ri,r.,;,,i I)j!,-h p,. ., i
 a2 A Texr Book of Envi.ntnnrrntttl Olu:nti.rl4 Watcr Pt,llttti,,n
6-)

The major advantages of the oxidation ditch includc sirnplicity in 'il water in ilrc oxidation pond) which scttlc as sludge.
Howevcr, oxi.dation
opcration, casy maintenance, Iow iost of construclion, opcrati.n ponds requirc largcr spacc. Thc cfflucnt from
arrtr nrain- rhe oxidarion ponJ, *oy
overqJJ -e.{{iCieoly- qlQ flexibitity..This proccss is gcncratty re.quire disinfection or furthcr trcarmcnt in a scpar;tte
leJlence, u.scrt maturation pondbefore
for wastes having low BOD. {inal discharge.
, t
oxidzrtion ditch process is used effectivery for the rrcarmcnt
ol-wasrc
I
i (v) Anaerobic digestion. This treatment is rnainll' used
for
waler from beet-sugar manufaclure, vegetabre and fruit canning
rno,rsrry, I 1 watery residue
slaughter house and meat packing industry and edibre oil rcf,ncriss. { i
treatment).
I l.uenls rhe
(v) oxidation pond. An oxidation sludge undcrgo skrw fcrmenlation or anaerobic
pond is a large shallow IN
t,.,ntl (0.5 a sludge , whercin
m to 1.5 m depth) with arrangements to measure the inflow aniourllow. ata of
The wastes enter the pond at one end and the effluent is removJ 35qC at ptl 7-ll for aboiit 30 s. some
at the as lhc cnd prtxlucts-'The sc
other end. stabilization of organic matter in the waste is brought sludge
abour digesr ion procrss is shown in Fig. ll
mostly by bacteria" such as pseud.14onas, Flavo bacteriury] aJrq
aiirtig"n"r, Goj
and to some ix*nr by flageriated prorozo;. The oxygen i"iiriiirir""r,r t
ro,
thcir metabolism is provided by algae presenr in ilre ponO. itre-atggp,
i.,
turn, utilize S"*99 released Uy
Se bactcria for thiir ptoro synTt".l.r. Fir.d a
Oxidation ponds arc also called waste stabilization ponrls Row rlgdgl
r@l Yocuum
ln
dtgoittr rt S.tlliog tq6k
ForetTicicnt wastc water trcatmcnt by this proccss, an Elllqrnl lsr
goodmixing by wind and propcr pcnctrarion of ldcq,atc.:rturar
i*frir".i Qtriq diornog!
lgB!r0"It, . - 9i9r!.t19!.
for qnogsrythe;ls of aleq are csseniial- rt i. ;" thc rcason"rnfigfrr
.,riy o*1.iorio'
ponds should be shallowr)
Addition of nutrients may be necessaqr to enhance the growth 3
of argae. 5o lld r
This will enhanie the amount of oxygen released, which in turn rrcyrto
increases
the rate of purification of waste wabr. Any deficiency
to anaerobic condidons and consequent rerease of bad odours iu"r".a
or o*yger, ,nuy
,o
putrefaction of wastes- This is t},e reason why mechanical
aeration is also Fk" ff. Anacrobic Sludgc Digcsrion proccsg.
provided at some places in add.irion to natural acration. Spccics o[ Pscutlomonas, |liryq.bapt91igry,''Aembacrcr., Alcalagcncs
.
elc.' convcrr 1'lrmprcx .rganic compounds to low morccurar
Although $/aste water trearrnent in oxidation ponds is gcnerary weight orlanic
considered as an aerobic process, the purification is pe-rform"a acids aricl alcrlrt>ls. ItIcth:rno bactcrium, Methanosarcinaand
u! a .o,r_ Methanococcus
bination of aedbic, facultative and anaerobic processes- The types o[ bactcria are responsibre for the generalion of
w:rste warcr CH. in this process-
plernr in rhe upper part of the pond (which consrirures the maior portion Desulfo vibri' bactcria reduce sutphates Io sulphides
of the waste) undergoes aerobic oxidation to CO, and HrO. S;iid" releascd. -a anor, H2s is
in the waste, which settre as a layer at the bottom, act as anaerobic ;;*",
phas:. 'tThc anacrobic digcstion proccss can be accclcratcd
Here, rhe organic matter is oxidised by anaerobic bacteria ar highcr tem_
to cI{., co.,anrl
NHr. The facultative zone exists near the anaerobic phase. +- t'
Peraturcs.
f-hc advanhgcs of anaerobic digestion process are as follows :_
Waste treatment by oxidation pond is cheap and fhe opcrarion
maint':nance are simple. The process can be used for alr
and (t) Rcduction in volume of the waste by atrout 65Zo-
typ,es of wasrcs
and any degree of purfication can be obhined. The process
can witlrst,nr!
(2) Thc <tigcstcd slu<Ige is safer to be usetl as manure than rhe
organic and hydnulic shock loads- Thc heavy meral ions pre.sent unrtigcstcd sludgc.
in thr:
waste water are precipitated as hydroxides (due to the high pH (3) 'flrc digcster gas obtained has $e following percenllge com-
of tlre ,rv:r_st.:
 X.l ,4 I'att l)ook oJ.Ertvir.ontrental Chenisrry --

lValer Pollutir>rt' g5
lx,.siri()n by : CH1 - 65 to gOVo; CO2 _
5 to 3OVo, N,
II, tI2S and_volunrc
CO rogether _ abour 57o. About 0.6 to 1.25 mr Removal of dissolvcd inorganic solids is a major problem wilh wastc
of the gas is produced pcr kg of t}e organic matrcr desrroyed. watcrs from industries sucrr as fcnilizers; toxtile proccssing, tanncry a,d
The calorific va.lue of dte gas is about 26 l'[lnt (i.e., about
elrctroplating. Depending upon the required quality of the final efflucnt
7UJ BTU/ftr). The gas can therefore be used as a fuel
ro provitle and the cost of treatment that can be aftorded in a given situar.ion, any
the hear required to warm the digestion Lanks. r, rarge in-sral- of theJollowing trcatmcnt mettrods can bc ernploy:ri :
lations, it can be used for power generalion.
(4) Although anaerobic trearment is a slow process,
*Evaporati,n- This is an cncrgy inr.ensivc and hcnce an cxprcnsivc
it is useful for proccss.It is uscd only whcn the rccovcrcd solicls or lhc conccntratcd
treatin g sma ll q uan ri ties of was. tes, co_n tain i_ngreadily
ox id isable solutions arc rcurcd, c.8., some electroplating wilstcs. This method is also
-
dissorvcd organic sorids in riq,id form or in finery divirrco
The operation and maintenance costs are lesser with this
io#. used when the volume of the waste water to be rreatcd is less. Tlris mcr.hori
' treat- is also employcrl for concentrating rarlio-active liquicl wastcs. It pcrmits
ment' Thatis why some liquid wastes containing soluble organics the recovcry of a widc varieLs of process chcmicals. It is applicablc to
from dairy, slau3hter house and paper mill industries trave removc or conccntratc chcmicals which cannot be accomplished by zrny
Ueen
cconomically and effectively rreated by rhis process. olhcr rnurns.
Sludge treatment and disposal
',,fon-e-rcharrge. 'I'hc usc ol ion-exchange for de-mineralisation of watcr
The sludge from the digester may conrain about g0 to g3vo
wittcr. is wcll known. It is Eidcll UJ9-g*f"Sl-_9-b,!#tlp&99.:!9-11rtcd.-ya!sr.{sr r].sc
The sludge i1{e-wateled in {rying beQr, o,i yaq,rum f,,,.qr.. ig iigh;prgqqglc b !lSr-"S,...This process is now exr.ended ro wasre warcr
!L,_Zp_t_"rr",
The de-warercd strudge, after chrorinauon, cdn-ue ieni ror
rrti,nrt" rlisposrr. treatment for the removal and of toxic materials
Thc various mcthod.s useii for urtimatc rlisposar include crLrrrrping Ion-exchange pr@ess econom recovered salts arc rcuscd
in rand-
fil];.,.-inc.ineration, crurnping at screcrc<I sitcs in sea, or utirizing in the proccss, as in electroplating industry. Dcspite the,simplicity of irs
a.s a row
grade l-ertilizer- opcrarion, thc mcthod may not bc economical if the objcctiveo[lhe trcatmcnt
'llertiary Treatment is only thc rcrnoval of dissol from wr ler Special ion-cx-
changcrs arc.avai lablc for the retricval o f toxic mctal ions frorn industrial
Tertiary rearnent is the final treatmcnt, meant for ..polishing,,
the waslc walcrY.,/ApJ)l ications o[ ion exchange process in w:l-ste wertcr Lreatrrrcnt
eflluen* from the secondary treatrnent processes, to improve rs quariry . inclutlc rccr>vcry of Cr, Ni, I,h osphatc and HrSOn from anodising baths;
further. The major objectives of tertiary treatrnent are ;
rccovcry of C'ti Pb and Hg; rccovcry of Cr from cooling tower bclow down
(a) Removal of fine suspended solids and rcrnov:rl ol' <;yirnirlt:s liom waste streafi)s.
(b) Removal of bacteria AdvrrPli,lr. Atl.';rxlrrion try activated carbon is advantagcous ro rcmovc
(c) Removal of dissolved inorganic solids snrall qrrantitit:s ()l'or11unic conLaminants from waste-water. special arlsorb-
cnt.s arc corrrrrrt:rciully availablc for the removal and retrieval of toxic hc:rvy
(d) Removal of final traces of organics, if it is felt necessary- mcurl ions l'rr>rn intlustrial wastc water. Activated carbon treatment is par-
Removal of finely divided suspended sorids can be achieved ticularly uscl\rl lirr the rcmoval of pesticides (e.g., DDT) and carbar-nate
with
lie help of micro.strainers and sand filters. I insccticitlcs-
I
Removal of bactcria, partrcularly of faecal origin, can be rchieved Adsorption proccsscs using activated carbon, peat moss, brown
I
by reraining rhe effluenrs from secondary biologicJ keatmenr pr-r. coal and otlrcr ccllulosc lnatcrials are finding increasing application in
mar,ration p\onds or Iagoons for specified pcriods of time. ttrree
in I I
o, iour I wastcwatcr troillruout lor lhc rcmoval of refractory organic, toxic mchls,
Iagoons arranged in series give an final effluent *ith ;;;; colour, ctc.
low BoD and low suspended solids. "*..ll"rrt
I
The final effluenr is chlorinal ir i l'hc AI..M scrics of adsorbcnts developcd in Japan incorporatc high
necessafy.
polymcr prorluct.s containing S- and N- functional groups. The producrs
havc vcry high atfinity for hcavy metals and can reduce metal lcvels in
mining and industrial wastewatcrs to lcss rhan I ppb.
86 A Text Book of Invironrrcntul (;lttnislry lVuter I'ollutiort 87

Electrodialysb :rntt printcd circuit tacilitics:rnd concentration Of waste Strearns to perm:i

This is a process in which colloidal/dissolved spccics arc cxchangcd
lhcir rcusc.
between two liquids through selective ion-exchange membmncs. An clcctro- ,Wu(tewaten flrm spme typical industries : s{)ur'Ccs, CharacteyistiCs,
motive force brings about the scparation of the species accorrling ro lhcir I 'lr' i*ment options \)'
charge- The semipermeable membranes allow the passage of cerr.rin ch:rrgcd
I

,.",.,,r" r"a,,rtllt*""a
$.!-
I
species while rejecting the pa-ssage of oppositely charged spccics. i (A) [nlrtxluction
of ttris process include
Appllcarions
Thc basic raw materials in a textjle industry are cotlon, wocl or
(0 concenradon of rinse waters to the desired bath srrength synthetic fibers such ,rs rayon, nylon, acrylic, cellulose acetate or.polyester.
(i, Rernoyal of Cu, Zn, Ni, chromic acid, iluoridc arul cyanirlc The textile industry comprises of preparation o[ tlie yarn, weaving, knittiilg
lrom process watcrs. and processinS.
(iii) I{ecovery o[ Cr from auromobile ptating rinse baths (i)Cottontextileindustry:Tlreviriousopcrationsinvclvediri
(iy) Ilccovcry of vzrluable metals and radioactive elements a cotton textile mill arc combing, spinniDg, siz'ing, rveaving and
knitting. All these processes excePt sizing are dry processes' The "grey
(") Control of water pollurion cloth" thus obtained after the above operations is subjeqted to the
(.vi) ln dcs.elinatit>n of w:rtcr. various wet Eeatment processes such as desizing, scouring, bleaching,
mercerizing, dyeing or printing and finishing. All these processes generale
(rfr) In purification of plasma protcin
considerable volumes of effluents and hence form the major sources of
(v,ii) In pharrnaccutical, mcdicinal and photographic indusrriss wastewaters.
(rx) ln <lcrniner:rliz-ation of sugars. (ii) Syntheiic textite industry : The fabrics of rayon, cellulose
Electrolytic rccor,ery acetate, nylon, acrylic, Dacron, etc. do not require much of dry processing
but certain treatments afe required forremoval of size, antistat and lubricating
In rhis proccss electro-chcmical reduction of metal ions ro elemenLd
oil (e.g., removal of PVA, resins, gelatin etq.) used in weaving operstic']s.
nrctal Lrkcs place at the cathode. This process i.s uscd to rccover Cu, Sn,
Thc wet processes are more or less similar e.g', scouring, dyeing, rinsing'
Ag and othcr meteils from plating, erching or pickling baths- The efficiency
blcaching, finishing, etc. The characteristics of effluents naturally depend
of this proccss has been tremendously increased by innovative dcsigns such
ulxrn thc ty6: of libcr iur<l the process followed'
as cco-cell involving rotating elcctrodes (particularly suirable for concen-
trarcd wastes) and extended surface electrolysis (specially suitable for dilute Thc cotton textile industry produces relatively larger effluent vol'urnss
wastes). I and lrighcr pollution loads as compared to the synthetic textile industry.
Reverse osmosis : This is essenrially a process in which a semiper- Gl) Wa.stewater sounces and characteristics
rnr:able memlbrame allows water molecules through and retains the ions.
.
(i) Cotton textile industry : In cotton textile processing, the
A thin celloptrane sheet, supported on afiltercloth can be used as asuccessful i charactcrislics o[ thc wastewaters produced in SOme major operations
rncmbrane- High pressures are required for useful flow rates and recovcry I involvcd arc as follows :
can bc achieved by back flushing. High pressure pumps of the order ol Siz.ing : (Siz-ing is the process by which the warp thread is sizeC
50O psi are required-
wirh strrrc:h to givc the necessary tensile strength and Smo0thness reqrrked
Thc various designs of Reverse osmosis equipment include flat platc, for wc;rvirtg )
tubular, spiral or jelly roll and hollow hber types. 'l'he wistowatcr is generally coloured and contains stnrch, polyYinyl
Applicarions of reverse osmosis include recovery of valulbrc alcohol and softencrs. It has a high BOD an<l high content of dissolved
cornlx)rtcr)Ls from effluents, recovery of water for reuse, pollution cor)tr()l, and suspended solids.
rcrcycting of, w:rstew:uers and spent chemical from meLal plating i.dusrry
 88 I Text Book of Environmerttal Cltemi.rtn,
lValer Polltttion 39

I)rsizing, scourir!g and mercerizing :

(ri) The high pH is tlelcterious to aqlratie li[c"
(Desizing is the process used for removing the sizing materials present (rii) The colloi<lal and suspendccl impurities crusc turbidity in thc
in the grey clorh wirh rhe hetp of 0.5% HrSOo or, with the help of
receiving watcrs.
cllzymes). (rv) The oil present interferes with the oxygenation ol the reccivirrg
(scouring is thc proccss uscd to rcrnovc natural impurities like greascs. water strealns.
waxcs-arrd fats by boilirrg with NaOH, soda ash, sodium silicate, (r) The dissolved minerals increase the salinity of the water' thus
NarO" with small amourit o[ a detergent). rendering it unfit for irriga_tion purposes.
(Mercerization is the process of boiling the cloth with 2ovo caustic (vi) The toxic chemicals such as Cr, aniline, sulphides, etc. destroy
soda solution followed by washing wirh water. This process gives fish and othcr microbial organisrns rcsporrsiblc 1o. .g11'-puri-
. luster ancl strength to the fabric) flcation of water streams.
Tho wastcwater contains starch, acids, alkali silicates and (vri) The irnrnecliatc oxygen dcman,l cltre to the impurities such as
cnzymcs.- suuch, sulphidos, nitritcs ctc., dcpletcs the dissolvcd oxygen
Ilttffing :(Bleaching is used to remove natural colouring mate- content and advcrscly aff'ccs the aquatic life.
' rials. It is done using alkaline hypochlorite or chlorinc (viii) The dissolved solids form incrustalions on tJre surfacc of lhc
. or NarOr. Bleaching is usually followed by'washing scwers.
with watcr and thcn by scouring treatment with sodiunr (Lr) Thc dissolved irnpuriries prcscni cliusc col-rosion in tl)c ntct.llli':
bisulfite to remove tr:rces of alkali and Clr) parl-s of the scwage trcatrnent planls' rtl
Tho effluent contains chlorine, hypochlorites :rntl peroxidcs (D) Treatment Options
l)yeing, printing :rnd finishing : 1'hc cffluents contain dycs, alkalics, Segregatibn of wastes, screening to remove coarse suspcndcd
chromium, phenolics, oils and waxcs. mattcr, grcir.ic n:mov1l (in case of scouring efiluenS), equalizarion, neutra-llration,
(ii)
Synthetic textile industry : Tlre wastcwatcr isgencrallycolourcrl chcrnical coagrrlntion to remove colour, suspended and colloidal impurities'
and conLlins alkalis, organic solvents, resins, PVA, etc. The effluent has aerobic biokrgical trcttrncnt (e.g., trickling filrarion, activated sludge prccess,
high values of COD and BOD. The origin of wastes is more or less samc oxidation lxrrrrl, oxitlation ditch or aeratcd lagoons) and finally teniuy
as above. treatment (e.g., rcvcrsc ostnosis or elcctrodialysis) to remove dissolved
(iii) Wool industry : The origin of wastewatcr and the characterisrics solids, as and whcn raquircd or affordable
are given below : (2) Pulp and papcr IndustrY
Scouring : The effluent is hot, highly coloured and cont.ains greases, (A) Introduction
soaps, alkalis, detergents and suspended solids. possess of the following
The paper manufrcturirg process mainly consists
high BOD and COD. tfuee steps :
Oiling : Olive oil or othcr vcgctablc oils (i) Raw materiat preparation : In this the cellulosic raw materials
: Starch
Sizing e.g., wood, bamboo, cotton lincrs, bagasse, rags, straw, jutc and hcmp art
Irilling : Soda ash, soaps and detergents. slashed and cut into small chips.

Dyeing : Dyes, phenolics, chromium salts, alkalis, etc. (ii) Pulping : In this, the raw materials are digested with chemicals
under high temperature and pressure so as to free the cellulose fibers liom
(C) ilnvironmental effects of the wastewaters the binrlcrs viz., lining, resins etc. Several types of pulping processes ar-i)
(i) Thc dyes present impafl persistent colour to the receivirrg availablc ol- which the following three are more common.
stleams and interfcre with photosynthesis of phytoplankton.
Water pollution:

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (like oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, aquifers
and groundwater) usually caused due to human activities. Water pollution is any change in the
physical, chemical or biological properties of water that will have a detrimental consequence on
any living organism.

Water is considered polluted if some substances or condition is present to such a degree that the
water cannot be used for a specific purpose. Olaniran (1995) defined water pollution to be the
presence of excessive amounts of a hazard (pollutants) in water in such a way that it is no long
suitable for drinking, bathing, cooking or other uses. Pollution is the introduction of a
contamination into the environment (Webster.com, 2010). It is created by industrial and
commercial waste, agricultural practices, everyday human activities and most notably, models of
transportation.

You can find out some important and interesting information through checking out this link:

https://www.thedailystar.net/bangladesh-readymade-gament-rmg-top-export-dhaka-groundwater-
water-pollution-invisible-price

What do Water Parameters Mean?

Some of the main parameters listed in the water quality discharge standards are briefly discussed
here to give a working knowledge of what they are and why they are important.

Color

Although color is not included in the Environment Conservation Rules (1997), it is an issue in
dye house effluent because unlike other pollutants it is so visible. Reducing color is therefore
important for the public perception of a factory. Consequently, international textile buyers are
increasingly setting discharge standards for color. However, as a health and environmental issue
color is less of a concern than many of the other parameters.

BOD and COD

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD, also called biological oxygen demand) is the amount of
dissolved oxygen needed (or demanded) by the aerobic biological organisms to break down the
organic material present in a given water sample at certain temperature over a specific time
period. The BOD value is most commonly expressed in milligram per liter (mg/l). BOD is
mainly indicate the degree of organic pollution of water.

1
In other word, the amount of oxygen required to completely oxidize the organic compounds to
carbon-di-oxide and water through generation of microbial growth, death, decay and cannibalism
is total biochemical oxygen demand.

Measurement of the oxidizable organic matter in wastewater is usually achieved through

determining the 5-day biological oxygen demand (BOD5), the chemical oxygen demand (COD)
and total organic carbon (TOC). BOD5 is a measure of the quantity of dissolved oxygen used by
microorganisms in the biochemical oxidation of the organic matter in the wastewater over a 5-
day period at 20o C. The test has its limitations but it still used extensively and is useful for
determining approximately how much oxygen will be removed from water by an effluent or how
much may be required for treatment and is therefore important when estimating the size of the
ETP needed.

COD is often used as a substitute for BOD as it only takes a few hours not five days to
determine. COD is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic material chemically
oxidized in the reaction and is determined by adding dichromate in an acid solution of the
wastewater.

TDS and TSS

Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a measure of the combined content of organic and inorganic
substance contained in a liquid in molecular, ionized or micro-granular suspended form. The
solid must be small enough to survive through a filter with two- micrometer pores. The most
common chemical constituents are calcium, phosphates, nitrates, sodium, potassium and
chlorides.

Wastewater can be analyzed for total suspended solids (TSS) and total dissolved solids (TDS)
after removal of coarse solids such as rags and grit. A sample of wastewater is filtered through a
standard filter and the mass of the residue is used to calculate Total Suspended solid (TSS). Total
solids (TS) is found by evaporating the water at a specified temperature. TDS is then calculated
by subtracting TSS from TS.

Metals

A number of metals are listed in the national environmental quality standards for industrial
wastewater, including cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, mercury, nickel and zinc. Many
metals, which are usually only available naturally in trace quantities in the environment, can be
toxic to humans, plants, fish and other aquatic life.

2
Phosphorus, Total Nitrogen, Nitrate and Ammonia

These parameters are all used as a measure of the nutrients present in the wastewater, as a high
nutrient content can result in excessive plant growth in receiving water bodies, subsequent
oxygen removal and the death of aquatic life.

pH

pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in the wastewater and gives an

indication of how acid or alkaline the wastewater is. This parameter is important because
aquatic life such as most fish can only survive in a narrow pH range between roughly pH 6-9.

Sulphur and Sulphide

Textile dyeing uses large quantities of sodium sulphate and some other Sulphur containing
chemicals. Textile wastewaters will therefore contain various sulphur compounds and once in
the environment sulphate is easily converted to sulphide when oxygen has been removed by
the BOD of the effluents. This is a problem because hydrogen sulphide can be formed which
is a very poisonous gas, it also has an unpleasant smell of rotten eggs. The presence of
Sulphide in effluents can interfere with biological treatment processes.

Oil and Grease

This includes all oils, fats and waxes, such as kerosene and lubricating oils. Oil and grease
cause unpleasant films on open water bodies and negatively affect aquatic life. They can also
interfere with biological treatment processes and cause maintenance problems as they coat
the surfaces of components of ETPs.

Difference between BOD and COD

BOD COD
BOD is the amount of oxygen consumed by COD is the amount of oxygen required for the
bacteria while decomposing organic matter oxidation of total organic matter in water
under aerobic condition
It is a biological oxidation process It is a chemical oxidation process.
Determined by incubating a sealed water under Determined by incubating a closed water
specific temperature sample for five days and sample with a strong oxidant like Potassium
measuring the loss of oxygen from the dichromate in combination with boiling
beginning of the test Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) under specific
temperature for a specified period of time.
Five days are taken for the measurement of COD can be measured from few hours.
BOD.

3
COD is related to BOD. But, COD is the only method to measure the amount of industrial wastes
in water, which cannot be measured under BOD. The amount of cellulose in water is only
measured by COD.

Wastewater treatment:

For maintaining the standard of safe disposal of industrial waste water, it should be treated
before discharged into the natural water sources. There are several methods to treat the waste
water before discharging. Wastewater treatment may be of different types: physical, chemical,
biological etc. For the treatment of industrial waste water, the application of Effluent Treatment
Plant (ETP) is widely accepted.

What is an ETP?

ETP is a process design for treating the industrial waste water for it’s reuse or safe disposal to the
environment by treating the industrial waste water through different steps of physical, chemical
& biological treatment processes.

Necessity of ETP:

Under the Environmental Conservation Rules 1997, industrial units and projects are classified
into four categories (Green, Orange A, Orange B, and Red) based on their environmental impact
and location. Fabric dyeing and chemical treatment industries fall under the Red category. This
means that when they are applying for site clearance they must submit an ETP plan to the
Department of Environment, including the layout and location. When the design has been
approved by the Department of Environment and the ETP has been constructed, then Red
category industries can apply for an environmental clearance certificate.

Treatment level of ETP:

• Preliminary level

• Primary level

• Secondary level

• Tertiary level

4
Treatment Methods

Effluent can be treated in a number of different ways depending on the level of treatment
required. These levels are known as preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary (or advanced).
The mechanisms for treatment can be divided into three broad categories: physical, chemical and
biological, which all include a number of different processes. Many of these processes will be
used together in a single treatment plant.

Table: Wastewater treatment level and processes

Treatment level Description Process

Preliminary Removal of large solids such as rags, Physical
sticks, grit and grease that may damage
equipment or result in operational
problems
Primary Removal of floating and settleable Physical and Chemical
materials such as suspended solids and
organic matter
Secondary Removal of biodegradable organic matter Biological and Chemical
and suspended solid
Tertiary/Advanced Removal of residual suspended solids/ Physical, Chemical and
dissolved solids Biological

Physical Unit Operations

Common physical unit operations include among other processes screening, flow equalization,
sedimentation, clarification and aeration.

Screening

A screen with openings of uniform size is used to remove large solids such as cloth, which may
damage process equipment, reduce the effectiveness of the ETP or contaminate waterways.

Flow Equalization

There are several different steps in the textile dyeing process and therefore wastewater quality
and quantity varies over time. ETPs are usually designed to treat wastewater that has a more or
less constant flow and a quality that only fluctuates within a narrow range. The equalization tank
overcomes this by collecting and storing the waste, allowing it to mix and become a regular
quality before it is pumped to the treatment units at a constant rate. To determine the required
volume of an equalization tank the hourly variation of flow needs to be determined.

5
Sedimentation and Filtration

The flocs formed in flocculation are large enough to be removed by gravitational settling, also
known as sedimentation. This is achieved in a tank referred to as the sedimentation tank, settling
tank or clarifier. Sedimentation is also used to remove grit and suspended solids, to produce
clarified effluent, and to thicken the sludge produced in biological treatment.

Flocculation and sedimentation should remove most of the suspended solids and a portion of the
BOD.

Aeration

Aeration is required in biological treatment processes to provide oxygen to the microorganisms

that breakdown the organic waste. Two main methods are used for this, either mechanical
agitation of the water so that air from the atmosphere enters the water, or by introducing air into
the tank through diffusers.

Chemical Unit Processes

Chemical unit processes are always used with physical operations and may also be used with
biological treatment processes, although it is possible to have a purely physico-chemical plant
with no biological treatment. Chemical processes use the addition of chemicals to the wastewater
to bring about changes in its quality. They include pH control, coagulation, chemical
precipitation and oxidation.

pH Control

Waste from textile industries is rarely pH neutral. Certain processes such as reactive dyeing
require large quantities of alkali but pretreatments and some washes can be acidic. It is therefore
necessary to adjust the pH in the treatment process to make the wastewater pH neutral. This is
particularly important if biological treatment is being used, as the microorganisms used in
biological treatment require a pH in the range of 6-8 and will be killed by highly acidic or alkali
wastewater. Various chemicals are used for pH control. For acidic wastes (low pH) sodium
hydroxide, sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate or calcium hydroxide, may be added
among other things. For alkali wastes (high pH) sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid may be
added. Acids can cause corrosion of equipment and care must be taken in choosing which acid to
use. Hydrocholoric acid is probably better from an environmental view point but can corrode
stainless steel therefore plastic or appropriately coated pumps and pipes must be used.

6
Chemical Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulation is a complex process but generally refers to collecting into a larger mass the minute
solid particles dispersed in a liquid. Chemical coagulants such as aluminium sulphate (alum) or
ferric sulphate may be added to wastewater to improve the attraction of fine particles so that they
come together and form larger particles called flocs. A chemical flocculent, usually a
polyelectrolyte, enhances the flocculation process by bringing together particles to form larger
flocs, which settle out more quickly. Flocculation is aided by gentle mixing which causes the
particles to collide.

The efficiency of coagulation-flocculation strongly affects the overall treatment performance,

hence the increase of the efficiency of coagulation stage seems to be a key-factor for the
improvement of the overall treatment efficiency. The whole treatment process of coagulation-
flocculation can be divided into two distinct procedure, which should be applied consecutively.
The first one termed coagulation, is the process whereby destabilization of a given colloidal
suspension or solution is taking place. The function of coagulation is to overcome the factors that
promote the stability of a given system. It is achieved with the use of appropriate chemicals,
usually aluminium or iron salts, the so-called coagulant agents. The second sub-process, termed
flocculation, refers to the induction of destabilized particles in order to come together, to make
contact and thereby, to form large agglomerates, which can be separated easier usually through
gravity settling.

Some most common coagulants are:

1. Alum (Al2(SO4)3.18H2O)

2. Ferrous Sulfate/ Copperas (FeSO4.7H2O)

3. Lime Ca(OH)2

4. Ferric Chloride FeCl3

5. Ferric Sulfate (Fe2(SO4)3)

6. Sodium Aluminate (Na2Al2O4)

7. Ferric Sulphate Fe2(SO4)3

Alum is the most popular coagulant used for waste water treatment.

7
Biological Unit Processes

The objective of biological treatment of industrial wastewater is to remove, or reduce the

concentration of, organic and inorganic compounds. Biological treatment process can take many
forms but all are based around microorganisms, mainly bacteria. These microorganisms use
components of the effluent as their “food” and in doing so break them down to less complex and
less hazardous compounds. In the process the microorganisms increase in number.

There are two main types of processes, these involve suspended microbial growth (e.g. activated
sludge) and attached microbial growth (e.g. fixed film). With both approaches large populations
of microorganisms are brought into contact with effluent in the presence of an excess of oxygen.

With suspended growth systems microbes grow in small aggregates or “flocs” (this is known as
activated sludge). Activated sludge (AS) leaves the reactor with the treated effluent but is settled
out in a clarifier and returned to the aeration unit to recycle the bacteria. If the amount of AS is
excessive some may be disposed of rather than being recycled.

In fixed film systems the microbial population grows as a thin layer (a “bio-film”) on the surface
of an inert support medium. The classical fixed film system is known as a percolating or
biological filter and uses small stones as a medium to support microbial growth. In the more
modern system microbes grow on plastic supports. In more recent reactor designs, the medium
(usually plastic) is submerged in effluent and air is blown into the base of the reactor. Traditional
percolating filters require large areas of land and are unlikely to be of use in Bangladesh due to
land costs. Submerged fixed film reactors using plastic media require much less land.

Treatment mechanism or types of ETP:

There are mainly four types of ETP

• Physical Effluent Treatment Plant

• Chemical Effluent Treatment Plant

• Biological Effluent Treatment Plant

• Physico-chemical & Biological Effluent Treatment Plant

8
Biological Effluent Treatment Plant

The basic units needed for biological treatment are: screening; an equalization unit; a pH control
unit; an aeration unit; and a settling unit. A sludge dewatering unit may also be included.

Biological treatment plants require the presence of microorganisms that are adapted to degrade
the components of the effluent to be treated. Textile industry waste will not contain suitable
microorganisms so these must be added to the ETP when it is set up.

Biological treatment plants must be carefully managed as they use live microorganisms to digest
the pollutants. For example some of the compounds in the wastewater may be toxic to the
bacteria used, and pre-treatment with physical operations or chemical processes may be
necessary. It is also important to monitor and control pH as adverse pH may result in death of the
microorganisms. The ETP must be properly aerated and must be operated 24 hours a day, 365
days a year to ensure that the bacteria are provided with sufficient “food” (i.e. wastewater) and
oxygen to keep them alive.

Output quality

Evidence shows that output quality from biological treatment can satisfy the national standards
for most of the required parameters except color. According to Metcalf & Eddy (2003) a
properly designed biological ETP can efficiently satisfy BOD, pH, TSS, oil and grease
requirements. However, as already mentioned, the compounds in industrial wastewater may be
toxic to the microorganisms so pretreatment may be necessary. Similarly most dyes are complex
chemicals and are difficult for microbes to degrade so there is usually very little color removal.

9
Physico-chemical Effluent Treatment Plant

The basic units needed for a stand-alone physico-chemical treatment plant are screening, an
equalization unit, a pH control unit, chemical storage tanks, a mixing unit, a flocculation unit, a
settling unit and a sludge dewatering unit.

Output quality

With physico-chemical treatments generally used in Bangladesh (coagulation and flocculation) it

is possible to remove much, possibly all of the color depending on the process used. It is
however difficult to reduce BOD and COD to the value needed to meet the national effluent
discharge standard, and impossible to remove TDS. The removal rate is dependent on the
influent wastewater quality. The removal efficiency of this type of treatment has been found to
be 50% and 70% for BOD5 and COD respectively

10
Physico-chemical and Biological Treatment

In this type of treatment a combination of physical operations, and physico-chemical and

biological processes are used. The basic units needed for a physico-chemical and biological
treatment plant are screening, an equalization unit, a pH control unit, chemical storage tanks,
mixing units, flocculation units, a primary settling unit, an aeration unit, and a secondary settling
unit.

Fig: Activated Carbon Filter and Sand filter used in Physico- Chemical and Biological
Effluent Treatment Plant

Output quality
These are the most common form of ETP used in Bangladesh for the treatment of textile waste
and are the most likely to meet the water quality standards set by the Government of Bangladesh,
as they provide the benefit of physical, chemical and biological treatment and can therefore raise
the efficiency of BOD and COD removal to 90 %.

11
If you have some of your own interest and wish to visualize the process you may check out the
following youtube link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OzCT_bAur58&t=1969s

12
13
13

14
*an;d#p=l#
15co nlg I-I) (ii) UASB can be considered
very concept.

Fig.13.7AnaerobicdigestionatthecoreofatTeatmentandrecovery'technology

-
Fig. 13.8 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB)

+.

Wast6WaterTreatnent
industrial waste' effluent' can:be purified by two

::tr#
The toxic. non-biodegradrtion ch.enrical in inaustrial wasig. ciiiut;in . I: uv I_ .... _
xis: (1)
methods: (1)fil¢atlon
fil¢ationt>y
by:aE[
;activated chacoal/synthetic resins, and (2) Inembrane
_ _ir_^A.,A tpehniques.
r.1.-+ Tri.rliitm for adso1
effgive_filter`p_edjijE
tAchvated charcoal with
ctionintheconc-rfuon
ar#:#eini3in3 effluentLstream.
 Table 13.3 f]emoval of some toxic chloririat®1`organ!r;s

D.a. Hager, chom. Eng. P/pgr., 72 (10)57(1976)

Waste water contain-

= -jFI)-=:
irig toxic organic;

Activated
charcoal rilter

==
Puriricd cffluen(
i=
.(99qb reduction of organics)

rig. 1J.9 Filtei.ing mdusnial wtistes with activated charcoa`i '

----_@-HzCS-
cnz¢ne matrix

{o6H' + M' = M. + H+

-NH+ Cl- + A + -N-H+i + Cl-

H
Sccondtry Aminc group anio_n
exchanger

Fig. 13.10 Filtering industrial wastes by Synthetic resins

 waste chendcals.
=v=:Ouv:¥hi:o:n#crd:=:j¥I-id mE
=j:§mwth=¥:icc°±:±nd{Xan¥¥
#eL=i
from textile nun

The ionlexchange membrane finds an important appncation in the re|pggivf toxic vyaspiby
ultrafiltration or reverse osmosis. In ultrafiltration, the
membrane which contains sizx3 2-10,OcO rm b2igmolecules_areretained
anTrmcG!!±£aithatpLe§§£seffjs9±£J2£rtye biejpgkegules h reverse osmosis, the
are smalleTLJ);b4JdrITFTm-in sliz;: Both these techniques have found extensive application in
- EuRIHfflEEE and pulp and food industries.
ofi±aste water in metal. textile,
trodialysis is ano Applied
is used for the concentration of ious. Under an electrical field, pressure
anions migrate towards the anode and cation`s towards the
Memt)ranc
cathode aTig. 13.12). The cell contains membranes.with fixed
porous to water
chargemegative or positive-whereby the membranes . be-
comes impcmcable to either anions or cations. Tis technique AI osmatic
presourc
is useful for production of fresh ivater in arid-cdastal regions.
Mcmbranc pore size:
h Japan. clectrodialysis of sea water is the principal source 2-10.000 nm (ultr&filtration)
of salt. Among other important uses mention may be made of O,04sO nm (reverse osmosis)
treatment of metal plating wastes, battery manufacture. glass
Fig. 13.11 Industrial waste water
etching and 'desalination of effluents.
purification by the membrane technique
of ultrafiltration or reverse osmosis

Sannc .water in

Fig. 13.12 The elcctrodialysis assembly

Ftweree.Osmsfys-ul
This is a useful method for the It is based on pushing/salt-contanim.ted
pus water through a meable membrane `which pemits passage o
dEt5ddrme membrane, made o ulose acetate or has the property of
pres~sure. The Optlmum conditions are that if S=jbidrfss

-
n its su
FELHillmgirau`' the pore er should be .2d. This pore diameter is determined by the
 Waste

ss of the sofoed water layer and may be several times th? eie==!£I££J±==9!:::i ¥d Sa±±±±±L_
a simple sieve separation of ultrafiltration (Fig. 13.13).

#° ¥o x¥2° :2-o :-° HTo xH_2:lox #°Hg x¥2H°2oX } %+:fammted

-dt
F5-. H20 H20
',I
Ho H2o . `/

[ membrane
---i +2d
Porous
membrane ::/;:¥:n¥]J,a?3¥}-:I
rEsrmT
I H2Q i
11

I.-

:```\,,.,..
H20. i `-i H20
`\/I
Purified H20 Purified H20

Fig.1,3J3 Re`,..erse oslr!osis technique for remo\'al of so}ute i.I.cm w3:er

difficult problem in water treatment is concerned with sludge collected or produced in the
s. A safe place for sludge disposal is gctting more and more troublesome as there is scarcity
number of water
den-_space
_I .
die to increasing ufoanisation, population etc. as well as increased
ent systems. Ocean .dumping or canal drimping (see Love Canal episode. page 35) of sewage
I;j; proved to be huisinc; over the years and have been banned in the developed countries
as the USA.-
Composition of Sewage Sludge - Waste water/sewage sludge consists of human wastes,
stic and industrial wastes I..c., organic wastes, inorganic silt etc.

Table 13.4 Typical harrr.ful ccmpcinents in sewage sludge

Compon.nts Concentration (ppm) (dry weight)

O,ganics
PCB
DDT
• ` ODD

Dieidrin
Aldrin
lnorganics
(Toxic 8lements)
Cd 0-100
up'0 400
uplo 700
30tr2000
P8thogenic micro-organisms
Hu.man viruses, Fecal coliform (raw sludge): 1 x 107 viable cells/100 ml
 The inherent drawbacks of the common practice of sewage. disposal on land, ceean and by
incineration are contamination .of waterbodies and soil and air by toxic elements. Environmentalists
are concerned with accumulation of toxic metals in cropland due to sewage sludge disposal. It is
known that sewage slu.dge is an excellent scavenger o,f metals. c.g., 9000 ppm Zn, 6000 ppm Cu,
600 ppm Ni, 800 ppm in cropland which finally spreads to leaves and grains and ultimately to human
food chain. That is why there is need for caution against prolonged use of sewage sludge to soil.
Many water treatment as well as industrial processes produce several chemical' sludges: alum
sludge Al (OH)3 for AI removal; Fe(OH)3 used in precipitation of impurities; Cac03. Zn(OH)2 etc.
due io addition 6f Cao for raising pH to about 11.0. Recychig of metals in these chemical sludges
is a positive aspect of sludge treatment.
Pathogenic micro-organisms in sewage sludge lead to heal azards and should be seriously
handled. Effective steps are aerobic digestion at 35°C. anaerobi igestion (35°C). lime treatment
high temperature composting (45i5°C).

¥vi+-Are-F3 TREiisE Ai¢D REcy`ci

1_-, ``. ` . r . -:` 1 ! .,.., `L' , .`-,, " -~

In view of increasing population an`d increase in derpandi5i water, it is essential to undertake

ds -a matter o`f\human survival. Furthermore, increasing water pollution
aye rendered o fresh w.ater iesource more and more scare. We can no longer afford to
ter` and we must consider every water drop as precious resource.
when water dis by o a river is`taken up by another user For
this. the fust user up to the standard
on the other hand,

emi-arid regions c.g., it is the practice to reuse ed technology.

el utilises 60% 'of -ii§ sewage effluents for irrigation in agriculture.
Reuse finds three inajor applications:

((:}chi;gn::n£°dr;::=s:ig8°wlfa::u:esidwu:iral*p¥a:°oruspLanstec:nddaygr:e8w:;eth;ffluentis
i.., deemed adequate for some industries.
\t (hi) Ground `water recharge.
Reused water can be directly injected into aquifer or appHed to land for percolation into the
rt.. aquifer.

c,o::eg:uti:n:fdwraeete¥C¥u:fesw:ti?chwn±j::Vjtna:]yc:th=defeun:±Sdtraaytebgr;esch;:rprctiQE|and

1. A,.V. Shckal. Municipal Solid Waste Management,J. Indian Assoc. for Environmental
Management, 27, 100-108 (1999).
2. A.EL* Green. Medical Waste Incineration and Pollutich Prevention. van Nostrand, Ne
York (1992).
3. R.K Shomashekar and M.R. Iyengar a3ds.), SoJid Was/c Managenen/ and Cwmcnf Srarztf)
Strategie's for Future, Amed Publ.ishers, Mumbai (2002).
A CveJz5¢ C>6nrvLo5'16 .;

thTho comfq rc cdraln`ir4 6ul°oyto o+ a

CanaeThotr qfty '6cferzqrfu bd a 52ir f¢fa~Lpr\buL in
aJ4d %drtg5laliL prt"pr zrtap+&fr Th\j" o6 ~urtiL Brae
A C\Fprei on +h~ oapodrq|.zL 6',d~; +tr L6olve+ ~if
thorty hi4hqu condrindm Th fouorL Qancrdqu i

Piq.. ftyejuL o5mo5f3

4de9q#-:-
-fl.i5 prtoco)A 1`6 6|mpL4, Chap, rul3c\bL

-HO+ Ona rt2movirty +he ^ioulc 4a|Lfa, bu+ cho mj7n~f

Collo`ih\ ndheth a+id h.,4h mj>`4otJlqfu W¢`14h+ Or:q~J

-Jrv5ndm ®5+ T6 h`zih7 whham~„+ OJ26+ 4

-M¢n`brta" oaJL b4 rtfphaafl in 9~| nmJyL .
Air pollution
Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological
materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such
as food crops, or damage the natural environment or built environment.
A substance in the air that can be adverse to humans and the environment is known as an air
pollutant. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they
may be natural or man-made. Pollutants can be classified as primary or secondary. Usually,
primary pollutants are directly produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the
carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulphur dioxide released from factories.
Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly.
Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a
secondary pollutant is ground level ozone – one of the many secondary pollutants that make up
photochemical smog. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both
emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
Primary pollutants of air produced by human activity include:
Sulphur oxides (SOx) - especially sulphur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2.
SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes.
Since coal and petroleum often contain sulphur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur
dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4,
and thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use
of these fuels as power sources.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are expelled from high temperature
combustion, and are also produced naturally during thunderstorms by electric discharge. Can be
seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical
compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic
gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
Carbon monoxide (CO) - is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is
a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust
is a major source of carbon monoxide.
Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they
are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and nonmethane (NMVOCs).
Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming.
Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and
in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local
air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are
suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1, 3-butadiene is
another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses.

1
 Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter,
or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers
to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulates can be manmade or natural. Some
particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires,
living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles,
power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols.
Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities – currently
account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of
fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and
lung cancer.
Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary
disease.
Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently
banned from use.
Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the
formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia,
either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals.
Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.
Odors – such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
Radioactive pollutants – produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and
natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
Secondary pollutants include:
Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog.
Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog
results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulphur
dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial
emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary
pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the
troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly
known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the
chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high
concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a
pollutant, and a constituent of smog.
Man-made sources mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel.

2
 "Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories)
and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. In
developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants;
traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and dung.
"Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound etc.
Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management.
Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming,
prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland
ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the
germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.
Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents.
Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable and may
form explosive mixtures with air.
Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.
Natural sources
Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with few or no vegetation.
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle.
Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless,
naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered
to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in
confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after
cigarette smoking.
Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.
Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on warmer
days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants – specifically, NOx, SO2, and
anthropogenic organic carbon compounds – to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.
Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.

Consequences: Effects of Air Pollution

Health Effects
Air pollution is a significant risk factor for multiple health conditions including respiratory
infections, heart disease, and lung cancer, according to the WHO. The health effects caused by air
pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and aggravation of
existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use,

3
increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The
human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's
respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on
the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status
and genetics.
The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur
dioxide. Both indoor and outdoor air pollution have caused approximately 3.3 million deaths
worldwide. Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most
vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.
The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly
attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution.
The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.
Leaked industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc.,
U.S.A., killed more than 25,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000.
The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of
1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the
following months. An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the
former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian
deaths.
Around the world, children living in cities with high exposure to air pollutants are at increased risk
of developing asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections.
Because children are outdoors more and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible
to the dangers of air pollution. Risks of low initial birth weight are also heightened in such cities.
Environmental Effects
Poisonous air pollutants (toxic chemicals in the air) can form acid rain. It can also form dangerous
ground level ozone. These destroy trees, crops, farms, animals and continue to make water bodies
harmful to humans and animals that live and depend on water.
Economical Effects
The effect of air pollution on the economy may be a derived one. In simple language, the economy
thrives when people are healthy, and business that depends on cultivated raw materials and natural
resources are running at full efficiency. Air pollution reduces agricultural crop and commercial
forest yields by billions of money each year. This in addition to people staying off work for health
reasons can costs the economy greatly.
Air Pollution Control:
The following two basic approaches are used for controlling air pollution:
i) Controlling or confining the pollutants at source;

4
 This can be achieved by –
a) Modifying the process in such a way that pollutants do not form at all beyond the
permissible concentrations
b) Reducing the pollutants concentrations to tolerable levels before they are released
to the environment, by use of suitable equipment to destroy, alter or trap the
pollutants formed.
ii) Dilution of the pollutants in the atmosphere to permissible levels before they can reach
the receptor. This can be achieved by using
a) Tall stacks
b) Controlling the process parameters, with due regard to the local meterological
conditions and proper community planning to prevent accumulation of dangerous
ground level concentration within the designated area.
Methods and equipment used to control gaseous pollutants:
1. Combustion: this technique is used when the pollutants contain gases or vapors, which are
organic in nature. Flame combustion or catalytic combustion of these pollutants converts
them into water vapor and relatively innocuous products, such as CO2.
2. Absorption: In this technique, the gaseous effluents are passed through scrubbers or
absorbers containing a suitable liquid absorbents to remove or modify one or more of the
pollutants in the gas stream.
The efficiency of gas absorption process depends upon –
a) The chemical reactivity of the gaseous pollutants in the liquid phase,
b) The extent of the surface contact between the liquid and the gas ,
c) The contact time and
d) The concentration of the absorbing medium.
The gas absorption technique is widely used for removing pollutants like NOx, H2S, Sox and
fluorides from gaseous effluent.
For example,
Pollutants Absorbents
NOx H2O, Aq HNO3
HF H2O, NaOH
Sox Water, alkaline water, suspension of Ca(OH)2, sulphites of Ba or Ca or
Na, ethanolamine, dimethyl aniline, aluminum sulphate etc

3. Adsorption: In this technique, the gaseous effluents are passed through porous solid
adsorbents taken in suitable containers. The organic and/ or inorganic constituents of the
effluents gases are held at the interface of the solid adsorbents by physical adsorption or
chemisorption.
The efficiency of adsorption depends upon-
a) The surface area per unit weight of the adsorbent
b) The physical and chemical characteristics of the adsorbent

5
 c) The nature and concentration of the gas being adsorbed.
For example,
Pollutants Adsorbent
NOx Silica gel, Commercial Zeolites
HF Lump lime stone, porous pellets of NaF
SO2 Pulverished lime stone or dolomite, alkalized alumina
(AL2O3+Na2O)
Organic solvent vapors Activated carbon

Methods and equipment used for controlling the particulate emission:

The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation
devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is
emitted into the atmosphere.
Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multi-cyclones)
These devices mostly operate on the basis of the following two mechanisms-
a) Gravity settling in which the velocity of the horizontal carrier gas is reduced adequately so
that the particles settle by gravitational force;
b) Sudden change of direction of the gas flow causes the particles to separate out due to their
greater momentum.
Some commonly used mechanical devices are – Settling chamber, buffer chamber, cyclone
separator etc.
Electrostatic precipitators: An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a
particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force
of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices
that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulates
such as dust and smoke from the air stream.
Bag houses: Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust
filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from
air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).
Particulate scrubbers: Wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology.
The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other
gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing
liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact
method, so as to remove the pollutants.

6
Some Facts and Statistics about Air Pollution (For Self- Study)
Air pollution affects kids more than adults due to higher concentrations of polluted air in their
systems per body size.
Bangladesh is the country with the worst air quality in the world.
The European Union would save 161 billion Euros a year if deaths caused by air pollution were
diminished.
In large cities, over 80% of fatal pollutants that cause lung damage come from cars, buses,
motorcycles and other vehicles on the road.
According to the World Health Organization, there are as many deaths (1.3 million per year) in
the world due to air pollution as there are deaths due to car accidents.
The average adult breathes 3,000 gallons of air every day.
The Great Smog of London in 1952 was one of the worst air pollution events in history with
over 8,000 deaths.
The largest cause of air pollution in Europe is road transportation with over 5,000 people dying
each year from lung cancer and heart attacks caused by vehicle exhaust fumes.
Air quality Standard:
Air Quality Standard indicate the level of pollutants that cannot be exceeded during a specified
time period in a specified geographic area with due reference to the methods of measurement, unit
of measurement, concentration and time of exposure.
Ambient Air Quality Standards for US
Pollutants Primary air quality standard
SOx a) 80 µg/m3 (0.03ppm) –annual arithmetic mean.
b) 365 µg/m3 (0.14ppm) maximum 24h concentration which should not be
exceeded more than once a year.
NOx 100 µg/m3 (0.05ppm)annual arithmetic mean
CO a) 10 µg/m3 (9ppm) max 24 h concentration
b) 40 µg/m3 (35ppm)max 1 h concentration
Particulate a) 75 µg/m3 (0.03 ppm) annual geometrical mean.
b) 260 µg/m3 (0.1ppm) 24h maximum concentration which should not be
exceeded more than once a year.
Oxidants 160 µg/m3 (0.08 ppm) maximum 1h concentration not to be exceeded more than
once a year.

7
Acid Rain, it’s formation and effects
Acid rain is a broad term that describes several ways through which acid falls out from the
atmosphere. Acid rain includes acidic rain, fog, hail and snow. Robert Angus Smith first used
this term in 1872 to describe the acidic nature of rain around industrial town of Manchester, U.K.
in a paper entitled “The air and rain beginning of chemical climatology”. Scientists often refer to
“acid deposition” as a more accurate term for acid rain. Along with the wet deposition there are
also dry depositions of acids, which can be transformed into salts in the soil and cause the same
environmental damage, as do the wet deposits. Dry deposition generally occurs close to the point
of emission. Wet deposition, however, may occur thousands of kilometers away from the
original source of emission.

The problem of acid rain is widely believed to result from the washout of oxides of sulphur,
nitrogen and other constituents present in the atmosphere. Main sources of these oxides are coal
fired power stations, smelters (producing SO2) and motor vehicle exhausts (producing NOx).
These oxides may react with other chemicals and produce corrosive substances that are washed
out either in wet or dry form by rain as acid deposition. Initially events of acidic rainfall were
frequent only around industrial areas. But with the increased use of tall stacks for power plants
and industries, atmospheric emissions are being transported regionally and even globally
(Galloway and Whelpdale, 1980; Wagh et al., 2006).

Atmospheric acid deposition in form of rain, fog or snow was identified as major environmental
problems for the countries in Europe, East Asia and North America (Bouwman et al., 2002),
including Canada, England, Scotland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, West Germany, The
Netherland, Austria, Switzerland, Russia, Poland and Czechoslovakia, Southwest China and
Japan. Acid rain affects the quality of human life, threatens the environmental stability and the
sustainability of food and timber reserves, thus posing an economic crisis. Acid rain has broad
economic, social and medical implications and has been called an unseen plague of the industrial
age (Anon, 1984).

Causes of acidification: Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen and ozone to some extent
are the primary causes of acid rain. These pollutants originate from human activities such as
combustion of burnable waste, fossil fuels in thermal power plants and automobiles. These

1
constituents interact with reactants present in the atmosphere and result into acid deposition. The
natural sources of sulphur pollutants are oceans and to much smaller extent from volcanic
eruptions. The man-made sources of SO2 emissions are the burning of coal and petroleum and
various industrial processes (Cullis and Hischler, 1980). Other sources include the smelting of
iron and other metallic (Zn and Cu) ores, manufacture of sulphuric acids, and the operation of
acid concentrators in the petroleum industry. The levels of NOx are small in comparison to SO 2,
but its contribution in the production of acid rain is increasing. Main natural sources of NOx
include lightening, volcanic eruptions and biological processes (especially microbial activity).
Man-made sources are power stations, vehicle exhausts and industrial emission.

The degree of acidity is measured by pH value, it is shorthand version of potential hydrogen. The
pH of normal rainwater is also acidic; the reason is that water reacts to a slight extent with
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) to produce carbonic acid.

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

Small amount of nitric acid is also responsible for the acidity of normal rainwater, which is
produced by the oxidation of nitrogen in presence of water during lightening storms.

2 N2 + 5O2 + 2H2O 4 HNO3 (nitric acid)

Rain that presents a concentration of H+ ion greater than 2.5 µeq-1 and pH value is less than 5.6
is considered acid (Evans, 1984).

Chemical reactions during acid rain formation: The chemical reaction that results in the
formation of acid rain involves the interaction of SO2, NOx and O3. When the pollutants are
vented into the atmosphere by tall smoke stakes, molecules of SO2 and NOx are caught up in the
prevailing winds, where they interact in the presence of sunlight with vapours to form sulphuric
acid and nitric acid mists. These acids remain in vapour state under the prevalent high
temperature conditions. When the temperature falls, condensation takes the form of aerosol
droplets, which owing to the presence of unburnt carbon particles will be black, acidic and
carbonaceous in nature. This matter is called “acid smut”. The presence of oxidizing agents and
the characteristics of the reaction affects the rate of acid generation.

2
Acid reactions involving O3:

O3 O2+ O

O + H2O OH• (Hydroxyl radical)

OH• + SO2 HSO3

HSO3- + OH• H2SO4

OH•+NO2 HNO3

HSO3+ O2 SO32- + HO2• (peroxy radical)

Peroxy radicals react with formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and form formic and acetic acids and
some other organic acids, contributing to 5-20% acidity in total acid rain load.

Acid reactions involving sulphur: Coal is especially rich in sulphur. As coal is burned, its
component get oxidized

S + O2 SO2

The oxidation of sulphur to SO2 occurs directly in the flame; therefore SO2 is discharged to the
atmosphere from the smoke stacks. As SO2 is swept along by the prevailing wind, it is slowly
oxidized at ordinary temperature to SO32-

2SO2 + O2 2SO32-

SO32- + H2O H2SO4

SO2 + H2O H2SO3

H+ HSO3-

HSO3- + O3 SO42+ + H+ + O2

Oxidant property of atmosphere plays an important role in conversion of SO32- to SO4. Sulphur
dioxide oxidation is most common in clouds and especially in heavily polluted air where
compounds such as ammonia and O3 are in abundance. These catalysts help to convert more SO2
into sulphuric acid.

H2 O2 + HSO3 - HSO4- + H2O

3
Acid reactions involving nitrogen:

N2 + O2 2NO

2NO + O2 2NO2

4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O 4HNO3

O3 + NO2 NO3 + O2

NO3 + NO2 N2O5

N2O5 + H2O 2 HNO3

The Effects of Acid Rain on Ecosystems

An ecosystem is a community of plants, animals and other organisms along with their
environment including the air, water and soil. Everything in an ecosystem is connected. If
something harms one part of an ecosystem – one species of plant or animal, the soil or the water
– it can have an impact on everything else.

Effects of Acid Rain on Fish and Wildlife

The ecological effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in aquatic environments, such as
streams, lakes, and marshes where it can be harmful to fish and other wildlife. As it flows
through the soil, acidic rain water can leach aluminum from soil clay particles and then flow into
streams and lakes. The more acid that is introduced to the ecosystem, the more aluminum is
released.
Some types of plants and animals are able to tolerate acidic waters and moderate amounts of
aluminum. Others, however, are acid-sensitive and will be lost as the pH declines. Generally, the
young of most species are more sensitive to environmental conditions than adults. At pH 5, most
fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some adult fish die. Some acidic lakes have no fish.
Even if a species of fish or animal can tolerate moderately acidic water, the animals or plants it
eats might not. For example, frogs have a critical pH around 4, but the mayflies they eat are more
sensitive and may not survive pH below 5.5.

4
Effects of Acid Rain on Plants and Trees
Dead or dying trees are a common sight in areas effected by acid rain. Acid rain leaches
aluminum from the soil. That aluminum may be harmful to plants as well as animals. Acid rain
also removes minerals and nutrients from the soil that trees need to grow.
At high elevations, acidic fog and clouds might strip nutrients from trees’ foliage, leaving them
with brown or dead leaves and needles. The trees are then less able to absorb sunlight, which
makes them weak and less able to withstand freezing temperatures.

Episodic Acidification
Melting snow and heavy rain downpours can result in what is known as episodic acidification.
Lakes that do not normally have a high level of acidity may temporarily experience effects of
acid rain when the melting snow or downpour brings greater amounts of acidic deposition and
the soil can’t buffer it. This short duration of higher acidity (i.e., lower pH) can result in a short-
term stress on the ecosystem where a variety of organisms or species may be injured or killed.

Nitrogen Pollution
It’s not just the acidity of acid rain that can cause problems. Acid rain also contains nitrogen, and
this can have an impact on some ecosystems. For example, nitrogen pollution in our coastal
waters is partially responsible for declining fish and shellfish populations in some areas. In
addition to agriculture and wastewater, much of the nitrogen produced by human activity that
reaches coastal waters comes from the atmosphere.

Effects of Acid Rain on Materials

Not all acidic deposition is wet. Sometimes dust particles can become acidic as well, and this is
called dry deposition. When acid rain and dry acidic particles fall to earth, the nitric and sulfuric
acid that make the particles acidic can land on statues, buildings, and other manmade structures,
and damage their surfaces. The acidic particles corrode metal and cause paint and stone to
deteriorate more quickly. They also dirty the surfaces of buildings and other structures such as
monuments.
The consequences of this damage can be costly:

5
 damaged materials that need to be repaired or replaced,
 increased maintenance costs, and
 loss of detail on stone and metal statues, monuments and tombstones.

Effects on Human Health

Walking in acid rain, or even swimming in a lake affected by acid rain, is no more dangerous to
humans than walking in normal rain or swimming in non-acidic lakes. However, when the
pollutants that cause acid rain —SO2 and NOX, as well as sulfate and nitrate particles— are in the
air, they can be harmful to humans.
SO2 and NOX react in the atmosphere to form fine sulfate and nitrate particles that people can
inhale into their lungs. Many scientific studies have shown a relationship between these particles
and effects on heart function, such as heart attacks resulting in death for people with increased
heart disease risk, and effects on lung function, such as breathing difficulties for people with
asthma.

6
 Solid waste management
The waste generated in solid state as a result of various
human activities and normally discarded as useless or
unwanted material are known as Solid waste. Solid
waste consists of highly heterogenous mass of
discarded materials from residential, commercial,
industrial, agricultural and mining activities.
Depending on the sources, solid waste can be broadly
classified into three types-
1. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
2. Bio-medical Solid Waste (BSW)
3. Industrial Solid Waste (ISW)
Composition of Municipal solid waste:
The average composition of MSW consists of 30 to 40 %
organic matter, 30 to 40% fine materials, paper (5%), metal
(1%) and plastic (1%). The materials like plastics, metals,
glass and paper can be recycled.

Collection and disposal of MSW:

1. House to house collection
2. Community- bin system
Solid waste management system
There are some popular solid waste management system:
1. Sanitary Landfill
2. Composting and Municipal waste composting projects
3. vermicomposting
4. incineration
For sanitary landfill, the following principles should be followed:
1. Solid waste should be deposited in a regulated manner,
preferably in gravel pit
2. Solid waste should be spread in thin layers with ground cover
of at least 15 cm
3. All factors likely to contribute to water pollution should be
eliminated
4. The waste should not be burnt openly
Composting and municipal waste composting projects
This is the biological process where fresh organic waste are
allowed to be decomposed into humus-like substances. The
process is conducted by a complete automatic system which
consists of several steps:
1. The crude refuse is dumped into a container or to a belt
conveyor.
2. Iron or metallic particles are removed by a magnetic separator
3. The material is then transferred in a wet condition to a
rotatory cylinder, analogous to a rotatory drier.
4. The cylinder rotates slowly on large tyres and the wastes
move from one end to the other.
 Air is introduced at low pressure throughout the length of the
cylinder. Here aerobic microorganism ensure rapid
decomposition of the wastes under aerobic conditions.
• Vermicomposting
 Vermiculture or use of earthworms in biotechnology, where the earthworms
feed on and degrade a variety of organic waste, eliminate noxious elements
and convert the waste into vermicompost, which is a high-grade, nutrient –
rich compost and a very significant biofertilizer and soil conditioner.
 Vermicompost enhances soil productivity and enhance the crop yield.
Incineration
 This is the preferred technique for waste management, particularly in
developed countries. It reduces the waste volume by 90 percent at 900-1000
0 C.

 Incineration offers environment- friendly technique- free from corrosion,

emission of offensive odours, free from bacteria and wet organic matter
which gives off foul gases.
 The waste heat from incineration can be utilized for supplementing
electricity generation for domestic heating etc.
 The only drawback is that the technique is costly at present requiring
expensive equipment.
 Two types of incinerator may be used- a) Batch type plant: relatively small
rated capacity
b) Continuous feed plant : relatively large capacity
Noise pollution
 Noise is defined as excessive or unwanted sound which
potentially results in annoyance and/or hearing loss and it can
be from occupational and/or non-occupational sources [Robert
et.al]. In other words, noise is a sound disturbance as well as a
nuisance which results in health problems and adverse social
consequences.
 Noise effects on human health can be auditory effects such as
permanent or temporal hearing loss and non-auditory effects
such as communication, concentration and sleep interference,
annoyance, loss of working efficiency and possible
hypertension.
• The common scientific acoustic unit is decibel (dB). It is a ratio
expressed as a logarithmic scale relative to a reference sound
pressure level.
1 decibel (dB) =10 log10 (Intensity Measured / Reference
Intensity)

Noise sources of any textile industrial process may be due to the

following reason:
• Propagation through air (air-bone noise)
• Propagation through solid (structure-bone noise)
• Diffraction at the machinery boundaries.
• Reflection of sound from floor, wall, ceiling and machinery
surface.
Machine behavior and noise generation: Any kind of machine
while running is prone to develop the noise and textile machines
are not exceptional from this rule. Some noise generating
reasons are:
• Machine footing and it’s foundation
• Working speed of the machines
• Maintenance of machine
• Design of other machine parts like blowers, ducts and pipes etc.
• Type of mechanism adopted while designing the machine ( no.
of mechanical components presented and linkage mechanism)
• Machine/ material handling system
Noise level in textile industry (Texturing, spinning and
Weaving)

Process Noise level (dB)

Texturing Plant 95-100
Spinning
1. Ring Frame 80
2. Rotor spinning 84
3. Weaving 100-120
 Hazards of noise pollution:
• Workers consistently exposed to the noise level above 85 or
even 90dB may reveal permanent hearing loss. In addition to
hearing loss, exposure of workers to noise levels of 90-119dB
was also found to result in
• Cardiovascular and psycho physiologic problem
• Sleep disorder and headache.
• Mental fatigue
• Annoyance, speech interference and reduced alertness.
• Increased blood pressure, deep body temperature and pulse
rate.
• Speed of performance was impaired significantly by noise.
Control of noise pollution:
• Noise in spinning section can be reduced by providing
elastomeric spindle.
• Replacement of parts with resilient materials like nylon
can reduce the noise of loom.
• Proper maintenance (machine alignment, gear fitting and
lubrication) can reduce the generation of noise during
running.
• Complete enclosures around the room reduce the level of
noise from 30-60 dB.
• Vibration isolators prevent the generation of noise.
• Damping or foamed coating surface reduce the amplitude
of noise.
•
• In Bangladesh, the sound intensity standard is set by the
Department of Environment as follows:

Zone Class Duration (6am-9pm)

Silent zone 45 dB
Residential zone 50 dB
Mixed zone 60 dB
Commercial zone 70 dB
Industrial zone 70 dB
Noise estimation
• The human beings can withstand high noise levels to a shorter
duration and with the increase of every five decibel,
permissible duration of exposure is halved (5dB exchange
rate). The permissible noise exposure limits are defined by
OSHA.
Table: Permissible noise exposure ( Source: OSHA 1910.95)

Duration per day (hrs) OSHA 1910.95 (US)

8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
1.5 102
1 105
Simple engineering control:
These controls should be evaluated before exploring more
complex solution and this technique involves following
aspects,
1) Proper maintenance.
2) Changing operating procedures
3) Replacing operating procedures
4) Applying room treatments
5) Relocating equipment’s
6) Simple machine treatments
7) Using proper machine speed
 Urbanization
Urbanisation is an increase in the number of people living in
towns and cities. Urbanisation occurs mainly because people
move from rural areas to urban areas and it results in growth in
the size of the urban population and the extent of urban areas.
These changes in population lead to other changes in land use,
economic activity and culture. Historically, urbanisation has
been associated with significant economic and social
transformations. For example, urban living is linked with
higher levels of literacy and education, better health, lower
fertility and a longer life expectancy, greater access to social
services and enhanced opportunities for cultural and political
participation (UNDESA, 2014).
Causes of urbanisation
Urbanisation in the developing world occurs for two mai reasons: the
natural increase of population and rural to urban migration.
➢ Natural increase of population
• Natural increase is a significant cause of the growing urban
population.
➢ Rural to urban migration
Migration is influenced by economic growth and development and
by technological change (Marshall et al., 2009) and possibly also by
conflict and social disruption. It is driven by pull factors that attract
people to urban areas.
Push factors are those drive people away from the countryside.
Employment opportunities in cities are one of the main pull factors.
Many industries are located in cities and offer opportunities of high
urban wages.
 /e.t

S*!irH Wastq:s;-F*ll*{iort,'E}^**$rt*emt & F}isg:i,

"Anv unwauted or discarded *"tK1H*9,!_:#_*

'.*^"-<'-'*'=1" 1'
,t WLspnuEr i iaT;iffiffiiiql, mi ry.i n s eud q#p il -

!yIS!^* j*!,:f .**"*Leswgsfr%eanffie3"t*!sx9!gw.*st:

lse tcrmed as solid wgste. Solid ._...,.,.".-.
wgrte nmnagtm{nt
c ti m p r is e s gf,pgf ? yl$- g&_*tg:yflli c c o ntr o I of {he

generalion,
:
pra*cs"sf.i"ry-g:_
r,){.tsle."

Xntroduction : Solid wasfes can be broadly defined as those was

which have been rejggted-{-rgJggr}gf-gle-e3g-y-![q[qeureilb5-{.Qe-1{3_lspoj
bv-:l,31er iiflb-ik6arn$ nor caR readily escaps into the atmosphere. Tl
rryqtq{q q rnaterials from municipal, agricultural z
i*dusrial ilctivities"
C&assiffication and origit'l
Solid waStes can be trroadly elassified into the following ttr

(}") $)ornestie Wastes : These inclurSe from household pre

wast&s
ralion, cooklgEitr-#ffim6f feod; w&ste prper and ptasties; cloth; ra
eLe .

(z) Municipal Wasres : 'Bg*Jgjedp_g_B-L-b-rug_At.4_ fu:L!tq! rr

trouseholds, offices, hotels, l4arketq, etc" and also
_ __' -:-' street refuse
-_' ''the "__
si
'

@est-*qvgwlq-esr{i"t"l-q*ygi::g*e-ptr-q$."1rrre*psep-Bfig}'91!:I!gJ!
'.eelq$&q:-'- is arce@r bicde-gyrtabl9-"{-?qg ye
T'hs terrn "rubbish" is used to denote nonFlutrescible or non-biodegraCa

1t0
 .l{i't'-rt t f.} oct k af .{: nv i r.r.; 6.,y;,.7 i { .,::
7-,; i., $i i :i i. :.,)
( j;1
i;{:ii:; '.',; iii'.1 \i,!riCii i;li.!:...,. ( iiil.: ;i:;}ti.
If]:'r::r." {::fC,} ;tS },,,*1tr a.:) r}iin.(rr.ri.t.ii:giiij,-';;,;;;:,;,t;';:;;tf:;#j;T;;*;;;
lr.,+i-;iir;, ;1iass, r]]AS.,Iri rr i:,1i1.:ilcs.
ii'r;;* ".Or;.,,
*.:rr:ci rclLai cilr::; i.,,llri {-r*ni;iir
ih,::;cl, tll*
{oilo.,vir;rl f),i,,cs ,ri xi/:iliies ,*-* ,rrlr't,,lll,1;r};i,
;.,i.i}i,,.:r:. t:i;:rl*:, ei.*lei an:r,l:lj:;,
*tb;rnrj*rr:ri_;ci,icl:s, c{:tl1ri,ru"uron:r:-:d
!'l'l:i:iili-,i:;, :;cpt!r;
tanl,: silli.:trt):i, 1-::i;,1::i, wii"cl;, rlc;lfil;ii.:;, riclnitlilii:ri
iltsul;,,ti.,rs" t:ir:"
(;i) : J.h*sc inclr-rijr
-Ir:clu..;frlai tv::s€*:,:
(c) I.{*n-p.{-,-ili, ".is -.,,,;,:jlrl:;
Ilrtl ,.tii lIi.iCr:, l.lnr! Clrir-:ii;.i:r .,,,r;1;1,_:,,.
t;ltcl.!:;:, l.,l,I;i.,., ,.it .;zlt:C.: ,.'" , ,,.,,,,
.,,, ,O,,,i i,,,,,,,.;,,, ., ,,, ,i
(l.r) procc:rs ,,,.i.,isLr)s v,irich Ccp,..;,i_!
iii,).ir] t:ie. l.ypc ol_tl:c
[rc.ilrg ll::,:ir[3cl.r:.crl, Si,;i. ...i i,,rrli.,;.u,,aara,,,, i_u.(>iir:r,:is
.,vC;;rvi,rri ii!i(;
df irr;; \,'lt.;,,1s. lc<:,.i-i;;g4.,-;.:;.,1 i..:::. i:i., ',
tlli:tir: ;r,,, ,. . ,.,,:i,
w;!s[gi" r;i:t:;t sci:i-ps, i[-c., i;{.rr;i ll-i*
lc-spccri.",er ir;rji.rr;i.rj:ti
csulblishr: lc*i.:,;.
I\,!irroral },/astcs fror;r l;-i*:::5;il.)d
'r.rrri.ii:l rrr:*r;;:il process.ing uilits; ili-sr; f;il
iii,s celcgory.
ir3; A.gg:"ie*Eturiii 'i,;;i,gf ,ji, 2 -i'\2,3,::.,yl::i:in
;*stri i}om {;lrn:; ,
I.r;:1 l, i::;,rcll yi;ri,s. l;rr; ..1i icr;..,.rr,,
-,"; ,, ,,.;;,
i-*i:r} trt;2::,

fj.iilii lrir,:.111-canc, "

t*b:lccc,i::id ctt: ,rr:sisjr:,1s,
,,1,
,;;;;;, i:r,rii:, i)irf.:,,";:r:.r:
,,.rii"
.;j:!i,i,1t!i!icr. lli,us*.,r,t-rar"r, r,,ri;r;,rrl,,

(lrr3 $pcr:!,",r8 \yit,s:i. ,. : Th.:;r: i,;":ii.lrJ.; ir..l::r.i^{-,i(iillj \'i,as[*,1;

l,1I'r. f.'r .S Ll.f
irr:::: r]ll,ii:r.r:ri
.

/r\ lr" r;
iiZt_!.IOJCl.l
t(tl 1,{} \,,,e:j{.;s f;O,_, 1i1:;.i.; ;t
1..}1i,(:: lri;tt,:l_ l:;it(r - ,.... i. ;:,
hc:.r1;it;lll; i;t(j.
(b) 'rtlxie s::L'::{-a;lc,:s such ls Iii:-rv",,, i;rcr:ii siur!gcl, l}i..L,iir:;{.li;l:,
pl;:iriili ,'r,: r ir::1i.
"r,.,.
(c) t3I*I*1XiC;iri i:rr:.ir:*.;t.-q 5;ricfi a.: a.i::.i,l:",da.c,
::*tir;ioricr.,:, pnlili:'r.:i;ir:
-ani[ pz;il.c' 11,:c;.1 i,"rste:q, cir.;"
(o) t4S,"*1lg*:gy" as imfTarnmabte subs*unces-
e$ggp-Fgr& c*r_
:.:::Y"
rosive- ryq.qq*gt*,-*xBtqsiyes,
*nrutrffi.}Gl
tvi;*gruitnxd* of tlee preh;erra
*wi;:g to increasing
inerus*ia-trization and ever increasing
t},o production of Fpper, Ieather,
popuration"
rubb*r, rnetatr$, ptrasties ancl c:eramics has
been stceply increasing over *re rast
few decaics. This in tunn rcsurtc<r
im sreep increase im $re generaLion
or *tia wrlqte$ b*th in the elcver*peetr
antl developing counrri*1"^Io, example,
,h_ *r;"u",L; rcluse of USA
is esriniared ro tre over 4ffi rnsga
frre narranal r*nu'ri".,;il';;#;;)
 ll2 A Text Book of Enviroatnenra! (
sveragc of sorid waste generated in Nonh
per year {i.e., ab*ut Zi Xg gr", p*ruon Arncriea-'"is r' ton*e p
p*r Ouyj.
The a'rnuar cost of co*ection and
disposal of urban waste
is esrimatecl to be 6 billion Ooffars.
'I'hc qulrrtity
of tjcmc.sric antl munici pal solid wastes
.sorne rna3or crlres of'Inrlia genera
is 300 to 6&) I per Flerso{} per
ej.uenti ty cf rvastc generatecl
ci cp<:nds cn the aflluencc
ria v. si
pcr capita wilsLe prcrlriccd in I nclia oi thc ST\:
is naturally lcsser. aS ccin
pro<lLrccrl in {fir:snI wrjslcm counlriqs. Thc
:r
parcd t
amount lnitrg.:jpf;ilt jn ,nunlc
in Indie ferr solj.J wasre managernenf
rs es[irnatod rr: bc g50 to
rupces ;inllu:rlly whicii accounts l?00
for about l}o/o of their total
provisions" During the sevendes, bu
the q uantity of solirl waste gencrartl
rncrc.l,!rng at:t ratr of 5ok pct year
iind irr cightics, thc anriual rate
was 2 to 3o/o. Further, the ncrv prrrxiilcf.s oi i
sr"1, as c;tx] s, Lroltles,
containcrs, iror:sch*kl app liances,
tyrcs, Ibocl packi n g materi;ils r-l
other itetns ;;re con.si cierc,d to b* ;:ii
'I'hus, wirh lhe ch to throw itlv&1r [!;a_5; 1r1 y,_
".atr]cr
ad vcnr of "il!rG\,v*a\,vay"
concept In ti:e preserii ei.:,
soclct ,-,' lhc;1r:ncrafion oi.s oliC v,,asr-c
ilils been c<:n.s iclerably increas jr,
1n ty as well as complex;ty.
ties of sotrid wastes
(1) qoi:rpos,igiqq:-Jtparr from va-riarions
i* rL
rn [tte composition of domesdc and
in quanriry, wide variaiio..
municipal solid wastes may
dcpcrrding on the following facrors:_ also occu!-

;{$fregree of ur.ranization and indusriatriza,jorr of tFre

art--a
){,bY&*r caBim income
ffioeial crlslorns
3@etirnaric condirions of tfue area
lrdfurn*pratriliry of packaged foods
lffiFre.quency of coliecrion by rhe rnunicipaliry,
eec.
(2) Densir;1 :
The denplty *f:ryqgrgip3l*so-]iO yCI_t**
rso ks/m, ffi fs,* ;t;pe; ;;ffi -" ot; ** ;;;fi varigg.-{rc.n:
;ll5n pa; ti o 11 ror
-*r
an o *nn"$r ii ri recr re fu sq. s ilio n an d
i e I re e

(3) EjqeqgY*goillept : Municipal solid

wasres conrain,ri-rour 50%
Hence rhe wasrc i, uuilt"Js;
+:;"fabi:g!Je-rnauer.
anobccffi on^,vu'*,i*rffi-di-**[ru*.*y.iil;:ffi
"iu"i
of the urban sotrid waste, p"oau"*c".;;;iii; ilgffi-"ifrttfr*
they contain a Iarge quantity of, compactatrle ;;il;j* Kca_trs,rkg. since
organ;* *utt*u, these wasrcs
ffi#'Jy i:nf,{ ?i:L:trpos ting (aerobiJalrvi generailorr ;;;, o i
 SaliLWes-Fcll*tion, Treatrrce* & Dispo,sal .lfi
\r.fifjectives amel comsiderations in sorirj wa.cre I\,{;rn;rgcrrn**f

g-*1-"
qg9Jgry- % "jgel,et.;3 *prib t:q i,q* t'rrl*-'
pf 1

;gflonsidenatloms ;The rnajor considerations pf concern with soiid

waste rnanagemeirt apart from [hs economics are gfirua,," u,**in,
separation for ree yeli ng, and
ffirr*
recor/cry.
${energy
(a) FubIic E[eaEth : Under warm ancl rnoist corrriirions, und par-
ticularly wiTiliffifrHffivcetors (caricr:;) iikc watcr, ;iir, iirorl, rodcnrs,
mtlsquitocs and trlics, organic solicl wastcs zlrc iricai brccding placcs lor
pathogenic organisms. Potcntially hazardous substanccs iikr: solvcnl anri
pesticidc cans, rncdical wastes and asbestos dcbris prcscn,t in solicl wastcs,
air pollution l'r'ont gaseoils and particulate emissions lrom larid-fiii sircs
and rnunicipal incinerators, elc., also present soine addiriona! cnvironmcnutl
c{}ncerns relancd t* solid waste disposai. Further, the solid wasts managemcot
$grategies shoultl also t*ke lnto accounr the pcssible dclerioraLion of grounA
watcr quality bseai-ase of tand-filling of solid wastes, resiclues from incin-
erators and leaehates frorn the decomposing refuse.
(b) Was6.e,-1_eganat!on foI*M R.ocovery anrt
lecyc[ingoffiolicwaJtcs,alttroLrghaVeJ:yappcaling
difficult in practice. Expensive rna[erials sucla a.; somo rneLals
iclea, is rather
a-re found to be e{:onornical to recycle by industries. Return"lable botLlcs
amd refr-rndable eans may be recycled from mrunicipal wast*s.
Scparati0n sfl rvastes at source is wa-rranted anc{ fcasihlc anly vuhcn
rhr reclairned me[*rials find reasonable markoL Hower,{:f, this eone*pt of
waste separation a[source isreceivingincrcasing artcntion in sornc <]evclopecl
cotlnlrics due to the dwindling landfitt capacity, cconomic inc*ntivcs, irnpro,ring
rnarkets for the neelairned materia-ls, environmental concerns al:d political
wiffi.
Separatlorn *{ $}ixed rnunicip*I refuse for reclanra[io& a$ a cen6.rali.sed
faeility is anoeher approach in waste managernent whictr is parricularly
suitable for dense nteu"opotritan areas. Hand sorring anel macliine sorting
pr$ces$es *re u.Eed d*pendi*g upt"lat tFrc latm*r eosts anri ot-lrer sanitary
comsidc.ratioms. &{ethods for thE sepa.r"ation cif dry, putverir.*:d urixect refuse
are based on eharacEeristics such as size" diversity, iners.*, con<tr-lctivity,
etc. Air sr water classifiers for night rnaterials like paper" i"*nd ptasric,
rnagnetic separation forsepar"ation of ferrous rnetals, serecr:i:-rg for separation
of n*r-fcrrous mra[erials, inertial elassifiers fw separating in*rgiulic cofltaminan6
from connpost sr f'or seglar'aring heavy* resilientpartielps frcrm trigha_ rnelastic
ortes, are sorme of the unit prc,cesse$ enrployed.
 A Text tsook af Enviropunewal Cleemistry
114
from rnunicipal sdtid
(c) E:9qgy#gq5le5&: R:*:'*tv of enargv
wasles canG-affii"vedby the f.ollowing tw{} ways:
or converted
(,y'solid wastss e an be burnt diree tly in incineratcrs
t/
t0rnoraeffiiiont..refuse.derivdedfuet',(RDF).Pyrolysis
andanaerobicdeconrpositionoIo-rganiCrnauerinsolidwastes
,ifsth*o[hermeihodsavailableiorreeoveringthefuelvalue
of solid wastes'
wastes is tha
of the recovered materials from solid
ffi"uu* principal mode of energy conservation' Otrviously'
other
and non{errous rfietals
rnining and rnanufacture of f#o*u
e:lergy"intensive that
st^trting frorn mining of *'* ores -ry
is
re*seoflhesemet'alsisccrtainlyjustifiedfronrthesmnclpr'rint
of onorgY conservation'
of Sotid Waste treatrnent and disposaE
{.fue.'ltods
- ---
used solid waste EreatrnenL alnddisPosalPeeho'Js
The most cornmoryiy
o, coltr:1%ttipping $f,rrrermat
,r", #[offir* #il;t"*ffintts
processes (r:"g-, inclnEration and
pyrolysis)' and S/ft'ecvcting and R'euse'

A.,4uxiliaryoperat,iorrsirnvolvedinsoBidwastetreatEme$teE}ddis.
Posal:
Bef<rreactual}ytakirrgupthediscussiomonthedlsposatmteEhods,
auxiliary operaticns
if will be useful to consider gome of the essential
include
involved in *rese processes' These:processes
(a)rCotrIectiorr,transportarrdhandlimg.:Solidwas[esshotlldbe
collsctedat.leastonceaweek'However,inhighpcpulationdensi*yareas
content, particularty during warm
arlrl for wastes wi*r higtr purreseible
is desiiable' T6e n16,dern
weether: mero froquont eolleetlcn o6rsfuse 'method
t: rucks or corl&ainer
of transyrrd.; ;; handling. the refuse 9'-{i*11
trucks(withcnnyingcapacityof4tos.y*"**-1ack)provirkdwith
mechanicatrly' The wastes
manua}ly or
c${u,parr.iori f^rf iiiy, oif,intu are ioaded
with trailer units with'higher
g"ansf,er statio-ns equipped
are then ccxlected at
The wastes are then ceimpacted
carrying capaciry (about 20 tonnes *o*n!
tohighdensityandtlpntransportedtot}redisposalsites.Hydraulieand
developed'
being
pncumatic wasie-transport systems dlso are
(b}Fulr,erisation:Sotriclwast.esarepulverisedwiththetrelpe.'f
gyfatOrycrushersorjawerushersorotlrersimilarequiprnentpriortotrafisfei
loading,compacling,landfillsorincineradortinordertofaci[it,atethest
material whi*h help:
hon"logeneous
proeesses. ,ruircrisation helps in getting as in futurl
as
b*th in the gu,ater initial setttrer*unior the solids "vell
rcclamatiorn t
!.iolid V;ts.vl:r.:s..F c'i , :ttit;tt.. '*'rcr;inrs7sl ,tl ilisgttt::tii . ,

(rl) C*'r;i:;:r-r',i{:,r:;t,,icliriiilirii.X;Cr-l.ly;;lcLioniri:iji,..;j:: ,:,isgl ,i\.,.ii:.:.;ii

uSiTrg I:yeli"aurlir-: t}r Fi!a1r,:'ilttij..: ;),:'t--.:,i::ct; is r:'rr.n-ie<i Clrri- iii ll;l ::trr. l_|{ at a { .,-:r!r-:.:

fat;rlity.'.I-ixC ild,,;!I:t,-I,l,i1.',:; e*i-tif]va:d irir l]ril procc:i3 iir* ijl Iii;,.rrr,!-ir:i: i;r l-l:i ,;,
vaiire (li) Ijie,.;it;ltiit;i ii; {r(}ll,i(ili{}r} liini: iiii) iicr!lii..iri.,,,, i,. i:.;,i,'lr:t..i i,,,,
;irlfJ {r{}Il t,iy) I.,tS:1,::t" :;!{:;!i.til,i:; al'i::r (r,) tr-,fsi;*r selili.,r i,:;1 ,'1;',::.,.1 {,,t) (-1,,'l;t;,:,,
Si (,]railiti ii i(1;'i "

rB. &,1!icrEriei+l{i:ril/ ir}v;,lvcd i:rr r;ry}ic! rl,:l:ite tr"r:;liir*:ri'$i" :i):1: ii:s:ail...;.ii

Ir"4icri'r-r-trg,;i,'ri:rlts pllr,ly ;:t r,'ltr.ii roic, ir: lr;:lti;r it;lr-l r:,,,,,..;i,,:.,,,:tjl::. 1., r..:lli:rir., ;.
( ()riliii)::;;ll',;,i)r.,':.-jll'.,t r t'1::lj-j.rir; , . l',:r;t:.. i.,itr'.';;;'il . .r ,';,
()l int('jlfl:ti [rt;n"r tllt i;lril;i rli ir;ijiI./..i1'C.ltvilitii,t,li:Jtt;il s;jii-.:!c( , r]i:.it'.. , ' '

ii.re shr-iv,/il ir: Fi;r.. 'r',:-1\.

(0) Bocterio
{Solmonellu typhl.!
(t,) Fs6qi (?r'lyceli'irn I

ir.<@:ca=q1oy.. r----, , .,' .' i,,'t

r. 1r.!;.,,.I.tr.r,.\,.......,-., (*..;:,il ,, ,
>' url':''"r:,:I\.-Li-tr_ j'
-. ll, 1. ,
\'.\ l: : ..,:--,,!,.'
'_''t'
'-t' j -:i.':
'i("rlc"r'.+r
' ';
.1.,. , . :" 1,.., .
,.. -rr'v4ia"'-'' '.:
rt ,i.'
.i.1.j.,.:,'.:''
(i)Ancbcr:rro tiil f,,,,o,,,,:i. i,;.::I'rf:"'
(c) Profos$srr (c!) AI\.6cr
(Vcr t ice lt& )

4xagonol liacd

-tNucloic Aclrl Cere

I trll o-... -..--.{.triri r r:r_:lii r Sltrl II ;

--*-: flosrr Pitr!e

-t-ail FiL,re
(e) Virtts { BocicrioFhaqe)

F"ig" 1?',{" Soil micro-otganismu of intcrsst f'nrnr lhe. primt *f l,'iew c,f
Ilnv ironmenta! Sci ence antl f,in gine.cr ir1 ;'",.
 i 15 A 'fcxt Book of Envirorunenlal Chemisrry
Most living thir:gs \i/ere originally classifled as belonging to either
the plant kingdorn or lhe animal kingdorn. In 1866, a third kingdom callcd
th* "protisur" was proposed to flt in such micro-organisms which did not
uncquivocally fit into the pldnr or a.nirnai kingdom, e.g., prcqozoa, bacteri&,
fnngi and algao viruses were discovered later.
Ilacteri* are *re rnost importafit group of micro-clrganisms which
are essential to the nu8ient cycle of the ecosystem. Par.hogenic (disease-
causing) bacteria received greatest attention from the grint erf view of
eqridcmiology. Many other types of bacleria are importa$t in narural se!f-
purification of strcems and lakes, in the decomposition of solid wastes in
lar:iltllls, soils and in composting. Bacteria also play an important role in
waler iln wastewater [reatment processes (vide Chapter 2).
Viruses ere srnaller than bacteria and rnay a.ls* cause diseases in
plants, anim'als and human beings.
AXg:re bclong [o a group of phctosynthetic plant-like micro-errganisms,
They imaprt odoilrs and tastes in ';rater. Thcy may also intert'er-e with water
sug:ly by clogging water filters. Algae provide oxygon for low+ost wastewater
trc,r{.mcnt in oxiclation ponds. (vide Chapter 2) However, excessive amounts
of nutrients in wrlter can lead to algae blocms which leacls to "eutoplti-
ttttion", rcrrclving rlissolved oxygen f'rom lakes when il'ley elecornpose.
Felngi aro unieollular or multieollular micro-organisrns whieh ean
snrvive undr;r lolv pH conditions" They are non-photosynghctic " prcrisB".
Fungi are usefurl in rhe biological tre&tmenc of some indr"lsrrial \.vastes and
also in cornposting of solid organic wastes.
Xll"otozoa are, by and large, an order of magnitude larger than bae teria.
Th*y als* pliiy a role in biological wasteweter trcalmcnt processe$ t1*s*ritrcd
in Chaptcr Il.
Rotifers are rnutticellular rcicro-organisrns which are soffi)etirnes
prescnt in thr: et'fluents of sorne biol*gical waste treaErtent, precesses. They
consumo organie colloids, algae and basteria and r}rus perform a "Folishing"
function.
CnesLrcea&s are multicellular organisnls having a hard streil. Some
of them are micrcscopic in size and serve as f'or:d for fish" They are also
considcre.d eLs indicators for unpollutr:d conclition in receiving waters"
(a) Ilactec'!$ : T'hese eue unicellulelr microscopic organisrns usually
iound in v/at-er, wastewater, soil, planB, animals, milk ancl ir:testinal tract
of hum:rns. Bacteria reproCuce try tlinary fission. They ale characterized
by their sizr:, shape, structure and ceXtrular afl"angefflent. Bacteria x,itlr
spherical shagre are ullled"cocci", those with spiral shape are call+d "spirilla",
 Sotid Waqtes-Pallution, l'reattnent & Dispostt[ 1t'7
,l

and those having cylindrical or rod-like shepc are callcd "tiacil;r L1;ictcri;rl
eells may be arranged in pairs, clusters, or cha.ins.
'fhe cclls of all types of tractcria have a rigid cclt r+,;ril oF abcrrl
0.2.5 p"mr thatpro[ce ts thcircontcilLs from osmolic prossure and a]rio rnainkrins
the ir shapc (f ig. 12-B). Just bcncath the celtr w;a11 is thc
,qcrnipermcable"cytciplasmie mcmbranc" having a ihickncss cf alxrrrt O.0075
pp, T'his semiperrncatrle snernbranc separalcs and protects thc proii.rpi;:srn

Cy lr:p:lusrn
ContcininrJ RNIA Cop=ula

Cellwall
Vtoplosmir:
Mern brcrne

Flogcllr:rn
$eirercli
Fo ly ri botr..:Ries
Nlu6laor A r,.,ct
Contcininr: DlriA'

Fig, 12-8. Schcmatic representation of a typicai bacrcrial ccil.

(i-e", the ilrtcrnal content of the cell) frorn the exlernai environrncnt by
allowing ttre nutrienLs to pass into Lhe cell and rtre waste producxs {llrt o{-
the ccll. Any damage to this cytoplasmic mcrnblrane by phtysicail or q.hcmical
ageilts causes the death of the ceil. 'Ihe protoplasrn conlains threc riiflfcrcnt
a-reas: (l) &ecytoplasrn,con$aining dissolved nuarientsanclRNh (u"itr*nucicie;
acid) whieh helps in the bi*syntlxcsis of pr*t*ins, {f$ the :*ui:l*itr iirn?l
containing DNA (dcoxyribonueisic aeid) whi*tl is r*spcinsihl* fl*r ltl+ t,rnetic
sf,ahility o[ the species] amd (ii$ the polyribosonles, wi:ich prCIrluc* erizyr]rcs
specilrc to certairu Lriochernical rcacLirlns.
Sorne type.scf bacteria, suelr asbaciilus ar-rd clos"',ridiunl, &>nrt "sporr:s"
which represeult a qlorgilant or rcsting phase of ttre cell and which are *-er)j
rssistant. lo a{$vsrss physieal or cheff}i*aX erlvironrnents. Whern 1}rc actl.r*
cell (ealled the vegctative celtri is exposed to aslv*E$s Srow*r c*nrlilion.s,
'"$poras" rnay fonu within the cytoplasm. Whcrr conditions cr:nducivc Ior
growth develop, tlre "spores" gerrninate antl ftew vogetative cetrl'i cnicrllc,
 I tB A T'ext Book af Environmental Cherniste.y
Spore-forming bacteria comrnonly occur in air, water and soil and are
difficult to destrcy.
Marry hacteria are capatrle of rapid movemenf in liquids wirh &e
help oi thcil' whip-lil<c "tltgelin" and hence are saiel [o t]€ *.m$tile,'. Ths
existcncc ancl the type of "flagella" lielp to differentiate trctween varislars
tracterizrl groups-
Bactcria are divided into two broacl groups on ths basis of their
sorrce *f encrgy and carbon source. Bacteria wlrich obtain both their
Encrgy arrd cilrhon tiom organic :natter are called Heterotrophic Bacteria-
B:rcrcria whjch require carrbon dioxide a*s their energy source and obtain
their energy lrorn sunligl"rt or by the oxiriation of inorganic substances are
cailed Autatraphic Bacteria
(]ll tlrc: besis of thcir nec<l tor oxygen, bactcria are also ctassified
;ls lnllorvs:
(a) a';f,er<lbir b:lcteria,' which requlre free oxygen for their growt.*r.
(h) u'lLn*erqlbie b*cteri;a" v,rhich can grbw witherut free oxygen.
(c) "Ei:rcu!fative bactex"ia" which can grow with $r wichout
ox.ygcn.
(d) 'iF,,$icroaer*grhilic haetua'ia" which grow in the presenee sf
minute quantities of free Oxygen.
tufost bacteria grow berween pH 4 to l0 but exliitrit cptimum growrh
in the pH rarrge 6.5 to 7.5" Ati bac{.eria require rnoisture f'or their growt$r
f*r faciliiating tlre dissolutian of nutsients and to penetrate the cell rnernb.rame.
Growth and reproduction of the cell occur as &e muLriemts are take* mg>

into the cell tc process ncw cell material.

Complete destruction of rnicrobial life is called steritizatio*. Destruc-
tion of pa&ogenic bacteria is called disinfection. Corrrplete sEerilizati$si
can be achieved with steam at *bout.210 K pa (I5 psig) within 2$ milrutes"
Disi*fection is generally mhieved hy chlorination or wi.th iodine Gr &u&sle;
and these are used in water Creatmenl"
Solid waste decornposi[io* in soil is n'lostly carried out b]y facuttative
bac leria w hich decornpose cornpiex organ ic ac ids under amaerobic condition s
into simpier water-solublc organic acids. These are them comverged s*r C02
and HrO aemtricaily, or [c CHu araaerobically.
(b) Erungi : These are nonplroaosynthetic eukaryotes {i.e., having trr}e
nucleus). They may be divided iErto the following tluee gro'ups oe [he basis'
ofl their srructure and mode of, reproducLion:
 Sotid Wastes-Pollution, Treatm.ent & Dbposal I Ig
(i) Molds : These are firamentous fungi and grow by exrcnding
I+ng thrcad-like srrue tur*s: Astr.rcrgillu.s, Mue*r and Rhizopus arc
ri-* euamplci
cf molds.
{i;} Yeasts: Th*se ar* non-fil;}m*m({-}r}s fungi anll ar* unicr:}lular.
&usixlre and Candid"t are theexamples- They arc unir:etrlular and etrecnnsiclcrah;ly
langer than bacteria. Thcy nre widely <listrib$ccd in naturc" They arc ge ncraily
spherical, eltripsoidat and ogg-shapcd ccl[s. I-Inlikc motrds, ]/casrs ar* fac-
utr*ative, 1.e., they catl grow unctrer bolh acrr.,trie anrl anaerobic canrlitions"
They reproduce asexua-ltry by i:inary fissior-l ur- by buocling. ye:a,srs :;rr. usclul
in many f'errnenurtive processes (e.g., preparatirli-I of bread, trccr s.nd winc)
ilnd elso for synrhcsis of certain vitamins, flets end proicins fr.+rn sinrpic
sllsars and anrmonia niarog*n. F{owevcr, s(}rn* EyF}*s *f y*i}st5 ,(*.;:._ c;urlirla)
can eause feazardous inl'ectierns in hurnans"'
(i;;) Mushroorns : Thcsc arc rnacroscopic fungi bclonging ro ihc
Basidiomycetus division. Scveral typcs of editrlc arid non-editrtre rnus[iroorns
arc known.
Fungi are rnostly aerobic and fecd oir dccaying organi,;: rniiltci-" Thcy
are more resistanl to acidic condition. T-hcy rcpr*ducc by eirl:c;- scxual
on asexual spores.
Soi[ fungi play a viratrrolc in stabilizing sotrid waslcs in cgnrpnstinl:
ar*d land{illing proce.sses try decomposing the plant rissues likc cciiulosc
ancB iignin
(c)Elnotozoa: These are highly spccia.lizeai Lrniceliul;lr org;lnisnrs.
They reproduce asexually by binary fission. Mcst of thern are non-flho!.11synrhcl-ic
alld are rnocile- They are of varying size fronr a fcw to severai hundr*d
r*ricrons. They survive adverse conditions by forrning cyst.B with thick rvalls.
Frobozoa rnay be saprophytic (e.g., sarcodina). As n-nost of thc }:{otozoa
are predators on bacteria, lhey are found wherever tracteria are prevalent-
'Ihus, protrozoa heip in m'laintaining the equilibria of rnicrobiarl flora in solici
waste disposal sysEerns-
Entana**ba EristoXytica is cornmon pathogenic grrr:tozorr which cai.rses
arnoebic dysentery in liumans. Sorne protoz$a bel*nging to rmastigophora
grou$? ftre trlCId parasites whieh cause sleepi:eg sictr<sl*ss im lrumans" some
species of parasitic pro{.ozoa belonging tD sporozca group cause nralaria
in lau-rnans" The female Anopheles mosquitos are th* camiers of th*se parasites
tul hurnan hosm.
:
{d} .&[gae These are microscopic plants wlri*h arre eapabxe o{'
phsi.osymlhesis and hence contain chlorophy'nL Umic*liular algao *re n-rers1ly
spherical, spiral orcylindrica! while rnulticellE:!aronesean grow in fila;;rents"

-.ar--
!:2A ,f it:xt Baok af ilni,ir*nmt:ntal Ci'trni.ttry
long tubcs or simple n)asses cf'sirrgle cclls that clirrg togethcr. AIgac lu'o
the imporiant primary produccrs in the aquatic food chain. Irlowever, algac
impzf{.lastes an,:l odours in waLer arrd causc high chlorine demand lor water
treatment.'fhey ciog watcr intakes aird shorten filter rurrs. Excessive growth
o{ dgac, kr-lcwn a:i "algal bloorns" iirrtcrfcrcs with rccrearional uses o[ war.*r"
The algac arc proscnt in fresh watcr, inarine wator as well as polluted waler.
Thcy elre gencrally classificd on tho basis of aplrcaranee in witlcr, e.9.,
grccn ycilorv, red, brown i;rtd bl*e-green.
(e) Viruses : Thcse i.re ttte srcallest mi{:io-organisms in size rarrga
1x 1{12 pm io 25 x lOz pm. They do not conrain any-'Fhey ir}ternal enzymes
and hcnce canrloi grow or rnetabotrize on their orvn. are obligate
parasiies infectir-rg the tissues of bacteria, plants, acrimals and htttnans.
Exzrrnpics of trurnan pathogenic viruscs include th*se whichr caust mr.ityll).q;,
irrlirrurr.,.li, sui.rlil,().(, itil'ucLitlus llr';i;Liitis iltttl puliurrryt'litis.
Alrlrougir viruscs are riol. living orgallistlts, lhey ean reproducc or.
t'c iherns;lvcs rvithin tiieir s1;ce ific host cclls
and disposal methods
Wilste tre:rtrnent_1_w
( t ) Oui;'o pc:t iir;g
-.
Cr:mpcsting is thc acrobic alnd thcrmophilic decomposition of organic
nlDttcr prescnt in Llrc rcfusc by microorganisms, primeLrily bactcria anrl fungi"
T'hc orgilnic rnir[tcr is Lrrmsformcd into a stable humus likc subsnnce during
this process. l-ho reactions taking, ';lace during cotllposting generate heat
and hence the coiripost. tempcraturo raises during the process. Dcpcnciini;
upon the composition and nature tlf the waste, the wastc volume is reduced
by about 30 to 6O o/o.
For an optiinum composting opcration, the foltrowirlg control p:rra-
metcrs are usuillly adhcred to:
1. Ternpcrature 40 to 50"C
(lf the ternperatur:e goes lrey*nd
66{, tliologiceil aedvity will Lro re-
duced).
2- pH 4"5 to 9.5
(It is better to n-laintain pll belo*'
8.5 to minirnisc ttre loss of niirogen
in the fonn of ammonia as gas).
3. Moisturc 4O to 7U%
('Ihe optimurn vae-true is atrqrlt 55%\.
Solid Wastes-Potlution" Treatmen| & Dlsposal l2l
ir " 0.53 to Z.S4 crn
.4. Particle size
5. Air r O.5. ro O.g nl3/day/kg of vrlarile
compost solids
6" Cartrcn ra Nirogen
Ratio : (35 to 50) : I
7. Carbon to Phospho-
rus ratio : 10il : tr

Composting may tre carried oul naturally under contrr:llcci condition

or in mechanized comtrrosting plants. In naturatr $yst$ms, the garbagc (which
is gronnd a!'tcr removing glass and met^:rllic materials) is mixcd with a
nutrient source (e.g., sewage sludge, animal manure or night soii) and a
filler {e.g., wood chips or 5lround corn cohs) which permi* the air ro enrcr
into tlre pilc. The mixture, which is rnaintained at alrcut 5oozlo moir:turc
contcnt, is kcpt in windrows having a width of abourt 2.s rn. The rnixi.rirc
is turned over twice a week. within about 4 ta 6 wecks, thc lemp*raturc
falls, the colour clarkens and a musty odour develops. This indicates cornpi,:r.ion
of the process. The filler may then be rernoved and lhe rernaining hurnus-
likc material is used as soil conditioner. with rnechanicai systcms, rhc
composting time is reduced to half of that. requirerl in nalura! sy.\rcms,
bccause of continuous aeration and rnixing"
The composting proccss usualiy consists of the follclwing tilrcc stLlps:
(i) Waste preparatiom : The solid waste is placerl on slov,, moving
conveyor belts. Materiajs like corrugated paper are hand-picked a.r"rd ehcn
the ferrous rnaterials are rtrmoved by magnetic ssparation. The waste is
then groun<l in hammer mills or wet pulpers to the desired size rangc (o.6
to 2.5 cm). Then, it is mixed with nutrient source, fitrlcr arrd watcr (to
provide 5A % rnoistur*).
(ii) Digestion : The mixture is placed in the windrowr; far.416 we*ks,
while turning it once or twice a weck. T'he waste is decornposod bv thermoptrilic
nricro-orga:risms during fiii..r gieriod. The materiai is them allowect [o s{abitrize
for another 2 to 5 weeks.
{iii} Froduct r:pgradation : In orcler to ensur:o qr:iick and berter
rnarkcting prospscts, ihe product is sometim*s upgraded by rrperation.q suc.h
as curing, grinding, screening, pelletising and bagging.
In Wostern F.uropc, Japan, Israel ancl some Thinl-$lortrd cr:untries
which are cotitmitted to land reclamation, rr!any successf,ul cclrnposting plants
have been opcrating for scveral ycass. India has rnado consirJera.l-rle progrcss
in organising cornpost plants in cities trike tsornbay, tsarotna, calcutta,

I
I
lZ:a A T'*xt Baok af Erviranmertul Clzeintstm
l.{rigpiir', Dclhi, Bangaiore and Ahmedaued, Mcchanrcal compost planLs arc
enc0uraged tl], the Government. in (}Ur couillry zrs a national programmc-
'l'ti*: l{arionzl} }?.t:s:rrch i}evclopffienl Corporatir:n
is now in a prrsitiolr to
lril*i' ihi: lliiiii.rr: kno',v-ircrv to other ci-ru:rtries.T'he agriculiurai re.scarch
insriii!t*E: *.ri' Errrr crl{rnrJy a.r{: {levclcpinlg the rcchnr:log3r to pri_rducr: biuc
,t''fft ;.rigL* +:,:;et:d gr:rnulated Cornpcst
vffj
li:rrr i4ur .r, X.llnd{i !niniI
&*@j'@*=+

L-l:rtdliilirig is rh* Iilo.tl commolr :.lr:d ri{j{}it(ir}lic ure tliorl ol'solid w;rsit
l!is1:*:i;tl . i* r'l'l,arai,, couvrtr!e:;.
}}isii*silr;; solirl rv*se.cs i$t$ "opuil ilarrnp:i" ..,i/ijs"tildl r-loc"ffia! xlr:icijue
t"ry ttit"u:ir;llliiliii.is irlrr:: gtrcd OldC6 day;. 'Iile "tOwn drrrni,r" generally userj
rr b*- ir-: ;"r i'.:i'i-1ying ru-eir near a watercourse. This unsernitary du*rgling
()i^ ti"l* witstri ur*c'.} i* resu!l iri w,iitcf pollurion, bad odours, blow.ing papers,
iir*s, Ilius, r';-ri.E, i,:ic. i'hcse problulns lverrl firostry reduced tly burial ol
iili: r,vils[r-r. ]ruruhcr imprr:vcm*ilt w:rs achievcd by compaeting ti.le waslij
i;r lay*rs ixlrl covering it with earth at the cnd or tne disposal of the lvaste
cver? drry- In order to distinguislr tiom the e:rlier practice of unsanit;xy
"otrx:rt rlilnry", tJlis r*eLhoti is callorl "saniury landllltr". Although compacting
;ilrd t{}voring still continue to be rhe basic operations today, severll {'*rther
irnprovcments in the proccss have taken place during rccent. years- These
r;icludc caretLl and scientiiic sire selcct"ion, controllc:d deposition, bctrcr
rrrcth*cls of c0rnpliction, reduced cover, leachate ccllectian to avoid \.!,ater
p*llufie-rn anri site rnoniroring to ensure environrnental protecrion.
I-r"l a sa{}lfilry landfi!}, complex organic w&$[ss are slowly degrarled
or dc*ornp*sed by the soil micro*organisms, primarily by aerobie or facultative
tractr:riil and fr-r*gi. sinre air cannot enter through a compacted lend-fiIl,
lhe: aerot:i* bactcri* decompose the organic solid waste by utitizing wlra{evcr
{lxygel} is prcs:nt inside rhe landtill" Then, ciecornposirion by rhe anaergbic
rnicrr:-*rganisnis begins, and this accountq fur the degradation of rnost of
the xrlid wasle present in tll* iantlfili" The .ryoter-soluble organie aeids
ge{1e!-i}tc{i in tttis prffess ener the lvekr r:rr",;tila isr*1 dit-fuse through r}re
}*Elctflil :r*iis"'tr'lte bacteriaa*e! fungi pr*scr;tiur i ir,* soilsa*rotlically rnetag:olisc
tir*sa *rg;l.nic aciris in*r C{},, n$sl walsr.
G:cssirx:dly, ane*r<rhic me&rane br*teria rccurnulatc in iamttill sy.steil]s
an*i gene*lr.e rrpprreciable qnmndries of r$ethane &as. A porticn of rlis gas
rnay tX: *tiiise,i by aerobic bnctcria er-s it dilf,uses r.larourgh't-he laurl{Ill- Bur,
ilowevcr, rnosr: ci [he rnethane escapes inro *le aLn:osphere arntf xnay pos*
ti "fcteitlial {ire h:rznr"6!-
irtreal sanitary l.axelfitl eite shoulet satisfy the foliotving crit*ria:
Jrl
 Solid Wa,;tes-Pollution, Treatment & Disposat
i23
,W. It slroultl be ci:cap, acccssitlic arri iii a re{isofi*l;re cisu;ric.
bd It should be atrcast lvzkm <lownwincr from thc
c,mmercial ancl
rcsidential neighbouring area.
(ty It should be reasonably levelred, clear and we, draincd,
with
capacity of use for at least 3 years.
(pY Its soil should be of low permeability so that i[ can
be used
as satisfactory cover material.
(u) It should be well above the ground water tatrie
so that thc
underground watcr supplics are not pollurcd.
(v, !e site selccted for landfilling should not be delercrious or
offcnsive to the surrounding environ men t. It shou rrl be
con s istcn t
with the topography, crimatic conditions, h'ydrogeorogical
requiremens and economical considerations.
"---she planning of a sanitary landfiil opcration shourd r:c ba_qcd on lhc.
following considcrat^ions :
(r) The quantity and nature of the solicl wasre irr be trcatcd.
(ir) ovcrail suitabiliry of thc rand for such orrcrarion.
(irr) Economic consirrcrar,ions of the randfifiing process
as con:pari:ri
to olher available solid waste treatmeni prclalsscs.
(iv) Public healrh crircria-
(v) Proper design of the sanitary rancrfilt operar.ic,n rvii.h resrJr-.r:r,
to the appropriate method of the lancrfitt suirabre lor
thc ciro.scn
site and efficient organisation of the possitrrc poirulron
1:r*brcmr;
-
such as lcachate gcneration, cscalrc ol. gas*s. erc.
Preparation of the lanrlfill sitc involvcs fcncing, gra.ding,
sr*chp.ilirr,q
r'rf the cover material, construction
of berms,landscaJrinfianet lh* ir;sinliarinn
of leachate collection systern, gas coilection .* y.or**'*r Jnr
on itorinri irysi.ci n .
A cross-secrional view 0f an ideat s:uritary landfill is siho*.n'iir
ltrig. i 3.
Mixed solid wastes with varying degrees of cornpacti<>n arr, r,leirvcrei.l
ro the landfill site by packed trucks or trailer units. f$t*r han,:l
snrting
the wastcs, pulverising or high prcssure compacti.n and baiing
ibr v*irrmri.
reduction may be done before placerncnt. t-oos$ matcriaj ils pla*cd
in Ehc
lower part of ttre pit or trench. It is then sprearr and compacted
by ntacirines
in layers of about 0.5 m rhickness. After the encr of each ,day,s operarion
and when the depth is about 3 m, the refuse is covercd wirh
cm of earth. This consolidated solid waste enclosed by e,arrh
i5 ro 3{)
aL rhe enil
of a day's operation is called a ..cell".
 L?4 A Text Book of Environrnenlal Chemistry

Wind scrcen Finol Soil Trcca ond Vegetotion

or lengc Cov er I
lor erosion conlrol
& lot ocslhctic
Bull{r Gos Venl Doily soil
20t\Q
'i9 covc r
Leochote colleclor
BorricY lo Droi n0gc
prcvcltl 90s ditch
migrotlon O L cocholc
Droin lor ,, lmpc I meoble
lining Compoc ted morritor ing
gr ou ndwo I or
soil prolect in9 lhc
impermeo b le lining
Ground woler

I
ttt/
fiA, ,t. Cross-sectiopat view of a rypical sanitary land-fill
Landfilling by low density refuse may not be economical particularly
at a site with limited capacity. Reduction of waste volume extcnds the
life of the landllll and will also prove to be economical. Volume reduction
by incineration is expensive and hence physical methods such as pulverising
(by a hummer mill) or high-pressure compaction into bales or blocks (of
about 1 m3 weighing about 900 kg) are usually preferred. Pulverisation
brings about a volume reduction by about 50 Vo and also helps in reducing
the cover material required, problems of odours, rodents, insects, fires,
blowing papers, etc. High-pressure compaction into solid bales also provides
all the abve advantages in addition to provide resistance to infiluation
byreit water.
vE#obtems with landfitling
(ld Economic problems : The land used as landfill cannot be used
in futuie as a productive farm land. Even after closure of the landfill site,
its further use should be restricted only to some type of open development
such as a park or recreational area. Building construction in the site must
be controlled.
l
-Gl Aesthetic problems : Poorly operated landfill operations may
cause problems due !o bad odours, insects, vermin, blowing papers, rats,
and scavenger birds, apart from the dust and noise froni waste transporting
Solid Wasres-Pollution, 'lreatmen! & Disposal 125

vahiclcs and eompacling olrcrations, Continuous fisld cornpaction of rhe

loose refuse and proper covering with earth at the end of each day's opcration
reduce these problems. volume reduction by pulverisaLion <x high-pressure
compac tron ma y ensure an aesthetically acceptable opcrat.ion
Environmental problems : During Iandfilling operations of mu-
sol id wastes, aerobic degradation occurs initially for periods varying
from a few weeks (in wet areas) to a fcw months (in dry arcas). Aftcr
all the oxygen is exhausted, anaerobic degradation of thc organic wasres
u*es place. While these processes are aking place, liquids from the wasre!
seepage from ground water, rain water and surface run-off percolatcs through
the refuse. This produces a contaminated liquid called "leachate". The
leachates having high organic content, soluble salts and othcr constituents
can contaminate the ground water.
Further, methane (CHJ and carbon dioxide (COr) arc gcncratccl
during the anaerobic decomposirion of organic mattcr in ther landfill.
Mcthanc constitutes about 6O Vo of the gas generatcd in a saniLery landfill.
Mcthane is hcavier than air, odourlcss and explosive when its conccntration
in air reaches ovsr 57o. Flcncc its hazardous potentiai shoi.rld bc givcn dlre
considcration.
Carbon dioxide combines with water giving carbonic ar;irl.'[-hc rcsulrant
acidic environment may help in dissolution of mincrals and salts of Ca,
Mg, Fe, Cd, Pb andZn present. in the refuse or in the soil. I[ thesc dissolvcd
salts move into the ground water, increascd hardness and heavy mctai toxicil.y
of the water may result.
In order to control the contamination of ground water by the lcachate,
certain regulations are prescribed for sanitary landfills. These includc mandatory
minimum distance of the location of the landfills above the ground-watcr
table, minimum distance from the nearest point of watcr use, usc of soil
of low permeability, preventing the build-up of the leac;hare wirhin the
landfill, ertensive hydrogeological investigation of the actual landfill site
including topography, soil stratigraphy, drainage and groundwaler char-
acteristics (e.9., depth and movement), etc. Supplementary n'icasures such
as inclusion of clay and/or membrirnc covcrs or liners for the lancifill, Icachate
collection, removal and tf,eaunent facility, installation of monitoring systcm
are also suggested to ensure that the buried refuse rernains as dry as
;ossible and the leachate does not reach the ground rvarer. In spite of these
prec;utions, if some leakage of the leachate still occurs, the soil beneath
senres 8s an addidonal barrier to attenuate the contarninants before reaching
the groundwater by mechanisms such as filtration, adsorption, precipitation
and biological activity.
. 126 A Texr Book of Enviroruaetual Chemktry
Trrc gases produced in saniury landfiils by the
anaerobic
of org*nic waste are gcneraily venred to the amo*pte.c throughdigestion
graver-
packcd srarnii .r wolrs. In sorns randfifls, the escaping
g{rscs arc burnt off
with the help of burners installed at the top of Ure ,e]rts.
These measures
are meant for preventing undue accumulation and lateral
movemenl
mig:ation of the gases under the landfilt cover to nearby residential anc
areas
wllet rnay cause fires and explosions
,{9j' Thermal processes
I'hc ilnportant thermal processes used in solid wasrc tr"^tment
are
incineration and pyrolysis.
..*:#.9-:S!Jg.e: In this process, the solid organic wasres are subjected
to controlletr cor4buslion so as.to convert them into incomu"sriure
and gaseous products. Incineration procqss is considered when
.e;rJ;;
*r,oli"
for land{llling is not available within economic haul distances from "ri.
rhe
sources of solicl waste.
The advantages of this process are :

fx rne vorume of the waste is reduced..{o more manageable lcvers

rhc'cby reducing thc rransportaLion costs to the urdrlate
oisposar
sitc.
(ij)' waste liom aligg,e-gpommunity ofpeoplecan be
accommodated
" for:l given acreage available for a randfifl. Incineration reduces
thc land requirement ro one-third of that required if
the ."frse
is ro be landfilled.
(fir).' The residue after incineration, if properry carried out,
' rrorn any degradabtre materialr *it,"l";'ir;';g"r
is free
a source
of ;i'llution. Moreover, rhe stabilised residue *,rI p..or."o,
minimises or even eriminates the need ransport the cover
mat,erial tto the landfill site. 'o
The disadvantages of this process are.
(, hjq! capitat and operation cosrs
(,i) rhe possibirity of air porurion if not carried out properry.
(tii) ordinary incinerators cannot be used for radioactive waste.s,
successi'ul incincrarion proccss invorves thc foilowing
steps:
I
r
(0 Handling and feeding rhe waste to the incinerator
J
j
(iO
I
combusrion of rhe waste within the incinerator
i
$
(,rr) rem,)var of the incombustibre residues to the disposal
!
t
sire
 & Dispo'sal t27
Solid Wastes-Poltution, Treatmen!
(iv) removal of gaseous and q.3s;borne residues'
The design of an incinerator on
conCideration s:
waste to handled,
M the

(,'d measures to ensure that there will not b. qty Pollution of air'
water or land resulting from the opcration of the incinerator.
4l+i,.l#3i.'1r+*i.,*5{4#

0n econom ic considerations, the size of the incinerator is determined

For
on the basis of the weeklY quanritY of the waste to be incinerated-
unsorted YSstes, two types of incinerators are used :
_;?'

.Gf' fn" batch-type incinerator which is manually stoked and has

a relatively J-afi rated capacity. These plants have several disadvantages:
(a) owing to the intermittent operation, the burning temperature
cannot be maintaine{ in a uniform manner. This rnany result
inaninadequateandirregularcombustionofthewastc.
(b) the output of particulate matter is more'
(c) the volume reduction of the waste is lesser than the optimal
value expected.
(d) this may end up rvith an unstable residue still containing some
putrcsciblematter.Thus,itmaystillpossesssomopollution
Potential-
(e) the intermittent incinerator plants are unsuitable for large urban
centres.
6if: Ttre continuous-type of incinerators are equippec! vrith large
*ro*gfbins, automatic feed hoppers, varied iyp"r of moving grates a:rd
ash discharging systems. These uni6 are capable of nraintaining
unif,orrrr
temperatures for combusti6n and can be equipped with
pollution conlrol
precipitators. These units
devices such as gas scrubbcrs and electrostat-ic
are capable of yielding a stable residue which is non-polluting.
Although
high, these units, which provir]c
*re capitat and operating costs uu.e very
*onroll".l fumace temperatures of 760 to 98ffC, can rcrnove odours iuirJ
also bring about a substantial reduetion in rvastc voluil:le, ill an environ'
nrentally acceptable form. Since the final residue is stable, the cost of cover
mar.erial required to ultimately dispose it in the landlill will be substantially
minimised or even eliminated in some cases'
The modern mturicipal incinerators are of continuously trurning type'
Many of them have "waterwall" construction in the combuStion chamber
 I:81 A Text Book of Envirorwenlal Chemktry
inllc;rci thr: ol<lcr arid morc fclrnmon rcfraetory lining. Thc .,walcrwall,,
consists of joined vertical boiler tubes (made otsteety tilrough which
water
is ;i-rculatcd. These watcr tubes absorb heat to provide hot water for srcam
gcneration and at the same time control thc furnace temperature-
Thus,
the heat recovery is simpler and the waste heat of combustion
can be utilised
for space heating, power generation, desalination, etc., as has been done
in some recent installations.
Furlher, the "waterwail" units help in eliminating the costly main-
tenance bf refractory-lining and alsoreduce the pollution cbntrol
reqrire*ent
(by rcducing the volumes of quench water and gas, that require triatment)-
Hcwever, corrosion of the "waterwall" units may be a serious problem,
as cxpericnced by sorne installations in European countries.
Putrefiable organic solid wastes from slaughter house have to be 4ried
in special driers before being incinerated. Hospital wastes are gcnerally
disposed of by parhological incineration.
It thc wastes are burnt onry for volume rcduction, therc is no need
for an auxiliary fucl, cxccpt at thc startup. whcn stearn production is thc
objcctive, supplementary fuel must be used with the pulverised refuse.
Feri'ous me[als are usually recovered from the ash.
High temperature incineration is a recent. innovation where tempera-
tures of the order of l,65o"c are attained using supplementary fuels. In
this piocess, non-combustible fractions of the refuse (e.g., metal and glass)
are rnelted in a bed of high-temperature coke in therefractory linqdincinerator
and are drained of as moltcn slag.This technique can achieve volume
redrrction of the refuse by 97 vo. rn spite of the fact that the first high
temperaturc incinerator,was installed on a pilot plant scale as early as in
1966, application ro full-scale commercial units was not. followed up
enthusiastically for a long time due to the high costs involved.
The volkswagen works in Germany reportedly operated the so called
melt zit slag-tap process. In .this process, the glass in the solid waste is
liquefred at about 98fC and the ash is melted at about 130trC. The resulrant
magma is either molded into large blocks or run into water to produce
a coarse type of sand useful for preparing roads or concrete aggregate.
Another technological innovation in the field of incineration is the
so calted CPU4OO which is designed as a turboelectric generator plant
urilising the solid wasre itself as fuel. The refuse is first passed through
a shredder and e drier (where the hot gases from the'combusrion unit
themselves are used for drying) and then fluidised in the combustion chambe r.
Ttn trot gases produced are made to turn a turbine which will drive an
ckc trost atic . prec ipi taror.
Solid Wastes-Pollution, T'reatrnent & Dbpo-tat .L'79

The major problems associatcd with incincratiott process al'c :

(r) Air-pollution control, particularly the removal of the fine
particulates and toxic gases e.8., dioxin, are the most difficult.
(ir) disposal of liquid wastcs from the floor &ainage, quench watur
and scrubber effluent'
(rr0 disposal of ash containing heavy metal residues in landfills.
Pyrolysis
The chemical constitucnts and chemicai energy of some .organic
w'astes can be recoverod by destructive distillation (or pyrolysis) of the
solid wasfe. In this process, the combustible constituents of the solid
waste are heated in a special retort like chamber known as a pyrolysis
reactor at 600 to 100ffC in a low-oxygen or an oxygen-free environment'
This is an'tjiidotheitniC frrocess and thus differs from the convent'ional
incineration.

,$rolysis of the solid waste yields the following componcnts :

(, Tar or oil phase containing methanol, acetone, acetic acid, etc.

(i0 Gaseous phase containing H2, CH4, CO, CO, etc'
(rrr) Solid phase containing puP carbn char and inert materials
like glass, rock, metal, etc.

The aclvantages of the pyrolysis process include :

(t) Volume reduction bY about 9O7o

(rr) Possibility of handling potentially hazardous plastics e.9., PVC
in a safe waY
(ii| Absence of pollution problems
,(fy RecYcling and Reuse
Recycling arrd reuse of the waste helps to reduce the problem of
waste disposal. Resource recovery is a method !o turn wastes into resources
by.recoviringlusable producs-both materials and energy. 5
P" 9itp"t
costs are expoctcd to rise continuously due to increasing land prices and
pollution controls, t€source recovery is becoming more common alld finding
mue favour.
About 7O% by weight of municipal solid waste from domesdc and
commercial areas is combustible. One ton of such a waste is approximately
equal to 9 milli;h British Thermal Unis (BTU) of heat or,65 gallons of
fuel oil or gOOO cubic feet of natural gas. But still only a sm4l percentage
of the resources is being recovered.
 i33
A Text Book of Environtnertal Chemistry
i;r r;orne nlrrnicipol soli{l w;i.s,e_proccssing
iuc 'scpararcd from lhc non-com
facilitics, thecomhustitrlcs
bustibles. Ttrc coirburiiur., u."
anc! burnl in utility boilcr.s then shredded
or indusrria_l boilers *-'u prirnury fucl
a suppicrncnt Lo fossit fucls. This
rype of sof iO waL proccssing
or as
is know'n ers a rcfuse-derived fuel operation
(RDF) system. RDF is used to
othcr fucl sources in a ratio of 20%RDF g0zo supprement
!o fossil iu"ts. It was reporred
that 29 RDF sysrems were
operated^ in uSA f".
as in I983, processing t25o ;;;; generarion as earry
to l8,0oo tons of waste per week. Incineration
and RDF technologies seem'to
be compctitive in cost.
A ton of sorid waste processca by pyrorysis
is berieved to yierd an
cnergy equivarenr of onc barrer
or oil. rne ciiy of Bardmore reportedry
opcrarcd a commerciar scarc
facirity in r975,o pioou.r 4.g milrion
of sica, daily from the Iow-BTu pounds
solirj wastc. Thus, saving of 357,d00
sr generated by pyrorysis of
municipai
barrers or oit'#nuaily was accorn-
pli.shed, in adcrition to
the revenue earned from ferrous metars
and thc sarc of grassy aggrcgar.c sorted out
for usc in concrctc ,anuro.t** and
iraving. Econornic viabirity of I'ur-scarc commercial srcer
still not be-en provecr beyond doubt. fyroryris facirity has
Thc advantagc of pyrorysis is that
produccs a rnorc gcncrary it
uscful and kanspo.o-bl" form of energy.
Rubbcr tyres continue to posc disposal
probrcms. Thcy do not dccomprosc
wcti in tandfirs- rncinerario'tr
*bu". -;;;;;;" int"p..iruy designer
lacilitic:s t'chcck air poilution and
to a."o*-o,ratc the intense heatproduce
by bui-ning rubbcr. Thc BTU content
of
to that of coal. some systcms burning burning rubber is nearry equa
rubber L r""r were successfrrr.
Production of fuels from rubber
by pyrolysis was also successful- Howevcr,
Ittcsc lvcre neccs.sariry smail-scare
np".otion, due to timiteo suppry of tyre.s.
,f rcu.sablc marcrials such as papcr, glass, rnctal,
,.,, ,.,131T.L,i"" orn rn,*nicipal rvasrcs, rhough rece;r,ea
cardboard
;::, :,.::,,:ri Jonsictcrabl"
rrd] r;{-'i. vcry successfui due to cconomic consideraltons. o,,"nrior,
'cen
Papcr constitutcs ncerry 50vo by
weight of rhe sorid wastes. Toral
;'ccycling of paprcr lras not bccn possible
so far. unrecoverabre paper is
gr':nerally dis6roscd by controllcrt
incineration and rhe- gaseous products
.rbtaincri arc co" watcr vapour wlricrr are'ri""lp.ri"ring. papcr
* high hcat of coribustion .and has
and t *n"" i, disposecr hy converting
Itcfuss tl*rivecr fuer (RDF) ca* it to encrgy.
tre uscrr as supprcmentar-y fuer for use iri
brilc;s ur in other combustion processes-
Frcm the stancrpoint of ehergy conservation
there is everyiusrification
for the rccycling and reuse of feIo.s
metals, aluminium and some othcr
non-f,crrous meErls because the
mining of virgin ,,rt"riutl" energy intcnsive.
As far as grass is concerned, it was
tound that the energy spent on reuse
tolid Wastes-Pollution, ?-realmenj & Disposal l3i
of old giass is more lhan that requircd to process ncw rnalcriai- Hcnce,
energy savings ean be realized only by reuse of the glass conlainers tl"iiirl
t11 reprrecss,them. Reync'lds Mefrls Company {USA) was rcportcdiy rccycling
used nprdinium cani frorn packaging induslry.
ffecycling of plasrics receivedeonsiclcrable attctrLion primarily because
of ever increasing use of plastics and also because of rheirnoll-biodcgra<iable
nature. Forasatisfactory rebyctingof plasticsthe fotrlowing twore<Suirlmcnts
&rc to be salisl.led :
(0 The plastic mat€rriai stroulci be rnade up of cnly one Lype, i-e .,
it should be homogeneous.
(ir) The plastic scrap or waste should be collectcd from the consumcrs
or interceptcd on its way frorn consumer$ [o the municipal
reflrse site.
-e -d'
EG
qffcycling of plasties lrlay be carricd olt[ iti any of lhc folloiving
ways:
(0 }kirnary rrcycling where ehe same plas{.ic product is mtnu-
factured.again-
tii) Seeondary rccycling where the nraterizrl is rcpro,ccsscd ic ir
new product wirh different compositlon and in sorne cases r$ay
be inlerior in properties.
(rrl) Tertiary rccycling whcr* the piastic nlatcrial is complcLoly
processed ts a new fcrnrr as in pyrolysis {where sorne chcr*ictls
aro rccoverecl)" In USA, higfi d*nsir.y poly*thylene trcrt{.ics ussd
for supplying rniik, are colleeted frorn csfisitr{ner$ anri a,re
e*nverterl to t'lake powder by grintling. This ciln be u$ed Jtlr
rnanufaeturing plastic drainagc pipes cr as inclt fil! q:aterial
{.}r nn rrggregate {br low weiglit concrete.
Cr-i-c.! ir;'rs"isal

Codisp:sa-t in.voivcs silnultaneoels disp*s:ri of sE:liei H/a.s{e anri se v'iage

:inuilge" I{swc*rer, 'rhe use *f sewage sluclgc as it s*il t"srtilirer is q'.1*sl!urrilhlr
due kl its volurrre and the presenco *f persistel:t elremicais :;r:ch as hr-';ti'),
nretals. Moreover, due lo lhe high walcr cor]torrt, t"ile s*wage sluc]gc rit-ii:s
nu[ burn readiiy.
t'herrmat eo-disposai involves the use of energy fror-n soiid !',/*sLil
to dry ttre sludge tg a pci*r at which it wilt burn '*rit-h*ul supplcrnenial
fuel or in combinari*n with more refuse. This toehriiquo is r*eeiving gr*:]tri'
a$sntion bccause of the follorving factors : (f) increasing eost. *f land whicl'l
makes l*nd ditposal nf sludge more artd moi'c expcnsive, and (ir) i*crcasing
 i3?- A Text Book of Emvirontnental Chemis:ry
eos^tof fossii fuels, wirich make incineration of sludge more exflensive.
?his process is used in European countries"
Birrconvers!om
As has been stated earlier, organic solid wastes decompose under
iandfill conditions to CHo and COr. This process can be accelerated artificially
tty means of an anaerotric oigester. sewage sludge containing decomposers
is mixed under anaerobic condition with shredded combustible component.s
*f nrunicipal solid waste. The mixture is heared in a digester for aboui
a iveek. A demonstration bio-conversion plant has been in operation iri
P*rnpano Beach, Florida since lg71, in which cH* is produced fronr a
rnixturc of FLIIF antl sewage sludge.

auestions
i ' I{ow are solid wastes classified ? What are the characteristics of solid
wastes ? what are ttle important objectives of solid u/aste management?
?" Describe briefly the various methods of solid waste treatment and disposal.
3- what are the important. control pararneters fcr an optirnum composting
operation ? Discuss the different steps in composting operation. what are
the rnerits of cornposting as. a solid waste treeu.nent process r
4. Discuss the advantages and problems associated with sanitary landfilling.
Give a diagrammatic representation of the cross-sectional view of an ideai
sanitary landfill.
5' Describe the thermal processes used in solid waste trcatrnenL Discuss the
merits and demerits of these prqcesses.
5. Givc an informative appraisar on recyeling and reuse of solid westes.
T. Writc inlormativo notes on 6ny two of the foilowing:
{a'} Continu+ur fyix of inclncratore and thoir dvantagen
(b) Microbiology of solid */sstc treaunent
(c) ftrrolysis
E. Write short itotes on any thrcc of the following :
{a) Bio-convemicm
(b) Co-disposal
(c) Environrnental prdblems involved in sanitary landfilling
{d} Snolysis
te) Recycling of plastic wastes,
Topics Covered Here:
❖ Sustainable development, Environmental Policy and Law, Existing Law of
Environment in Bangladesh, Environment Conservation Act (ECA), 1995;
Environmental Conservation Rule (ECR), 1997; Environmental Organizations
❖ Some globally important conventions on Environment
❖ Soil erosion (Definition, Causes, Effects )
❖ Urbanization process (Definition, factors, effects)

What is sustainable development?

Defined by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as "development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs, is Sustainable development.”
Sustainable development may be considered together with the concepts of "integration"
(development cannot be considered in isolation from sustainability) and "interdependence" (social
and economic development, and environmental protection, are interdependent).
The modern concept of sustainable development was a topic of discussion at the 1972 United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference), and the driving force
behind the 1983 World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED, or Bruntland
Commission). In 1992, the first UN Earth Summit resulted in the Rio Declaration, Principle 3 of
which reads: "The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental
and environmental needs of present and future generations."

What is environmental policy?

It is useful to consider that environmental policy comprises two major
terms: environment and policy. Environment refers to the physical ecosystems, but can also take
into consideration the social dimension (quality of life, health) and an economic dimension
(resource management, biodiversity).
Policy can be defined as a "course of action or principle adopted or proposed by a
government, party, business or individual". Thus, environmental policy focuses on problems
arising from human impact on the environment, which retroacts onto human society by having a
(negative) impact on human values such as good health or the 'clean and green' environment.
Environmental issues generally addressed by environmental policy include (but are not limited
to) air and water pollution, waste management, ecosystem management, biodiversity protection,
the protection of natural resources, wildlife and endangered species, and the preservation of these
natural resources for future generations. Relatively recently, environmental policy has also
attended to the communication of environmental issues.

1
What is Environmental Law?
Environmental law, also known as environmental and natural resources law, is a collective
term describing the network of treaties, statutes, regulations, common and customary laws
addressing the effects of human activity on the natural environment. The core environmental law
regimes address environmental pollution. A related but distinct set of regulatory regimes, now
strongly influenced by environmental legal principles, focus on the management of specific natural
resources, such as forests, minerals, or fisheries.

Environmental law in Bangladesh:

Environmental conservation is one of the most discussed issues internationally. The existence of
life on earth is threatened due amongst other things to climate change as a result of continuous
environment pollution. For a long time, environmentalists around the world have tried to focus the
attention of world leaders on this and other pressing environmental matters. One of the first
internationally collaborative efforts was the Stockholm Conference on Human Environment in
1972. These efforts were given a new impetus in 1992 with the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. In addition to being affected by global environmental problems, Bangladesh is a victim of
local and regional problems. Bangladesh faces many environmental problems both naturally
occurring and those caused by humans. The major environmental problems in Bangladesh can be
traced to the problems of over-population and poverty. They are: deforestation, deteriorating water
quality, natural disasters, land degradation, salinity, unplanned urbanisation, discharge of
untreated sewage and industrial wastes, and so on.

The first environmental activities in Bangladesh were taken soon after the Stockholm Conference
on Human Environment in 1972. As a follow up action to the Stockholm Conference, the
Government of Bangladesh funded, under the aegis of the Department of Public Health
Engineering and with a staff level of 27 and after promulgating the Water Pollution Control
Ordinance in 1973, a project primarily aimed at water pollution control.

In 1977, Environment Pollution Control Board with 16 members headed by a Member of the
Planning Commission and Environment Pollution Control Cell headed by a Director with staff
complement of 26 was established. This was followed in 1977 by the establishment of the
Environment Pollution Control Project, in 1985 by the establishment of the Department Pollution
Control and finally, in 1989 by the restructured and renamed the Department of Environment (the
Department) the activities of which are overseen by a Director General. The Department
discharges its responsibilities through a head office and six Divisional offices located in Dhaka,
Chittagong, Khulna, Bogra, Barisal and Sylhet. Of late, the Government has been set up 21 new
offices at district level with the creation of 468 new positions. As a result, the DOE staff has been
increased to 735.

2
The existing Environmental Law of Bangladesh is comprised of –
• Constitution (18A, 31,32)
• International laws ( Conventions, Protocols)
• Statutory laws and by laws Gazette notifications issued under laws judicial interpretation
of laws customs, traditional perceptions, practices (Forest Act) and sectoral laws
• Convention on Biological diversity, Nagoya Protocol, Cartagena Protocol
• UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, Paris agreement
• UN Convention on Non- Navigational Uses on International Waters
• Vienna Convention on Ozone Layer Depletion, Montreal Protocol.
Some Provisions regarding the Environmental Law of Bangladesh
18A. Bangladesh Constitution:
Protection and improvement of Environment and Biodiversity: The state shall endeavour to protect
and improve the environment and to preserve and safeguard the natural resources, biodiversity,
wetlands, forests and wildlife for the present and future citizens – The Constitution (Fifteenth
Amendment) Act, 2011
Environment Conservation Act, 1995
Main objectives:
• Conservation, improvement of standards, pollution control and mitigation.
• Establishment of DoE: Powers of Director General (DG). Authorities of MOEF (Ministry
of Environment and Forest) also requires protection of eco-systems.
• Regulation on industrial, vehicular and noise pollution, water pollution, air pollution, soil
pollution.

Important provisions under Environmental Conservation Act, 1995

➢ Section 5: Declaration of Ecologically Critical Area (ECA)
If the Government is satisfied that due to degradation of environment the eco-
system of any area has reached or is threatened to reach a critical state, it may, by
notification in the official Gazette, declare such area as ECA.

➢ Section 12: Environmental Clearances

No new projects/ industries can set up without EC, existing projects/industries must
obtain EC immediately. Rules to provide for the preparation of EIA (Environmental
Impact Assessment) reports, EMP (Environmental Management Plan) reports,
public scrutiny/ consultation, availability of information regarding all these,
formation and working procedure of clearance committee, minimum prerequisites
for clearances, appeal etc.
➢ Section 15a and 17: Affected people / DG may file compensation suits/cases in the
Environment Court on behalf of affected people.
Environment Conservation Rules, ECR 1997

3
 Rule 3: Factors to be taken into consideration while declaring any area as ECA (human habitat,
ancient monument, archaeological site, forest sanctuary, national park, game reserve, wetland,
mangrove, forest area, bio-diversity)
Rule 7: Classification of industries as Green, Orange-A, Orange-B and Red in consideration of
their location and impact on the environment.
Rule 12: Environmental Standards for air, water, sound, odor and other components.

Procedure for issuing Environmental Clearance Certificate

Section 7 (6) a: • For Green Category:
(i) general information about the industrial unit or project;
(ii) exact description of the raw materials and the manufactured product; and
(iii) no objection certificate from the local authority;

Section 7 (6) b: • For Orange – A Category:

(i) general information about the industrial unit or project;
(ii) exact description of the raw materials and the manufactured product;
(iii) no objection certificate from the local authority;
(iv) process flow diagram;
(v) Layout Plan (showing location of Effluent Treatment Plant);
(vi) effluent discharge arrangement;
(vii) outlines of the plan for relocation, rehabilitation (if applicable);
(viii) other necessary information (if applicable);

Section 7 (6) c: • For Orange – B Category:

1. Report on the feasibility of the industrial unit or project (applicable only for
proposed industrial unit or project);
2. Report on the Initial Environmental Examination of the industrial unit or project,
and also-
– the process flow diagram,
– layout Plan (showing location of Effluent Treatment Plant),
– design of the Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) of the unit or project (these are
applicable only for a proposed industrial unit/project)

3. Report on the Environmental Management Plan (EMP) for the industrial unit or
project, and also

4
 – the Process Flow Diagram,
– layout Plan -showing location of Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP),
– design of the ETP and information about the effectiveness of the ETP of the
unit or project, (these are applicable only for an existing industrial unit/project);
4. No objection certificate from the local authority;
5. Emergency plan relating adverse environmental impact and plan for mitigation of
the effect of pollution;
6. Outline of the relocation, rehabilitation plan (where applicable);
7. Other necessary information (where applicable)
Section 7 (6) d: • For Red Category:
1. Report on the feasibility of the industrial unit or project (applicable only for proposed
industrial unit/project);
2. Report on the IEE relating to the industrial unit/project, and also the ToR for the EIA of
the unit/project and its Process Flow Diagram;

Or, EIA report prepared on the basis of TOR previously approved by the DoE, along with
the Layout Plan (showing location of Effluent Treatment Plant), Process Flow Diagram,
design and time schedule of the ETP of the unit or project, (these are applicable only for a
proposed industrial unit/project);

3. Report on the EMP for the industrial unit or project, and also-
– the Process Flow Diagram,
– Layout Plan (showing location of Effluent Treatment Plant),
– design and information about the effectiveness of the ETP of the unit or project. (these
are applicable only for an existing industrial unit/project);
4. No objection certificate of the local authority:
- Emergency plan relating adverse environmental impact and plan for mitigation of the effect of
pollution;
5. Outline of relocation, rehabilitation plan (where applicable)
6. Other necessary information (where applicable)
Section 7A: Pollution under Control Certificate
Within two months after the vehicle is fitted with the apparatus specified in sub-rule (1) of rule 4
and registration and fitness certificate for the vehicles is issued, or as the case may be, within two
months after the certificate is renewed, by the BRTA under the Motor Vehicles Ordinance, 1983
(LV of 1983), the owner of the vehicle in accordance with Form-4.
Section 7B : Restriction on import & Marketing of environmentally harmful apparatus

5
Before importation/marketing of the environmentally harmful apparatus mentioned in rule 4(1),
the person importing/ marketing, as the case may be shall obtain written approval from the DG by
demonstrating and proving its effectiveness
Section 8: Validity period of Environmental Clearance Certificate
The period of validity of an Environmental Clearance Certificate shall be, in case of Green
Category, three years from the date of its issuance and in other cases one year.
Section 9: Procedure of appeal
(1) In the petition of an appeal under section 14, the grounds of the appeal against the relevant
notice, order or direction shall be stated clearly and briefly.
(2) Each appeal shall be accompanied by the following documents:-
(a) a certified copy of the notice/order/direction against which appeal is filled;
(b) a copy of the Environmental Clearance Certificate (if any);
(c) a Treasury Chalan showing proof of deposit of the appeal fee of Taka one thousand; and
(d) any other paper relevant to the appeal.

Section 17: Information of Special Incident

• If, at any place, discharge or emission of environment pollutants occur in excess of the prescribed
standards or if any place is under threat of facing such discharge or emission as a result of any
accident or unforeseen incident, then the person or persons in charge of that place shall
immediately inform the Director General of the occurrence or the threat.

ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
List of non- governmental organizations of Bangladesh (regional and international) working for
conserving the environment.

o Bangladesh Environmental lawyers Association (BELA)

o Center for International Environmental Law
o Climate Institute
o Eco World
o Ecology Action
o Energy Action Coalition
o Energy and Environmental Research Center
o Environmental Bureau of Investigation (EBI)

6
o Environmental Defense
o Environmental Leadership Program
o Environmental News Network
o Environmental Voters
o Environmental Working Group
o Friends of the Earth
o Green Cross International
o Global Climate Change , Nasa’s Eye on Earth
o Greenpeace international
o Greenpeace Intl Home Page
o Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
o International Institute for Sustainable Development
o IUCN
o National Council for Science and the Environment
o Reuters Environment News Source
o Save Our Environment
o Sierra Club
o The Sierra Legal Defense Fund
o Society for Environment and Human Development (SEHD)
o U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
o UNFCC
o United Nations Environment Network
o United Nations Environment Programme
o United Nations Human Settlement Programme
o United States Global Change Research Program
o Waste Concern
o World Business Council for Sustainable Development
o World Conservation Union
o World Resource Institute
o World Meteorological Organization
o World Resource Institute
o World Watch Institute
o World Wildlife Fund

List of some international conventions and treaties

7
 1. UNEP (United nations Environmental Program)
• Created in 1972
• HQ: Nairobi, Kenya
• Coordinates United Nations Environmental activities
• Monitors world environment (Earthwatch)
• Publishes periodic reports (GEO- Global Environment Outlook)
• Assists developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and
practices
• Founded as a result of UN Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm.

2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• Biodiversity treaty
• Biodiversity as “the variability among living organisms from all sources including inter
alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems.”
• Came in force in 1993
• 167 nations have signed the treaty
3. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
• Signed in May, 2002
• To protect human health and the environment from POPs
• POPs are chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods and are toxic.

4. Basel Convention on the control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous

Wastes
• Ratified by several member countries and EU
• Address the hazardous waste
• Secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland

8
• Minimize the generation of hazardous waste in terms of quantity and hazardousness
• Dispose of them as close to the source of generation as possible
•
• Reduce the movement of hazardous wastes.
• Covers waste: toxic, poisonous, explosive, corrosive, flammable, eco-toxic and infectious.
5. Helsinki Protocol to LRTAP(Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution) on
the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions
• Reduce the transboundary Fluxes by atleast 30%
• Came in force in 1987
• Reduced 1980 sulphur emissions by more than 50% by 1993
6. Sofia Protocol to LRTAP(Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution)
concerning the control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or their
Transboundary Fluxes (NOx protocol)
• Adopted in 1988
• To freeze the emissions of nitrogen oxides or their Transboundary Fluxes
• Application of an effects-based approach.
• Collect scientific and technical information to reduce nitrogen oxides and ammonia.
7. Geneva Protocol to LRTAP concerning the control of emissions of volatile
Organic Compounds or their Transboundary Fluxes (VOCs Protocol)
• Adopted in November, 1991
• Works for Ozone
• 30% reduction in emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by 1999
• Same reduction within a Tropospheric Ozone Management Area (TOMA) specified in
annex-I to the protocol.

8. Vienna Convention
• Vienna Convention on protection of the Ozone Layer, in 1985

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• Multilateral environment agreement
• Works as a framework for the international efforts to protect the ozone layer

9. Montreal Protocol
• Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
• Signed in 1987
• Revised for 7 times: 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok),
1995 (Vienna), 1997(Montreal) and 1999 (Beijing)
• Phase out production of substances that deplete ozone.
• Phase out CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachlorides and methyl chloroform by 2000(2005 for
Methyl Chloroform)
• It is legally binding
• Structured around groups of halogenated hydrocarbons
• Ozone depleting substances contain either Chlorine or Bromine
10. Ramsar Convention
• Convention on wetlands of International importance
• Intergovernmental treaty for conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
• Adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975

11. United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)

• In Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002
• To adopt concrete steps and identify quantifiable targets foe better implementing
Agenda 21
• Conserve marine biodiversity, protect vulnerable areas such as coral reefs and
wetlands, reduce marine pollution, eliminate illegal fishing and achieve better
coordination across ocean related UN and regional organizations.

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 What is Soil Erosion?

Soil erosion is a process that involves the wearing away of the topsoil. The process involves the
loosening of the soil particles, blowing or washing away of the soil particles, and either ends up in
the valley and faraway lands or washed away to the oceans by rivers and streams. Soil erosion is
a natural process which has increasingly been exacerbated by human activities such as agriculture
and deforestation.

The wearing away of the topsoil is driven by erosion agents including the natural physical forces
of wind and water, each contributing a substantial quantity of soil loss annually. Farming activities
such as tillage also significantly contribute to soil erosion.

Thus, soil erosion is a continuous process and may occur either at a relatively unnoticed rate or an
alarming rate contributing to copious loss of the topsoil. The outcomes of soil erosion are reduced
agricultural productivity, ecological collapse, soil degradation, and the possibility of desertification.

Causes of Soil Erosion

All soils undergo soil erosion, but some are more vulnerable than others due to human activities
and other natural causal factors. The severity of soil erosion is also dependent on the soil type and
the presence of vegetation cover. Here are few of the major causes of soil erosion.

1. Rainfall and Flooding

Greater duration and intensity of rainstorm means greater potential for soil erosion. Rainstorm
produces four major types of soil erosion including rill erosion, gully erosion, sheet erosion, and
splash erosion. These types of erosions are caused by the impacts of raindrops on the soil surface
that break down and disperse the soil particles, which are then washed away by the stormwater
runoff.

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Over time, repeated rainfall can lead to significant amounts of soil loss. Rapidly moving
stormwater, flashfloods, and flooding may also occur because of excess surface water runoff, thus,
causing extreme local erosion by plucking bed rocks, forming rock cut-basins, creating potholes,
and washing away the loosened soil particles.

2. Rivers and Streams

The flow of rivers and streams causes valley erosion. The water flowing in the rivers and streams
tend to eat away the soils along the water systems leading to a V-shaped erosive activity. When
the rivers and streams are full of soil deposits due to sedimentation and the valley levels up with
the surface, the water ways begin to wash away the soils at the banks.

This erosive activity is termed as lateral erosion which extends the valley floor and brings about a
narrow floodplain. This erosive activity is evident in most rivers or streams especially during heavy
rainfall and rapid river channel movement.

2. High Winds

High winds can contribute to soil erosion, particularly in dry weather periods or in the arid and
semi-arid (ASAL) regions. The wind picks up the loose soil particles with its natural force and
carries them away to far lands, leaving the soil sculptured and denudated. It is severe during the
times of drought in the ASAL regions. Hence, wind erosion is a major source of soil degradation
and desertification.

4. Overgrazing, Overstocking and Tillage Practices

The transformation of natural ecosystems to pasture lands has largely contributed to increased rates
of soil erosion and the loss of soil nutrients and the top soil. Overstocking and overgrazing has led
to reduced ground cover and break down of the soil particles, giving room for erosion and

12
accelerating the erosive effects by wind and rain. This reduces soil quality and agricultural
productivity.

Agricultural tillage depending on the machinery used also breaks down the soil particles, making
the soils vulnerable to erosion by water. Up and down field tillage practices as well create pathways
for surface water runoff and can speed up the soil erosion process.

5. Deforestation, Reduced Vegetation Cover, and Urbanization

Deforestation and urbanization destroy the vegetation land cover. Agricultural practices such as
burning and clearing of vegetation also reduce the overall vegetation cover. As a result, the lack
of land cover causes increased rates of soil erosion.

Trees and vegetation cover help to hold the soil particles together thereby reduces the erosive
effects of erosion caused by rainfall and flooding. Deforestation and urbanization are some of the
human actions that have continued the cycle of soil loss.

6. Mass Movements and Soil Structure/Composition

The outward and downward movements of sediments and rocks on slanting or slope surfaces due
to gravitational pull qualify as an important aspect of the erosion process. This is because mass
movements aids in the breakdown of the soil particles that makes them venerable to water and
wind erosion. Soil structure and composition is another factor that determines erosivity of wind or
rainfall.

For instance, clay soils tend to be more resistant to soil erosion compared to sandy or loose silt
soils. Soil moisture content and organic matter make up are some of the soil component aspects
that determine erosivity of wind or rainfall.

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Effects of Soil Erosion

The consequences of soil erosion are primarily centered on reduced agricultural productivity as
well as soil quality. Water ways may also be blocked, and it may affect water quality. This means
most of the environmental problems the world face today arises from soil erosion. The effects of
soil erosion include:

1. Loss of Arable Land

Lands used for crop production have been substantially affected by soil erosion. Soil erosion eats
away the top soil which is the fertile layer of the land and also the component that supports the
soil’s essential microorganisms and organic matter. In this view, soil erosion has severely
threatened the productivity of fertile cropping areas as they are continually degraded.

Because of soil erosion, most of the soil characteristics that support agriculture have been lost,
causing ecological collapse and mass starvation. It is likely that most of the cultivated areas around
the globe are vulnerable to soil erosion.

2. Water Pollution and Clogging of Waterways

Soils eroded from agricultural lands carry pesticides, heavy metals, and fertilizers which are
washed into streams and major water ways. This leads to water pollution and damage to marine
and freshwater habitats. Accumulated sediments can also cause clogging of water ways and raises
the water level leading to flooding.

The water quality of various streams, rivers, and coastal areas has also been deteriorated as a result
of soil erosion, eventually affecting the health of the local communities.

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 3. Sedimentation and Threat to Aquatic Systems

Apart from polluting the water systems, high soil sedimentation can be catastrophic to the survival
of aquatic life forms. Silt can smother the breeding grounds of fish and equally lessens their food
supply since the siltation reduces the biodiversity of algal life and beneficial aquatic plants.
Sediments may also enter the fish gills, affecting their respiratory functions.

4. Air Pollution

Wind erosion picks up dust particles of the soil and throws them into the air, causing air pollution.
Some of the dust particles may contain harmful and toxic particles such as petroleum and pesticides
that can pose a severe health hazard when inhaled or ingested.

Dust plumes from the deserts or dry areas can cause large and widespread air pollution as the winds
move. Such a case is evident in North America where dust winds from the Gobi desert have
recurrently been a serious problem.

5. Destruction of Infrastructure

Soil erosion can affect infrastructural projects such as dams, drainages, and embankments. The
accumulation of soil sediments in dams/drainages and along embankments can reduce their
operational lifetime and efficiency. Also, the silt up can support plant life that can, in turn, cause
cracks and weaken the structures. Soil erosion from surface water runoff often causes serious
damage to roads and tracks, especially if stabilizing techniques are not used.

6. Desertification

Soil erosion is a major driver of desertification. It gradually transforms a habitable land and the
ASAL regions into deserts. The transformations are worsened by the destructive use of the land
and deforestation that leaves the soil naked and open to erosion. This usually leads to loss of
biodiversity, alteration of ecosystems, land degradation, and huge economic losses

15
Urbanisation: Trends, Causes and Effects

Introduction

More than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas. Due to the ongoing urbanisation and
growth of the world’s population, there will be about 2.5 billion more people added to the urban
population by 2050, mainly in Africa and Asia. The world’s urban areas are highly varied, but
many cities and towns are facing problems such as a lack of jobs, homelessness and expanding
squatter settlements, inadequate services and infrastructure, poor health and educational services
and high levels of pollution.
Urbanisation trends

Urbanisation is an increase in the number of people living in towns and cities. Urbanisation
occurs mainly because people move from rural areas to urban areas and it results in growth in the
size of the urban population and the extent of urban areas. These changes in population lead to
other changes in land use, economic activity and culture. Historically, urbanisation has been
associated with significant economic and social transformations. For example, urban living is
linked with higher levels of literacy and education, better health, lower fertility and a longer life
expectancy, greater access to social services and enhanced opportunities for cultural and political
participation (UNDESA, 2014).

However, urbanisation also has disadvantages caused by rapid and unplanned urban growth
resulting in poor infrastructures such as inadequate housing, water and sanitation, transport and
health care services.

Global trends in urbanisation

In 1960, the global urban population was 34% of the total; however, by 2014 the urban population
accounted for 54% of the total and continues to grow. By 2050 the proportion living in urban areas
is expected to reach 66% (UNDESA, 2014). Following figure shows the change in the rural and
urban populations of the world from 1950 through to projected figures up to the year 2050.

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Figure: Urban and rural population of the world, 1950–2050. (UNDESA, 2014)
The process of urbanisation affects all sizes of settlements, so villages gradually grow to become
small towns, smaller towns become larger towns, and large towns become cities. This trend has
led to the growth of mega-cities. A mega-city is an urban area of greater than ten million people.
Rapid expansion of city borders, driven by increases in population and infrastructure development,
leads to the expansion of city borders that spread out and swallow up neighbouring urban areas to
form mega-cities. In 1970, there were only three mega-cities across the globe, but by the year
2000, the number had risen to 17 and by 2030, 24 more mega-cities will be added

Figure: The top mega-cities in the world in 1970, 2000 and 2030. (UNDESA, 2014)

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Causes of urbanisation

Urbanisation in the developing world occurs for two main reasons: the natural increase of
population and rural to urban migration.

➢ Natural increase of population

Natural increase is a significant cause of the growing urban population.

As birth rates decline over time, according to the demographic transition model, the role of natural
increase in determining the pace of urban population growth becomes less important in comparison
to migration.

➢ Rural to urban migration

In developing countries, urbanisation usually occurs when people move from villages to settle in
cities in hope of gaining a better standard of living. The movement of people from one place to
another is called migration. Migration is influenced by economic growth and development and by
technological change (Marshall et al., 2009) and possibly also by conflict and social disruption. It
is driven by pull factors that attract people to urban areas and push factors that drive people away
from the countryside.

Employment opportunities in cities are one of the main pull factors. Many industries are located
in cities and offer opportunities of high urban wages. There are also more educational institutions
providing courses and training in a wide range of subjects and skills. People are attracted to an
urban lifestyle and the ‘bright lights’ of city life. All of these factors result in both temporary
and permanent migration to urban areas.

Poor living conditions and the lack of opportunities for paid employment in rural areas are push
factors. People are moving away from rural areas because of poor health care and limited
educational and economic opportunities as well as environmental changes, droughts, floods, lack
of availability of sufficiently productive land, and other pressures on rural livelihoods. Whenever,
people are being bound to move to the urban area for any adverse climatic condition, then the
migrant people may called “Climate Refugee.”

Rural to urban migration can be a selective process, as some types of people are more likely to
move than others. One of the factors involved is gender, because employment opportunities vary
greatly with different jobs for men and women. Another factor is age. Young people are more
likely to move to towns, with more elderly people and children left in rural areas. Selectivity in
migration affects the population in both the rural and the urban areas. If more men move to towns
and cities than women, this leaves a predominantly female society in rural areas.

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Impacts of urbanisation

Although people are pulled towards the advantages of cities, the impacts of urbanisation are mixed.
First we will look at the many positive impacts of urbanisation before going on to describe some
of the challenges created by rapid unplanned urban growth.

Thriving towns and cities are an essential element of a prosperous national economy. The gathering
of economic and human resources in one place stimulates innovation and development in business,
science, technology and industry.

Access to more readily available to people in cities than in villages. In cities, child survival rates
are better than in rural areas because of better access to health care (Mulholland et al., 2008). The
density of urban populations makes it easier and less costly for the government and utilities to
provide essential goods and services (Brockerhoff, 2000). For example, the supply of basic
facilities such as fresh water and electricity can be achieved with less effort and less cost per
person.

Schools, colleges and universities are established in cities to develop human resources. A variety
of educational courses are available, offering students a wide choice for their future careers. People
of many classes and religions live and work together in cities, which creates better understanding
and harmony and helps break down social and cultural barriers. Cities also have advanced
communication and transport networks.

However, these many benefits of urban life do not apply to all. Rapid population increases and
unplanned growth create an urban sprawl with negative economic, social, and environmental
consequences.

➢ Housing

In developing countries, about a third of urban inhabitants live in impoverished slums and squatter
settlements (UN-Habitat, 2012). Slums are urban areas that are heavily populated and have sub-
standard housing with very poor living conditions, creating several problems.

Slum areas typically suffer from:

• poor housing with small, overcrowded houses built very close together using inadequate
materials and with uncertain electricity supply
• restricted access to water supplies
• little or no sanitation/latrine facilities and no solid waste disposal, which leads to a polluted
and degraded local environment
• inadequate health care facilities which, coupled with the poor living conditions, increases
sickness and death rates

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 • insecure living conditions – slum dwellers may be forcibly removed by landowners or other
authorities.
➢ Water supply and sanitation
The provision of water and sanitation services to growing urban settlements, peri-urban and slum
areas presents critical challenges. The increased demand for water from the growing population
can place added stress on already stretched resources. In and around cities, water is commonly in
short supply and subject to increasing competition by different users. Urban growth leads to
increasing demand for water for industrial and domestic use, which conflicts with agricultural
demands.

It is especially difficult to provide water and sanitation services to deprived areas and the poorest
people. Many people in these areas live without access to safe drinking water and proper sanitation.
Even where adequate water supplies are available, sanitation and wastewater disposal are often
inadequate or missing. Pit latrines and septic tanks are the usual methods for human waste disposal
but they have limited capacity and are not always adequate to cope with the quantity of waste
produced by many people living close together. Overflowing latrines and septic tanks contaminate
surface water and create a serious health risk.

The lack of these essential services threatens not only the health and the environment of people in
slum areas, but also that of people living in formal urban areas. In Africa and Asia most of the
urban centres have no sewers at all, which affects rich and poor alike. This is true of many cities
with a million or more inhabitants, as well as smaller cities and towns.

➢ Wastes and pollution

Urbanisation affects land, water, air and wildlife because of the number of people, the amount of
buildings and construction, and the increased demands on resources. It has impacts on the physical
environment in several ways.

Water quality

The lack of sanitation and sewerage systems has a dramatic impact on urban watercourses. People
use the rivers to dispose of all their wastes from homes, industries and commercial businesses.
Wastewater from human settlements contains organic material and nutrients; industrial wastewater
contains many different types of toxic pollutant. These make the water unsafe for humans to use
for many purposes including drinking and irrigation, as well as harming the fish and other animals
and plants living in the water. Any changes to the quality of surface water also affects groundwater
because they are linked by the processes of the water cycle so pollutants from the surface will
infiltrate down and contaminate soil and groundwater as well.

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Solid waste

In many towns and cities solid waste management is inefficient or non-existent. Solid waste
management means the proper collection, transfer, recycling and disposal of all the solid material
we throw away, including plastics, paper and cardboard, food wastes, electrical waste, etc. It also
includes industrial, hospital and institutional wastes which often contain pathogens as well as
hazardous and toxic chemicals, which need special care.

Urban waste often ends up in illegal dumps on streets, open spaces, wastelands, drains or rivers.
This is frequently a problem in peri-urban areas, which are convenient for dumping wastes because
of the availability of open space and ease of access from central urban areas. This can lead to the
pollution of groundwater and surface waters which may be used as a source for drinking water.
Sometimes the wastes are collected and taken to legalised waste disposal sites but these are not
always properly managed to protect water bodies and groundwater.

Air quality

Air quality in towns and cities is frequently very poor as a result of air pollution from many
different sources. These include:

• vehicle exhausts
• smoke from domestic fires
• outputs from factory chimneys
• diesel-powered generators
• dust from construction works and city streets.
➢ Health

Urbanisation can have both positive and negative effects on health. The main benefits are
associated with easier access to hospitals, clinics and health services in general. If you live close
to these services you can reach a doctor in minutes rather than hours or days, so this improves
emergency care and general health. There are also benefits from easier access to sources of
information such as radio and television which may be used to communicate information about
health to the general public. For example, women living in towns and cities are more likely to be
informed about family planning, which results in reduction in family size and less frequent
childbirth, with consequent benefits to general health.

However, urban life can also damage health. Poor environment, housing and living conditions
are the main reasons for poor health in urban areas. Contamination of water sources can cause
epidemics of waterborne disease. Close proximity to other people can make the spread of many
types of infectious disease more likely. The polluted air can also cause respiratory disease and

21
contribute to premature deaths among more vulnerable sections of the population such as older
people and children.

➢ Food

Population movements also put pressure on food supplies and on food distribution. As people
migrate to the cities, they tend to use purchased food instead of their own crops and this makes
them more vulnerable to changes in food prices. As the population grows and the demand for water
and land increases, it becomes difficult to increase food production in a sustainable way. The
increase in urban demand, combined with a loss of agricultural land, means more pressure on rural
people to produce food for the growing number of urban people.

Furthermore, pollution from urban areas can disrupt food supply. For example, fisheries are often
damaged by urban domestic wastes and liquid effluents from city-based industries.

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