 If fluids are not picked up, edema occurs

12 Lymphatic System and Body Defenses as fluid accumulates in tissues

 Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics) pick up
Part I: The Lymphatic System excess fluid (lymph) and return it to the
blood

Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)

o Form a one-way system
o Lymph flows only toward the heart

Lymph capillaries
 Weave between tissue cells and blood
capillaries
 Walls overlap to form flaplike
minivalves
 Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
 Capillaries are anchored to connective
tissue by filaments
 Higher pressure on the inside closes
minivalves
 Fluid is forced along the vessel

Lymphatic collecting vessels

 Collect lymph from lymph capillaries
 Carry lymph to and away from lymph
nodes
 Return fluid to circulatory veins near the
Consists of two semi-independent parts: heart
 Lymphatic vessels  Right lymphatic duct drains the
 Lymphoid tissues and organs lymph from the right arm and the
right side of the head and thorax
Lymphatic system functions  Thoracic duct drains lymph from rest
 Transports escaped fluids from the of body
cardiovascular system back to the blood Lymphatic vessels are similar to veins of the
 Plays essential roles in body defense and cardiovascular system:
resistance to disease
 Thin-walled
 Larger vessels have valves
 Low-pressure, pumpless system

Lymph transport is aided by:

 Milking action of skeletal muscles
 Pressure changes in thorax during
breathing
 Smooth muscle in walls of lymphatics

Lymphatic Vessels
 Lymph consists of excess tissue fluid and
plasma proteins carried by lymphatic
vessels
Lymph Nodes
1 inch long, and buried in connective
tissue
 Surrounded by a capsule
 Divided into compartments by
trabeculae Cortex (outer part)
o Contains follicles—collections of
lymphocytes
o Germinal centers enlarge when
antibodies are released by plasma
cells
Medulla (inner part)
Contains phagocytic macrophages

Flow of lymph through nodes

o Lymph enters the convex side
through afferent lymphatic
vessels
o Lymph flows through a number
of sinuses inside the node
 Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is o Lymph exits through efferent
returned to the blood lymphatic vessels
 Harmful materials that are filtered o Because there are fewer efferent
 Bacteria than afferent vessels, flow is
 Viruses slowed
 Cancer cells Other Lymphoid Organs
 Cell debris Several other lymphoid organs contribute
Defense cells within lymph nodes to lymphatic function (in addition to the
 Macrophages—engulf and destroy lymph nodes)
bacteria, viruses, and other foreign o Spleen
substances in lymph o Thymus
 Lymphocytes—respond to foreign o Tonsils
substances in lymph o Peyer’s patches
Most lymph nodes are kidney-shaped, o Appendix
less than Spleen
 o Located on the left side of the  Two mechanisms that make up the
abdomen immune system defend us from foreign
o Filters and cleans blood of materials
bacteria, viruses, debris o Innate (nonspecific) defense
o Provides a site for lymphocyte system
proliferation and immune o Adaptive (specific) defense
surveillance system
o Destroys worn-out blood cells  Immunity—specific resistance to disease
o Forms blood cells in the fetus  Immune system is a functional system
o Acts as a blood reservoir rather than an organ system in an
anatomical sense
Thymus
o Found overlying the heart Body Defenses
o Functions at peak levels only  Innate (nonspecific) defense system
during youth o Mechanisms protect against a
variety of invaders
Tonsils o Responds immediately to protect
o Small masses of lymphoid tissue body from foreign materials
deep to the mucosa surrounding  Adaptive (specific) defense system
the pharynx (throat) o Fights invaders that get past the
o Trap and remove bacteria and innate system
other foreign pathogens o Specific defense is required for
o Tonsillitis results when the tonsils each type of invader
become congested with bacteria o The highly specific resistance to
Peyer’s patches disease is immunity
o Found in the wall of the small
intestine  Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses
o Similar lymphoid follicles are Innate body defenses are mechanical
found in the appendix barriers to pathogens (harmful or disease-
o Macrophages capture and destroy causing microorganisms) and include:
bacteria in the intestine o Body surface coverings
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue  Intact skin
(MALT)  Mucous membranes
o Includes: Specialized human cells
 Peyer’s patches Chemicals produced by the body
 Tonsils Surface Membrane Barriers
 Appendix Surface membrane barriers, such as
 Acts as a sentinel to protect the skin and mucous membranes,
respiratory and digestive tracts provide the first line of defense
Part II: Body Defenses against the invasion of
microorganisms
Protective secretions produced by
these membranes
 Acidic skin secretions inhibit
bacterial growth
 Sebum is toxic to bacteria
 Mucus traps microorganisms
 Gastric juices are acidic and
kill pathogens
  Saliva and tears contain  These chemicals cause:
lysozyme (enzyme that  Blood vessels to dilate
destroys bacteria)  Capillaries to become
leaky
Internal Defenses: Cells and Chemicals  Phagocytes and white
blood cells to move into
the area (called positive
chemotaxis)
Functions of the inflammatory response
 Prevents spread of damaging
agents
 Disposes of cell debris and
pathogens through phagocytosis
 Sets the stage for repair
Internal Defenses: Cells and Chemicals
Process of the inflammatory response
 Neutrophils migrate to the
area of inflammation by
rolling along the vessel wall
(following the scent of
chemicals from
inflammation)
 Neutrophils squeeze through
 Cells and chemicals provide a second line the capillary walls by
of defense diapedesis to sites of
o Natural killer cells and inflammation
phagocytes  Neutrophils gather in the
o Inflammatory response precise site of tissue injury
o Chemicals that kill pathogens (positive chemotaxis) and
o Fever consume any foreign material
 Natural killer (NK) cells present
o Lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells,
virus-infected cells
o Release chemicals called perforin
and granzymes to degrade target
cell contents  Phagocytes
 Inflammatory response o Cells such as neutrophils and
o Triggered when body tissues are macrophages engulf foreign
injured material by phagocytosis
o Four most common indicators o The phagocytic vesicle is
(cardinal signs) of acute fused with a lysosome, and
inflammation enzymes digest the cell’s
 Redness contents
 Heat
 Pain
 Swelling (edema)
Inflammatory response
 Damaged cells release
inflammatory chemicals
 Histamine
 Kinin
 (known as complement
fixation)
Antimicrobial proteins: complement
proteins (continued)
 Membrane attack complexes
(MACs), one result of
complement fixation, produce
holes or pores in cells
 Pores allow water to
rush into the cell
 Cell bursts (lyses)
 Activated complement
enhances the inflammatory
response
Antimicrobial proteins: interferons
 Interferons are small proteins
 Antimicrobial proteins secreted by virus-infected
cells
 Interferons bind to membrane
receptors on healthy cell
surfaces to interfere with the
ability of viruses to multiply

Internal Defenses: Cells and

Chemicals
Fever
 Abnormally high body
temperature is a systemic
response to invasion by
microorganisms
 Hypothalamus regulates body
temperature at 37ºC (98.6ºF)
 The hypothalamus thermostat
o Enhance innate defenses by: can be reset higher by
 Attacking pyrogens (secreted by white
microorganisms blood cells)
directly  High temperatures inhibit the
 Hindering release of iron and zinc
reproduction of (needed by bacteria) from the
microorganisms liver and spleen
 Most important types  Fever also increases the speed
 Complement proteins of repair processes
 Interferon
Antimicrobial proteins: complement
proteins
 Complement refers to a group
of at least 20 plasma proteins
that circulate in the plasma
 Complement is activated
when these plasma proteins
encounter and attach to cells
Adaptive Body Defenses
 Adaptive body defenses are the  Human cells have many
body’s specific defense system, or the protein and carbohydrate
third line of defense molecules
o Immune response is the  Self-antigens do not trigger
immune system’s response to an immune response in us
a threat  The presence of our cells in
o Antigens are targeted and another person’s body can
destroyed by antibodies trigger an immune response
 Three aspects of adaptive defense because they are foreign
o Antigen specific—the  Restricts donors for
adaptive defense system transplants
recognizes and acts against Haptens, or incomplete antigens, are
particular foreign substances not antigenic by themselves
o Systemic—immunity is not  When they link up with our
restricted to the initial own proteins, the immune
infection site system may recognize the
o Memory—the adaptive combination as foreign and
defense system recognizes respond with an attack
and mounts a stronger attack  Found in poison ivy, animal
on previously encountered dander, detergents, hair dyes,
pathogens cosmetics
 Two arms of the adaptive defense
system Cells of the Adaptive Defense System:
o Humoral immunity = An Overview
antibody-mediated immunity
 Provided by
antibodies present
in body fluids
 Cellular immunity = cell-
mediated immunity
 Targets virus-infected
cells, cancer cells,
and cells of foreign
grafts
Antigens
Antigens are any substance capable of
exciting the immune system and
provoking an immune response
 Examples of common nonself
antigens  Crucial cells of the adaptive system
 Foreign proteins o Lymphocytes—respond to
provoke the specific antigens
strongest response  B lymphocytes (B
 Nucleic acids cells) produce
 Large carbohydrates antibodies and
 Some lipids oversee humoral
 Pollen grains immunity
 Microorganisms  T lymphocytes (T
(bacteria, fungi, cells) constitute the
viruses) cell-mediated arm
Self-antigens of the adaptive
 defenses; do not  Engulf antigens and then
make antibodies present fragments of them on
 Antigen-presenting cells their own surfaces, where
(APCs)—help the they can be recognized by T
lymphocytes but do not cells
respond to specific antigens  Major types of cells behaving
Lymphocytes as APCs
 Arise from hemocytoblasts of  Dendritic cells
bone marrow  Macrophages
 Whether a lymphocyte  B lymphocytes
matures into a B cell or T cell  When they present antigens,
depends on where it becomes dendritic cells and
immunocompetent macrophages activate T cells,
Immunocompetence which release chemicals
 The capability to respond to a
specific antigen by binding to
it with antigen-specific
receptors that appear on the
lymphocyte’s surface
Cells of the Adaptive Defense
System: An Overview
Lymphocytes (continued)
 T cells develop
immunocompetence in the
thymus and oversee cell-
mediated immunity
 Identify foreign
antigens
 Those that bind self-
antigens are
destroyed
 Self-tolerance is
important part of
lymphocyte
“education”
 B cells develop
immunocompetence in bone
marrow and provide humoral
immunity
Immunocompetent T and B
lymphocytes migrate to the lymph Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
nodes and spleen, where encounters Response
with antigens occur
Differentiation from naïve cells into
mature lymphocytes is complete when
they bind with recognized antigens
Mature lymphocytes (especially T
cells) circulate continuously
throughout the body
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
 o Naturally acquired from a
mother to her fetus or in the
breast milk
o Artificially acquired from
immune serum or gamma
globulin (donated antibodies)
Immunological memory does not
occur
Protection is short-lived (2–3 weeks)
Monoclonal antibodies
o Antibodies prepared for
clinical testing for diagnostic
services
o Produced from descendants of
a single cell line
o Exhibit specificity for only
one antigen
Examples of uses for monoclonal
 B lymphocytes with specific receptors
antibodies:
bind to a specific antigen
 The binding event sensitizes, or  Cancer treatment
activates, the lymphocyte to undergo  Diagnosis of pregnancy
clonal selection  Treatment after exposure to
 A large number of clones is produced hepatitis and rabies
(primary humoral response)  Figure 12.14 Types of humoral
 Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) immunity.
Immune Response  Humoral (Antibody-Mediated)
 Most of the B cell clone members Immune Response
(descendants) become plasma cells  Antibodies (immunoglobulins,
o Produce antibodies to destroy Igs)
antigens o Constitute gamma globulin
o Activity lasts for 4 or 5 days part of blood proteins
o Plasma cells begin to die o Soluble proteins secreted by
 Some B cells become long-lived activated B cells (plasma
memory cells capable of mounting a cells)
rapid attack against the same antigen o Formed in response to a huge
in subsequent meetings (secondary number of antigens
humoral response)  Humoral (Antibody-Mediated)
o These cells provide Immune Response
immunological memory  Antibody structure
Active immunity o Four polypeptide chains, two
 Occurs when B cells encounter heavy and two light, linked
antigens and produce antibodies by disulfide bonds to form a
 Active immunity can be: T- or Y-shaped molecule
o Naturally acquired during o Each polypeptide chain has a
bacterial and viral infections variable (V) region and a
o Artificially acquired from constant (C) region
vaccines  Variable regions form
Passive immunity antigen-binding
Occurs when antibodies are obtained sites, one on each
from someone else arm of the T or Y
  Constant regions
determine the type
of antibody formed
(antibody class)

Antibody function
 Antibodies inactivate antigens in a
number of ways
 Complement fixation: chief
antibody ammunition used against
cellular antigens
 Neutralization: antibodies bind to
specific sites on bacterial
exotoxins or on viruses that can
cause cell injury
 Agglutination: antibody-antigen
reaction that causes clumping of
cells
 Precipitation: cross-linking
reaction in which antigen-
Antibody classes antibody complex settles out of
 Antibodies of each class have solution
slightly different roles and
differ structurally and Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response
functionally
 Five major immunoglobulin
classes (MADGE)
 IgM—can fix
complement
 IgA—found mainly
in secretions, such
as mucus or tears
 IgD—important in
activation of B cell
 IgG—can cross the  Main difference between two arms of
placental barrier the adaptive response
and fix o B cells secrete antibodies
complement; most o T cells fight antigens directly
abundant antibody  Like B cells, immunocompetent T
in plasma cells are activated to form a clone by
 IgE—involved in binding with a recognized antigen
allergies  Unlike B cells, T cells are unable to
bind to free antigens
 o Antigens must be presented o Interact directly with B cells
by a macrophage, and double bound to an antigen, prodding
recognition must occur the B cells into clone
o APC engulfs and presents the production
processed antigen in o Release cytokines, chemicals
combination with a protein that act directly to rid the
from the APC body of antigens
 Different classes of effector T cells  Regulatory T cells
o Helper T cells o Release chemicals to suppress
o Cytotoxic T cells the activity of T and B cells
 T cells must recognize nonself and o Stop the immune response to
self through the process of antigen prevent uncontrolled activity
presentation o A few members of each clone
o Nonself—the antigen are memory cells
fragment presented by APC
o Self—coupling with a Organ Transplants and Rejection
specific glycoprotein on the  Major types of transplants, or grafts
APC’s surface at the same o Autografts—tissue
time transplanted from one site to
 Cytotoxic (killer) T cells another on the same person
o Specialize in killing infected o Isografts—tissue grafts from
cells a genetically identical person
o Insert a toxic chemical (identical twin)
(perforin or granzyme) o Allografts—tissue taken from
o The perforin enters the a person other than an
foreign cell’s plasma identical twin (most common
membrane type of graft)
o Pores now appear in the target o Xenografts—tissue taken
cell’s membrane from a different animal
o Granzymes (protein-digesting species (never successful)
enzymes) enter and kill the  Organ Transplants and Rejection
foreign cell  Blood group and tissue matching is
o Cytotoxic T cell detaches and done to ensure the best match possible
seeks other targets o 75% match is needed to
 Helper T cells attempt a graft
 Organ transplant is followed by
immunosuppressive therapy to
prevent rejection
 Disorders of Immunity
 The most important disorders of the
immune system
o Allergies
o Autoimmune diseases
o Immunodeficiencies
Disorders of Immunity
 Allergies
o Allergies, or hypersensitives,
are abnormal, vigorous
o Recruit other cells to fight immune responses
invaders o The immune system
overreacts to an otherwise
 harmless antigen, and tissue Autoimmune diseases
damage occurs o Occurs when the body’s self-
 Types of allergies tolerance breaks down
o Immediate (acute) o The body produces auto-
hypersensitivity antibodies and sensitized T
 Seen in hives and lymphocytes that attack its
anaphylaxis own tissues
 Due to IgE antibodies o Most forms of autoimmune
and histamine disease result from the
 Anaphylactic shock is appearance of formerly
systemic, acute hidden self-antigens or
allergic response changes in the structure of
and is rare self-antigens, and antibodies
 Delayed hypersensitivity formed against foreign
antigens that resemble self-
antigens
 Examples of autoimmune diseases
o Rheumatoid arthritis—
destroys joints
o Myasthenia gravis—impairs
communication between
nerves and skeletal muscles
o Multiple sclerosis—white
matter of brain and spinal
cord is destroyed
o Graves’ disease—thyroid
gland produces excess
thyroxine
 Examples of autoimmune diseases
(continued)
o Type I diabetes mellitus—
destroys pancreatic beta cells,
resulting in deficient insulin
production
o Systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE)—affects kidney, heart,
lung, and skin
o Glomerulonephritis—severe
impairment of kidney
 Reflects activity of T
function due to acute
cells, macrophages, inflammation
and cytokines
 Symptoms usually
Autoimmune Disease
 Immunodeficiencies
appear 1–3 days
o May be congenital or acquired
after contact with
antigen  Severe combined
 Allergic contact immunodeficiency
dermatitis (poison disease (SCID) is a
ivy, cosmetics) congenital disease
 AIDS (acquired
immune deficiency
 syndrome) is caused by
a virus that attacks and
cripples the helper T
cells
 Result from abnormalities in any
immune element
 Production or function of immune
cells or complement is abnormal

Part III: Developmental Aspects of the

Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

 Lymphatic vessels form by budding off

from veins
 Lymph nodes present by fifth week of
development
 The thymus and the spleen are the first
lymphoid organs to appear in the embryo
 Other lymphoid organs are poorly
developed before birth
 The immune response develops around
the time of birth

Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

 The ability of
immunocompetent cells to
recognize foreign antigens is
genetically determined
 Stress appears to interfere
with normal immune response
 Efficiency of immune
response wanes in old age,
and infections, cancer,
immunodeficiencies, and
autoimmune diseases become
more prevalent