LESSON 2

LOADING ON STRUCTURES

The loading on structures are of two types: -:

(i) Dead loads – Permanent and constant for the entire live span
of the structure; and

(ii) Live load – Transient and variable in magnitude.

There are various codes of practice dealing with live loads

Examples: BS 6399 Part 1 – Design of Loads for Buildings

CP3: Chapter V; Part 2: - Wind Loads
Eurocode 8: Design provisions for earthquake
resistance of structures – Part 3: Towers, Masts and
Chimneys
BS 5400 Part 2: Bridge Loading

Dead loads are generally calculated on a slightly conservative basis, so

that a member will not need redesigning because of small changes in its
dimensions.

Note: Dead loads are calculated using densities of materials

e.g. Timber 6KN/m3; Masonry – 20KN/m3; Concrete –
24KN/m3,
Steel – 78KN/m3

Imposed loads are more difficult to determine accurately. For many of

them, it is only possible to make conservative estimates based on
standard codes of practice or experience. It is highly unlikely that a tall
building will carry its full imposed loads simultaneously on all its floors.
In this case reductions are made to live loads on floors for example:

(i) 100% on roof, 90% on the top floor and further reduction of
10% for each successive floor down to a minimum of 60% of
the live load; or
 (ii) The supported members may be designed for a live load
equal to the basic live load multiplied by a factor {0.3 +
33(A)0.5}, where A is the cumulative area in m2; or

(iii) It may be specified that the maximum percentage reduction

of the live load shall not exceed {100 x (D + L)/4.33L}, where
D and L are the intensities of dead and live loadings
respectfully.

(iv) Similarly, the imposed load may be reduced when designing

a beam span that supports a floor area greater that 40m2.

Note: For Civil Engineering structures, the design

principles are heavily borrowed from nature
based on the following principles:

(i) Any body stays at rest unless an external force is applied to it

and when this happens, the body moves in the direction of the
force with an acceleration that is proportional to the force being
applied; F=ma
(Force = Mass X Acceleration);

(ii) The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the

force applied to the body, F = d/dt (MV); (M – Mass, V –
Velocity); and

(iii) Action and Reaction are equal and opposite, (A = - R), A –

Action, R - Reaction

LIMIT STATE DESIGN

The design of an Engineering structure must ensure that:

(i) Under the worst loading condition, the structure is safe; and
(ii) During normal working conditions, the deformation of members
does not detract from the appearance, durability or
performance of the structure

Three basic methods using factors of safety to achieve safe,

workable structures have been developed; namely:-
 (i) The permissible stress method in which strengths of the
materials are divided by a factor of safety to provide design
stresses that are usually within the elastic limit;

(ii) The load factor method in which the working loads are
multiplied by a factor of safety; and;

(iii) The limit state method where the working loads are
multiplied by a partial factor of safety and at the same time
the materials ultimate strength is divided by a further partial
factor of safety.

The purpose of the design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a

structure will not become unfit for its intended purpose – that is, it will not
reach the Limit State. Thus, any way in which a structure may cease to
be fit for use will constitute a limit state.

The purpose of the design is to ensure that such a condition is avoided

during the expected life of a structure.

The two principles types of limit state are the ultimate limit state and the
serviceability limit state.

(i) Ultimate Limit State: This requires that the structure must be
able to withstand, with an adequate factor of safety against
collapse, the loads for which it is designed for. The possibility of
buckling or overturning must also be taken into account, as must be
the possibility of accidental damage as caused, for example by an
internal explosion.

(ii) Serviceability Limit State: Generally the most important

serviceability limit state are:

(i) Deflection: The appearance or efficiency of any part of the

structure must not be adversely affected by deflection.

(ii) Cracking: Local damage due to cracking and spalling must

not affect the appearance, efficiency or durability of the
structure.

(iii) Durability: This must be considered in terms of the

proposed life of the structure and its conditions of exposure.

Other limit states that may be reached include:

 (iv) Excessive Vibration: May cause discomfort, alarm as well as
damage.

(v) Fatigue: Must be considered of cyclic loading is likely.

(vi) Fire Resistance: This must be considered in terms of

resistance to collapse, frame penetration and heat transfer.

(vii) Special Circumstances: Any special requirements of the

structure which are not covered by any of the more
common limit states such as earthquake resistance, must
be taken into account.

The relative importance of each limit state will vary according to the
nature of the structure.

PARTIAL FACTORS OF SAFETY

The purpose of using the partial factors of safety is to:

(i) Allow for imperfections in the construction;

(ii) Allow for variations in loadings; and
(iii) Errors in production and/or manufacture.

Partial Factors of Safety of Materials (Ɣm)

Design strength = {Characteristic Strength}/{Partial Factor of Safety(Ɣm)}

The following factors are considered when selecting a suitable value for
Ɣm:-

(i) The strength of the material in an actual member; and

(ii) The severity of the limit state under consideration. Thus higher
values are taken for ultimate limit state than for serviceability limit
state.
 Recommended values of Partial Factors of safety applied to
materials (Ɣm):

Limit State Material

Ultimate: Concrete Steel
Flexure 1.50 1.05
Shear 1.25 1.05
Bond 1.40
Serviceability 1.0 1.0

Partial Factors of Safety for Loads (Ɣf)

The partial factor of safety for loads (Ɣf) caters for errors and
inaccuracies that may be due to a number of causes such as:

(i) Design assumptions and inaccuracies in calculations;

(ii) Possible unusual load increases;
(iii) Unforeseen stress redistribution; and
(iv) Inaccuracies in construction.

These cannot be ignored and are taken into account by applying a

partial factor of safety, (Ɣf) on the loadings such that:

Design Load = {Characteristic Load} X {Partial Factor of Safety, (Ɣf)}

The value of this factor should also take into account the importance of
the limit state under consideration and reflect to some extent the
accuracy with which different types of loadings can be predicted and the
probability of particular load combinations occurring.
Recommended Factors of Safety for Loadings:

Ultimate
Serviceability
Dead Imposed Earth Wind
Load
and
Combination {(ƔG), (ƔQ),
(ƔG) (ƔQ) Water (ƔW)
(ƔE), (ƔW)}
(ƔE)
Dead and
1.4
Imposed (+ 1.6
(or 1.4 - 1.0
Earth and (or 0)
1.o)
Water)
Dead and 1.4
Wind (+ Earth (or - 1.4 1.4 1.0
and Water) 1.0)
Dead +
Imposed +
1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.o
Wind (+ Earth
and Water)

The lower values in brackets apply to dead or imposed loads at the

Ultimate Limit State should be used when minimum loading is critical.

Global Factor of Safety: The use of partial factors of safety on

materials and loads offer considerable flexibility, which may be used to
allow for special conditions such as very high standards of construction
and control or at the other extreme, where structural failure would be
particularly disastrous.

Global Factor of Safety (G.F.S.) = (Ɣm) X (Ɣf)

(Factor of Safety for Materials) Multiplied by (Factor of Safety for Load)

Such that:

G.F.S. = 1.15 x1.4 = 1.61 For steel for dead loads only

G.F.S. = 1.15 x1.6 = 1.84 For steel for Live Loads only
G.F.S. = 1.5 x1.6 = 2.40 For concrete under flexure for live loads
only

Example: Determine the cross-sectional area of mild steel cable which

supports a total dead load of 3.0 KN and a live load of 2.0 KN using
Yield stress of 250N/mm2.

(i) Load Factor Method with Load Factor of 1.8

Total Load = Dead Load + Live Load

= 3.0 + 2.0 =5.0 KN
Load Factor = 1.8
Factored Load = 5 x 1.8 = 9.0KN
Area Required = Design Load/Yield Stress
= 9.0x103/250
= 36mm2

(ii) Permissible Stress Method with Load Factor of 1.8

Design Load = Dead Load + Live Load = 3.0 + 2.0 = 5.0 KN

Load Factor = 1.8

Permissible Stress = Yield Stress/Load Factor

= 250/1.8
= 139N/mm2
Area required = 5x103/139
= 36mm2

(iii) Limit State Method

Design Load = Dead Load x 1.4 + Live Load x 1.6

= 3.0 x 1.4 + 2.0 x 1.6 = 7.4 KN

Permissible Stress = Yield Stress/1.15

= 250/1.15
= 217N/mm2
Area required = 7.4x103/217
= 34mm2

It be noted that in all the methods used the results are almost the same.
This is common in structural design as it will be demonstrated later that
rigorous analysis has insignificant economic effect though time
consuming.