APPLIED ELECTRONICS I

CHAPTER ONE

The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

This chapter deals with the semiconductor in equilibrium. Equilibrium, or thermal equilibrium,
implies that no external forces such as voltages, electric fields, magnetic fields, or temperature
gradients are acting on the semiconductor. All properties of the semiconductor will be
independent of time in this case.

Charge Carriers in Semiconductors

Current is the rate at which charge flows. In a semiconductor, two types of charge carrier, the
electron and the hole, can contribute to a current. Since the current in a semiconductor is
determined largely by the number of electrons in the conduction band and the number of holes in
the valence band, an important characteristic of the semiconductor is the density of these charge
carriers.

The Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

For an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is equal to
the concentration of holes in the valence band. We may denote ni and pi as the electron and hole
concentrations, respectively, in the intrinsic semiconductor. These parameters are usually
referred to as the intrinsic electron concentration and intrinsic hole concentration. However, n i pi,
so normally we simply use the parameter ni as the intrinsic carrier concentration, which refers to
either the intrinsic electron or hole concentration.

Figure 1.1 | Energy-band diagrams showing complete ionization of (a) donor states and (b) acceptor states.
Figure 1.2 | Energy-band diagram at T 0 K for (a) n-type and (b) p-type semiconductors.

CHARGE NEUTRALITY

In thermal equilibrium, the semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral. The electrons are
distributed among the various energy states, creating negative and positive charges, but the net
charge density is zero. This charge-neutrality condition is used to determine the thermal-
equilibrium electron and hole concentrations as a function of the impurity doping concentration.
We will define a compensated semiconductor and then determine the electron and hole
concentrations as a function of the donor and acceptor concentrations.

Compensated Semiconductors

A compensated semiconductor is one that contains both donor and acceptor impurity atoms in
the same region. A compensated semiconductor can be formed, for example, by diffusing
acceptor impurities into an n-type material or by diffusing donor impurities into a p-type
material. An n-type compensated semiconductor occurs when Nd > Na, and a p-type
compensated semiconductor occurs when Na > Nd.
If Na = Nd, we have a completely compensated semiconductor that has, as we will show, the
characteristics of an intrinsic material. Compensated semiconductors are created quite naturally
during device fabrication as we will see later.

Figure 1.3 | Energy-band diagram of a compensated semiconductor showing ionized and un-ionized donors and acceptors.
Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentrations

Figure 1.3 shows the energy-band diagram of a semiconductor when both donor and acceptor
impurity atoms are added to the same region to form a compensated semiconductor. The figure
shows how the electrons and holes can be distributed among the various states.
The charge neutrality condition is expressed by equating the density of negative charges to the
density of positive charges. We then have
+¿ ¿
−¿=po + N d ¿
n o+ N a

n o+ ( N a− p a )= po + ( N d−nd )

where n o and po are the thermal-equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes in

the conduction band and valence band, respectively. The parameter n d is the concentration of
+¿ ¿
electrons in the donor energy states, so N d = N d −nd is the concentration of positively charged
−¿ ¿
donor states. Similarly, pa is the concentration of holes in the acceptor states, so N a = N a −p a is
the concentration of negatively charged acceptor
n p n p
states. We have expressions for o, o , d, and a in terms of the Fermi energy and temperature.

Thermal-Equilibrium Electron Concentration If we assume complete ionization, n d and pa

are both zero, and Equation above becomes

n o+ N a= po + N d
2
ni
If we express po as then the above equation can be rewritten as
no
2
ni
n o+ N a= + N d
no

which in turn can be written as

2 2
n o−( N d −N a ) n o−ni

The electron concentrationn o can be determined using the quadratic formula, or

n o=
( N d −N a )
2
+
√( N d−N a 2 2
2
+ni )
The positive sign in the quadratic formula must be used, since, in the limit of an intrinsic
semiconductor when N d =N a=0, the electron concentration must be a positive quantity, orn o=ni .
Equation above is used to calculate the electron concentration in an n-type semiconductor, or
when N d > N a . Although the above Equation was derived for a compensated semiconductor, the
equation is also valid for N a =0.

Similarly, it is possible to drive the formula for thermal equilibrium hole concentration in the
same way as we have derived for that of electrons. the derivation sis as follow

n o+ N a= po + N d
2
ni
If we express n o as then the above equation can be rewritten as
po
2
ni
+ N a = po + N d
po

which in turn can be written as

2 2
po −( N a−N d ) p o−ni

The electron concentration po can be determined using the quadratic formula, or

po =
( N a−N d )
2
+
√( 2 )
N a−N d 2 2
+ ni

Total current density

We now have four possible independent current mechanisms in a semiconductor. These
components are electron drift and diffusion currents and hole drift and diffusion currents. The
total current density is the sum of these four components, or, for the one-dimensional case

dn dp
J=en μ n E x +en μ p E x + e D n −e D p
dx dx

This equation may be generalized to three dimensions as

J=en μ n E+ en μ p E+e D n ∇ n−e D p ∇ p

The electron mobility gives an indication of how well an electron moves in a semiconductor as a
result of the force of an electric field. The electron diffusion coefficient gives an indication of
how well an electron moves in a semiconductor as a result of a density gradient. The electron
mobility and diffusion coefficient are not independent parameters.
Basic Structure of the pn Junction

It is important to realize that the entire semiconductor is a single-crystal material in which one
region is doped with acceptor impurity atoms to form the p region and the adjacent region is
doped with donor atoms to form the n region. The interface separating the n and p regions is
referred to as the metallurgical junction.

For simplicity, we will consider a step junction in which the doping concentration is uniform in
each region and there is an abrupt change in doping at the junction.

Initially, at the metallurgical junction, there is a very large density gradient in both electron and
hole concentrations. Majority carrier electrons in the n region will begin diffusing into the p
region, and majority carrier holes in the p region will begin diffusing into the n region. If we
assume there are no external connections to the semiconductor, then this diffusion process cannot
continue indefinitely. As electrons diffuse from the n region, positively charged donor atoms are
left behind. Similarly, as holes diffuse from the p region, they uncover negatively charged
acceptor atoms. The net positive and negative charges in the n and p regions induce an electric
field in the region near the metallurgical junction, in the direction from the positive to the
negative charge, or from the n to the p region.fig.2.1 shows the pn junction and the concentration
of p and n regions.

Figure 2.1 | (a) Simplified geometry of

a pn junction; (b) doping profile of an
ideal uniformly doped pn junction.

The net positively and negatively charged regions are shown in Figure 2.2. These two regions are
referred to as the space charge region. Essentially all electrons and holes are swept out of the
space charge region by the electric field. Since the space charge region is depleted of any mobile
charge, this region is also referred to as the depletion region.
 Figure 2.2 | The space charge region, the electric field, and the
forces acting on the charged carriers.

Density gradients still exist in the majority carrier concentrations at each edge of the space
charge region. We can think of a density gradient as producing a “diffusion force” that acts on
the majority carriers. These diffusion forces, acting on the electrons and holes at the edges of the
space charge region, are shown in the figure. The electric field in the space charge region
produces another force on the electrons and holes, which is in the opposite direction to the
diffusion force for each type of particle. In thermal equilibrium, the diffusion force and the E-
field force exactly balance each other.

Built-in Potential Barrier

If we assume that no voltage is applied across the pn junction, then the junction is in thermal
equilibrium—the Fermi energy level is constant throughout the entire system. Figure 2.3 shows
the energy-band diagram for the pn junction in thermal equilibrium. The conduction and valance
band energies must bend as we go through the space charge region, since the relative position of
the conduction and valence bands with respect to the Fermi energy changes between p and n
regions.
 Figure 2.3 | Energy-band diagram of a pn junction in
thermal equilibrium.

Electrons in the conduction band of the n region see a potential barrier in trying to move into the
conduction band of the p region. This potential barrier is referred to as the built-in potential
barrier and is denoted by V bi.

The built-in potential barrier maintains equilibrium between majority carrier electrons in the n
region and minority carrier electrons in the p region, and also between majority carrier holes in
the p region and minority carrier holes in the n region.

This potential difference across the junction cannot be measured with a voltmeter because new
potential barriers will be formed between the probes and the semiconductor that will cancel V bi .
The potential V bi maintains equilibrium, so no current is produced by this voltage.

The built-in potential barrier can be determined as the difference between the intrinsic Fermi
level in the p and n regions.

V bi =|ϕ Fn|+|ϕ Fp|

In the n-region, the electronic concentration in the conduction band is given by

n o=N C e
[ −E C−E F
KT ]
Which also written in the form

n =n e
[ − EC− EFi
KT ]
o i

We may defineϕ Fn in the n-region as

 e ϕ Fn=E Fi−E F

n =n e
[ −e ϕFn
KT ]
o i

Taking the natural log of both sides and setting n o=N d and solving for the potential. We obtain

ϕ Fn=
−KT
e
ln
Nd
ni ( )
Similarly, in the p-region, the hole concentration is given by

p =N =n e
[ −EF − EFi
KT ]
o a i

Where ϕ F p-potential in the p-region as

e ϕ F p =E Fi −E F

combining the above two equation yields that

e ϕ Fp=
+ KT
e
ln
Na
ni ( )
Finally, the built-in potential barrier for step junction is found by substituting in the above
equation to find V bi .

V bi =
KT
e
ln
ni( )
Nd Na
2
=V T ln
Nd N a
ni
2
( )
Example calculate the built-in potential barrier in a pn junction. considered a silicon pn-junction
at T=300k with doping concentration of N a =2× 1017 cm−3 and N d =1015 cm−3.(ans. 0.713V)

If N a =101 6 cm−3 and N d =1015 cm−3.(ans. 0.635V)

Comment

The built-in potential barrier changes only slightly as the doping concentration change by orders
magnitude because of the logarithmic dependence.

Electric Field
An electric field is created in the depletion region by the separation of positive and negative
space charge densities. Figure 2.4 shows the volume charge density distribution in the pn
junction assuming uniform doping and assuming an abrupt junction approximation.
We will assume that the space charge region abruptly ends in the n region at x=+ x n and
abruptly ends in the p region at x=−x p ( x p is a positive quantity).

The electric field is determined from Poisson’s equation, which, for a one-dimensional analysis,
is
2
d ϕ ( x ) − ρ ( x ) −dE ( x )
= =
d x2 ϵs dx

Where

ϕ ( x ) is the electric potential

E ( x ) is electric field

ρ ( x ) the volume charge densities

ϵ s is permitivity of the semiconductor

From the above figures the charge densities are

ρ ( x )=−e N a−x p < x <0

ρ ( x )=e N d 0< x < x n

The electric field in the p-region is found by integrating the above equation

ρ(x) e Na eNa
E=∫ dx=−∫ dx= x +C1
ϵs ϵs ϵs

The constant integration is determined by setting E=0 at x=x p .

The E-field in the p-region is given by

−e N a
E=
ϵs
( x + x p )− x p ≤ x ≤ 0

In the n-region, the electric field is determined from

e Na e Nd
E=∫ dx = x +C 2
ϵs ϵs

C 2 is determined by setting E=0 at x=x n ,since E-field is assumed to be zero in the n-region and
is a continuous function. Then
 −e N d
E=
ϵs
( x+ x p ) −x p ≤ x ≤ 0

Space Charge Width

We can determine the distance that the space charge region extends into the p and n regions from
the metallurgical junction. This distance is known as the space charge width.

Reverse Applied Bias

If we apply a potential between the p and n regions, we will no longer be in an equilibrium

condition. Figure 7.7 shows the energy-band diagram of the pn junction for the case when a
positive voltage is applied to the n region with respect to the p region.

The total potential barrier, indicated by V total , has increased. The applied potential is the reverse-
biased condition. The total potential barrier is now given by

V total =|ϕ Fn|+|ϕ Fp|+V R

Where V R is the applied reverse voltage and the above equation can be rewritten as

V total=V bi +V R

Where V bi is the same built-in potential barrier we had defined in thermal equilibrium.

Relation of Space Charge Width and Electric Field

 Figure 2.4 | A pn junction, with an applied reverse-biased
voltage, showing the directions of the electric field induced
by VR and the space charge electric field.

To compute the space charge region width when there is a reverse voltage is given as

{ [ ]}
1
2 ϵ s ( V bi +V R ) N a + N d 2
w=
e Na Nd

The magnitude of the electric field in the depletion region increases with an applied reverse-
biased voltage. Since x n and x p increase with reverse-biased voltage, the magnitude of the
electric field also increases. The maximum electric field still occurs at the metallurgical junction.
The maximum electric field at the metallurgical junction is give as

−e N d x n −e N a x p
Emax = =
ϵs ϵs

It possible to express the maximum electric field in terms of the built in potential burrier

{ [ ]}
1
2e ( V bi +V R ) N a N d 2
Emax =−
ϵs Na+ Nd

We can show that the maximum electric field in the pn junction can also be written as

−2 ( V bi + V R )
Emax =
w

Junction Capacitance
Since we have a separation of positive and negative charges in the depletion region, a
capacitance is associated with the pn junction. Figure 2.6 shows the charge densities in the
depletion region for applied reverse-biased voltages of V R and V R +dV R. An increase
 Figure 2.6 | Differential change in the space charge width with
a differential change in reverse-biased voltage for a uniformly
doped pn junction

in the reverse-biased voltage dV R will uncover additional positive charges in the n region and
additional negative charges in the p region. The junction capacitance is defined as
'
' dQ
C=
dV R

Where
'
d Q =e N d d x n=e N a d x p

For total potential barrier the junction capacitance can be written as

d Q e N d d xn e N a d x p
'
'
C= = =
dV R dV R dV R

When we substitute the value of x n the junction capacitance also expressed as

{ [ ]}
1
' e ϵs NaNd 2
C=
2 ( V bi + V R ) N a + N d

Exactly the same capacitance expression is obtained by considering the space charge region
extending into the p region x p. The junction capacitance is also referred to as the depletion layer
capacitance.
 Chapter Two

The pn Junction Diode