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Time Study
Work Measurment

 Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to

establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job
at a defined level of performance
Procedure

 SELECT the work to be studied.

 RECORD all the relevant data relating to the circumstances in which the work is
being done, the methods and the elements of activity in them.
 EXAMINE the recorded data and the detailed breakdown critically to ensure
that the most effective method and motions are being used and that
unproductive and foreign elements are separated from productive elements;
 MEASURE' the quantity of work involved in each element, in terms of time, using
the appropriate work measurement technique.
 COMPILE tile standard time for the operation which will include time allowances
to cover relaxation, personal needs, contingencies, etc.
 DEFINE precisely the series of activities and method of operation for which the
time has been compiled and issue the time as standard for the activities and
methods specified.
TIME STUDY EQUIPMENT

 Time study is a work measurement technique for recording the times

and rates of working for the elements of a specified job carried out
under specified conditions, and for analyzing the data so as to
obtain the time necessary for carrying out the job at a defined level
of performance.
BASIC TIME STUDY EQUIPMENT

 a stopwatch;
 a study board;
 pencils;
 time study forms.
Stopwatch

1. Fly back
2. Non-fly back
3. digital
Time study board
Time study form
Short cycle time study form
SELECTING THE JOB TO BE STUDIED

 The job in question is a new one not previously carried out (new
product, component, operation or set of activities).

 A change in material or method of working has been made and a

new time standard is required.

 A complaint has been received from a worker or workers'

representative about the time standard for an operation.
SELECTING THE JOB TO BE STUDIED

 A particular operation appears to be a "bottleneck" holding up

subsequent operations and possibly (through accumulations of work
in process behind it) previous operations.

 Standard times are required prior to the introduction of an incentive

scheme.

 As a preliminary to making a method study, or to compare the

efficiency of two proposed methods.

 When the cost of a particular job appears to be excessive.

Qualified worker

 A qualified worker is one who is accepted as having the necessary

physical attributes, who possesses the required intelligence and
education, and has acquired the necessary skill and knowledge to
carry out the work in hand to satisfactory standards of safety,
quantity and quality.
THE STEPS IN MAKING A TIME STUDY

 Obtaining and recording all the information available about the

job, the operator and the surrounding conditions, which is likely to
affect the carrying out of the work.
 Recording a complete description of the method, breaking down
the operation into "elements"
 Examining the detailed breakdown to ensure that the most effective
method and motions are being used.
 Measuring with a timing device (usually a stopwatch) and recording
the time taken by the operator to perform each "element" of the
operation.
THE STEPS IN MAKING A TIME STUDY

 At the same time assessing the effective speed of the working of the
operative in relation to the observer's concept of the rate
corresponding to standard rating.
 Extending the observed times to "basic times“
 Determining the allowances to be made over and above the basic
time for the operation.
 Determining the "standard time" for the operation.
BREAKING THE JOB INTO ELEMENTS

 An element is a distinct part of a specified job selected for

convenience of observation, measurement and analysis.
Necessity of elements

 To ensure that productive work (or effective time) is separated from

unproductive activity (or ineffective time).
 To permit the rate of working to be assessed more accurately
 To enable elements involving high fatigue to be isolated and to
make the allocation of fatigue allowances more accurate.
 To facilitate checking the method and so that the subsequent
omission or insertion of elements may be detected quickly.
 To enable time values for frequently recurring elements, such as the
 operation of machine controls or loading and unloading
workpieces from fixtures
Types of Element

 A repetitive element is an element which occurs in every work cycle

of the job.
 An occasional element is an element which does not occur in every
work cycle of the job, but which may occur at regular or irregular
intervals.
 A constant element is an element for which the basic time remains
constant whenever it is performed.
 A variable element is an element for which the basic time varies in
relation to some characteristics of the product, equipment or
process, e.g. dimensions, weight, quality, etc.
Types of Element

 A manual element is an element performed by a worker.

 A machine element is an element automatically performed by a
power-driven machine (or process).
 A governing element is an element occupying a longer time than
that of any other element which is being performed concurrently.
 A foreign element is an element observed during a study which,
after analysis, is not found to be a necessary part of the job.
THE "AVERAGE" WORKER
STANDARD RATING AND STANDARD
PERFORMANCE
 Rating is the assessment of the worker's rate of working relative to
the observer's concept of the rate corresponding to standard pace.

 Standard performance is the rate of output which qualified workers

will naturally achieve without overexertion as an average over the
working day or shift provided they know and adhere to the
specified method and provided they are motivated to apply
themselves to their work.

 This performance is denoted as 100 on the standard rating and

performance scales.
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF
WORKING
 Variations in the quality or other characteristics of the material used,
although they may be within the prescribed tolerance limits.
 Changes in the operating efficiency of tools or equipment within
their useful life.
 Minor and unavoidable changes in methods or conditions of
operation.
 Variations in the mental attention necessary for the performance of
certain of the elements.
 Changes in climatic and other surrounding conditions such as light,
temperature, etc.
 The optimum pace at which the worker will work depends on
 The physical effort demanded by the work.
 His training and experience.
 The study man should be careful not to rate too highly when-
 The worker is worried or looks hurried.
 The worker is obviously being over-careful.
 The job looks difficult to the study man.
 The study man himself is working very fast, as when recording a short
element study.
 Conversely, there is a danger of rating too low when-
 The worker makes the job look easy.
 The worker is using smooth, rhythmic movements.
 The worker does not pause to think when the study man expects him to
do so.
 The worker is performing heavy manual work.
 The study man himself is tired.
SCALES OF RATING
HOW THE RATING FACTOR IS USED

 Observed Time x Rating = A Constant

 Cycle Observed time Rating Constant

(decimal minutes)

 1 0.20 x 100 = 0.20

 2 0.16 x 125 = 0.20
 3 0.25 x 80 = 0.20
Basic Time

Basic Time is the time for carrying out an element of work at standard
rating, i.e.
Observed Time x Observed Rating
Standard Rating
Observed Time x Rating = Basic Time
Standard Rating

 0.16 min x 125 = 0.20 min

100
Standard Time

 Standard time is the total time in which a job should be completed

at standard performance - i.e. work content, contingency
allowance for delay, unoccupied time and interference allowance,
where applicable.
Method Study
 Method Study Definition

• Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination of

existing and proposed ways of doing work, as a means of developing and
applying easier and more effective methods and reducing costs.
THE MOST COMMONLY USED METHOD STUDY
CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS
 Process Chart Symbols
• Operation
• Indicates the main steps in a process, method or procedure. Usually the
part, material or product concerned is modified or changed during the
operation.
 Process Chart Symbols

• Inspection
• Indicates an inspection for quality and/or a check for quantity.
 Process Chart Symbols

• Transportation
• Indicates the movement of workers, materials or equipment from place to
place.
 Process Chart Symbols
• Delay
• Indicates a delay in the sequence of events: for example, work waiting
between consecutive operations, or any object laid aside temporarily
without record until required.
 Process Chart Symbols

• Storage
• Indicates a controlled storage in which material is received into or issued
from a stores under some form of authorization; or an item is retained for
reference purposes.
 Process Chart Symbols

• Combined Activities.
Work sampling
TRAVEL CHART
DEFINITION

• A travel chart is a tabular record for presenting quantitative data about the movements of
workers, materials or equipment between any number of places over any given period of time.
FLOW DIAGRAM
THE STRING DIAGRAM

• A string diagram is a scale plan or model on which a thread is used to trace and measure the
path of workers, material or equipment during a specified sequence of events.
INDIVIDUAL ENTERPRISES
RESOURCES AT THE DISPOSAL OF AN
ENTERPRISE
LAND AND BUILDINGS
MATERIALS
MACHINES
MANPOWER
THE TASK OF THE MANAGEMENT
THE PRODUCTIVITY OF MATERIALS
at the design stage or time of specification
at the process or operation stage

THE PRODUCTIVITY OF LAND, BUILDINGS, MACHINES

AND MANPOWER
HOW THE TOTAL TIME OF A JOB IS MADE UP
A man-hour is the labour of one man for one hour.
A machine-hour is the running of a machine or piece of plant for one hour.
HOW MANUFACTURING TIME IS MADE UP
THE WORK CONTENT DUE TO THE PRODUCI' AND
PROCESSES
INEFFECTIVE TIME DUE TO SHORTCOMINGS ON
THE PART OF MANAGEMENT AND WORKERS
LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY
Labour Productivity = Total output
Labour hours used
Example:
A company assembles 2500 Television sets using 32 operators.

Labour Productivity = 2500 = 78.12 sets per operator

32 operators
MATERIAL PRODUCTIVITY

Material Productivity = Total output

Material input

Example: 300 handkerchiefs were stitched using 42 mtrs of cloth

Material Productivity = 300 = 7.14 kerchiefs per meter
42
MULTIFACTOR PRODUCTIVITY
Multifactor Productivity = Total output
Labour+Material+Overhead
Example:
A water bottle mnf. Co produces 3000 bottles/day. Labor cost was Rs. 150, material
cost was 20 and overhead cost was 120. determine the multifactor productivity.
Multifactor Productivity = 3000 =10.34 bottles per rupee input
150 + 20 +120
ERGONOMICS
 ERGONOMICS

• The word ergonomics comes from the Greek word “ergon” which means work and
“nomos” which means laws. It’s essentially the “laws of work” or “science of work”.

• Ergonomics draws on many disciplines in its study of humans and their

environments, including anthropometry, biomechanics, mechanical engineering,
industrial engineering, physiology and psychology…
 AREA OF STUDY UNDER ERGONOMICS

• Physical Ergonomics
• Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anthropometric, physiological and
biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity.

• Workplace Ergonomics
• The science of fitting workplace conditions and job demands to the capabilities of the
working population.
• At its core, workplace ergonomics is about building a better workplace.
 BENEFITS OF ERGONOMICS

• Higher productivity
• Better product quality
• Improved employee engagement
• Better safety culture
• Lower costs
 ERGONOMICS PROCESS

• Assess Risk: Conducting an ergonomic assessment is a foundational element of the

ergonomics process.
• Plan Improvements: The core goal of the ergonomics process is to make changes to
your workplace that reduce risk.
• Measure Progress: Measurement is an important component of any successful
continuous improvement process.
• Scale Solutions: By establishing a common set of tools to train your workforce, assess
risk, plan improvements, measure progress, and design new work processes.
 COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS

• Relevant topics
• mental workload
• decision-making
• skilled performance
• human-computer interaction
• work stress
• training as these may relate to human-system design
 ORGANIZATIONAL ERGONOMICS

• Relevant topics
• Communication
• Teamwork…
 HUMAN–MACHINE SYSTEM

• Human–machine system is a system in which the functions of a human operator (or

a group of operators) and a machine are integrated.
COMPONENTS OF MAN MACHINE SYSTEM
 STRESS IN HUMAN BODY AND THEIR
CONSEQUENCES
• Body stress affects all systems of the body including
• Muscles
• When the body is stressed, muscles tense up. Muscle tension is almost a reflex reaction to stress—the body’s
way of guarding against injury and pain..

• Respiratory
• Stress and strong emotions can present with respiratory symptoms, such as shortness of breath and rapid
breathing, as the airway between the nose and the lungs constricts.

• Cardiovascular
• The blood vessels that direct blood to the large muscles and the heart dilate, thereby increasing the
amount of blood pumped to these parts of the body and elevating blood pressure.
 STRESS IN HUMAN BODY AND THEIR
CONSEQUENCES
• Body stress affects all systems of the body including
• Endocrine
• Results in an increase in the production of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids, which include
cortisol, often referred to as the “stress hormone”.

• Gastrointestinal
• Stress can affect this brain-gut communication, and may trigger pain, bloating, and other gut discomfort
to be felt more easily.

• Nervous
• Chronic stress, experiencing stressors over a prolonged period of time, can result in a long-term drain on the body. As
the autonomic nervous system continues to trigger physical reactions, it causes a wear-and-tear on the body.
 WHY COMPUTER ERGONOMICS?

• Many people spend hours a day in front of a computer without thinking about the
impact on their bodies. They physically stress their bodies daily without realizing it
by extending their wrists, slouching, sitting without foot support and straining to look
at poorly placed monitors.
• Symptoms may include pain, muscle fatigue, loss of sensation, tingling and reduced
performance.
 EXERCISE AT YOUR COMPUTER

• Neck and Shoulders

• Back
• Arms
• Hands and Wrists
• Feet
• Eyes
 ERGONOMIC TIPS FOR COMPUTER USERS

• Maintain good posture when working at the keyboard. ...

• Keep your feet supported on the floor or on a footrest when you work to reduce
pressure on your lower back.
• Avoid twisting or bending your trunk or neck. ...
• Keep your shoulders relaxed with your elbows close to your sides.
 USABILITY ENGINEERING & HUMAN
COMPUTER INTERFACE
• Usability engineering is a field that is concerned generally with human-computer
interaction and specifically with devising human-computer interfaces that have
high usability or user friendliness.
• Usability Engineers conduct usability evaluations of existing or proposed interfaces and
their findings are fed back to the designer for use in design or redesign.
• Common usability evaluation methods include:
• Usability testing
• Interviews
• Focus groups
• Questionnaires/surveys …
 MULTIPLE
ACTIVIT Y CHART
DEFINITION

• A multiple activity chart is a chart on which the activities

of more than one subject (worker, machine or equipment)
are each recorded on a common time scale to show their
interrelationship.
THE PRINCIPLES OF MOTION
ECONOMY
• Use of the human body.
• Arrangement of the workplace.
• Design of tools and equipment.
USE OF THE HUMAN BODY
• The two hands should begin and complete their movements at the
same time.
• The two hands should not be idle at the same time except during
periods of rest.
• Motions of the arms should be symmetrical and in opposite
directions and should be made simultaneously.
• Continuous curved movements are to be preferred to straight-line
motions involving sudden and sharp changes in direction.
USE OF THE HUMAN BODY
• "Ballistic" (i.e. free-swinging) movements are faster, easier and more
accurate than restricted or controlled movements.
• Rhythm is essential to the smooth and automatic performance of a
repetitive operation.The work should be arranged to permit easy
and natural rhythm whenever possible.
• Work should be arranged so that eye movements are confined to a
comfortable area, without the need for frequent changes of focus.
ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORKPLACE
• Definite and fixed stations should be provided for all tools and
materials to permit habit formation.
• Tools and materials should be pre-positioned to reduce searching.
• Gravity feed, bins and containers should be used to deliver the
materials as close to the point of use as possible.
• Tools, materials and controls should be located within the
maximum working area and as near to the worker as possible.
• Materials and tools should be arranged to permit the best
sequence of motions.
ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORKPLACE
• "Drop deliveries" or ejectors should be used wherever possible so
that the operator does not have to use his hands to dispose of the
finished work.
• Provision should be made for adequate lighting, and a chair of the
type and height to permit good posture should be provided.The
height of the workplace and seat should be arranged to allow
alternate standing and sitting.
• The colour of the workplace should contrast with that of the work
and thus reduce eye fatigue.
DESIGN OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
• The hands should be relieved of all work of "holding" the
workpiece where this can be done by a jig, fixture or foot-operated
device.
• Two or more tools should be combined wherever possible.
• Where each finger performs some specific movement, as in
typewriting, the load should be distributed in accordance with the
inherent capacities of the fingers.
DESIGN OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
• Handles such as those on cranks and large screwdrivers should be
designed so as to permit as much of the surface of the hand as
possible to come into contact with the handle.This is especially
necessary when considerable force has to be used on the handle.
• Levers, crossbars and handwheels should be so placed that the
operator can use them with the least change in body position and
the greatest "mechanical advantage".
CLASSIFICATION OF MOVEMENTS
 TIME STUDY
ALLOWANCES
TYPES OF ALLOWANCE

 Relaxation allowance
 Personal Allowance
 Policy allowance
 Contingency allowance
RELAXATION ALLOWANCE

 Relaxation allowance is an addition to the basic time intended

to provide the worker with the opportunity to recover from the
physiological and psychological effects of carrying out
specified work under specified conditions and to allow
attention to personal needs.

 The amount of the allowance will depend on the nature of the

job.

 Allowances for fatigue in temperate climates are added

element by element to the basic times
REST PAUSES

 light work the relaxation allowance may amount to about 12

per cent. of the basic time.

 On heavier work the allowance may be 20 percent or more.

 Allowances of between 12 and 20 per cent mean that the

worker is allowed to rest for a total of between one and one-
and-a-half hours per eight-hour day.
BENEFITS OF REST PAUSES

 Rest pauses increase the amount of work which can be done in

a day without unduly tiring the worker.

 Workers like them as they break up the monotony of the day.

 Rest pauses reduce the amount of time off taken by workers

during working hours.
CALCULATION OF RELAXATION
ALLOWANCES
 The relaxation allowance has two components: a personal
needs allowance, and a fatigue allowance.

 The personal needs allowance provides for the necessity to go

away from the workplace to attend to personal needs such as
washing, going to the lavatory and getting a drink.

 Fatigue allowance provided to overcome physical and

psychological strain.
DIFFERENT STRAINS ARE..
 Standing.
 Abnormal position.
 Weightlifting or use of force.
 Light conditions.
 Air conditions.
 Visual strain.
 Aural strain.
 Mental strain.
 Monotony: mental.
 Monotony: physical.
STANDARD TIME
SPECIAL ALLOWANCES

 Start-up allowance
 Shut-down allowance
 Cleaning allowance
 Tool allowance
POLICY ALLOWANCES

 A policy allowance is an increment, other than bonus

increment, applied to standard time (or some constituent part
of it, e.g. work content) to provide a satisfactory level of
earnings for a specified level of performance under exceptional
circumstances.
 Standard Time = Basic Normal Time + Allowances
 = (Avg. Watch reading X Observed Rating) + Allowance
Standard Rating

 = BT + Allowance
 = BT + (p% x BT)
 = BT(1+p%)
STD. TIME CALCULATION EXAMPLE

 The continuous stop watch readings of an operation in fan bush assembly unit is
given below. Calcuate the standared time if the allowances are 15 %.

 Element Time Cycle Rating

1 2 3 4
7 36 63 92 100
1
25 54 83 111 90
2
28 56 85 114 110
3
Time Study Examples
Problem 1
• Assuming that the total observed time for an operation of assembling
an electric switch is 1.00 min. If the rating is 120%, find the normal
time. If an allowance of 10% is allowed for the operation, determine
the standard time.
Problem 2
• Find out the standard time using the following data:
• Average time for machine elements = 6 min.
• Average time for manual elements = 4 min.
• Performance rating =110
• Allowances = 10%
Problem 3
Following data were obtained by a work study man from a study conducted
by him.
(i) Maintenance Time:
(a) Get out and put away tools = 12.0 min/day.
(b) Cleaning of machine = 5.0 min/ day.
(c) Oiling of machine = 5.0 min/day.
(d) Replenish coolant supply = 3.0 min/day.
(ii) Interruption Time:
(a) Interruption by foreman = 5.0 min/day.
(b) Interruption by porter etc. = 4.0 min/day.
(iii) Delay time due to power failure etc. = 6.0 min/day.
(iv) Personal time = 20.0 min/day.
Calculate total allowances, total available cycle time and productive hour,
considering a working day of 8 hours.
TWO HANDED PROCESS CHART
MICROMOTION STUDY
In very short cycles operations, which are repeated thousands of times (such as the
packing of sweets into boxes or food cans into cartons), it is worth while going into
much greater detail to determine where movements and effort can be saved and to
develop the best possible pattern of movement, thus enabling the operator to
perform the operation repeatedly with a minimum of effort and fatigue.
SIMO CHART
A simo chart is a chart, often based on film analysis, used to record simultaneously on
a common time scale the therbligs or groups of therbligs performed by different
parts of the body of one or more workers.
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