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❖ Existentialism

Existential psychology is a branch of psychology that studies how people come to

terms with the basic givens of human existence.

(Sander L. Koole, 2008)

❖ What Is Existential Therapy?

The German psychoanalyst Otto Rank is considered the first therapist to practice
existential therapy. He emphasized present feelings and thoughts rather than focusing
primarily on one’s past experiences or subconscious in treatment.

He believed that people need to learn more effective ways of thinking and acting in
order to overcome mental health issues.

Existential therapists believe that anxiety comes from uncertainty about the changing
nature of the meaning of life and uncertainty about existing in the world, including the
physical world, the “world” involving relationships with other people, and the
relationship each person has with themselves.4

An existential therapist will help clients confront anxiety about their existence, such as
fear of death, fear of loneliness, fear of making the wrong choices with the freedom they
have, and fear of living a life without meaning. When confronting these fears, you
experience psychological distress.

An existential therapist helps the client “focus on personal responsibility for making
decisions.”3 They help the client develop insight into the reasons why they make their
decisions and make future choices based on the value and meaning that they identify
for themselves.

❖ Existential Therapy Interventions

Existential therapy offers specific interventions that can help clients develop a sense of
meaning and alleviate mental health symptoms.

Existential interventions include:

 The Four Worlds of Human Existence. Existential therapists believe humans exist in four
worlds: the physical, social, personal, and spiritual worlds. The therapist helps the
client identify which of their worlds they have not explored fully and what contradictions
between the four worlds might be causing distress.

Mapping Worldview. An individual’s worldview includes expectations, assumptions,

and beliefs about themselves, the world, and the other people in the world. By better
articulating their worldview, the client can identify what changes to their behavior can
make their life more fulfilling.

Naming Avoidance. The therapist points out when the client is avoiding by discussing
past and future rather than present events or describing themselves as passively
experiencing life rather than actively making choices.

• Developing Emotional Vocabulary. The therapist has the client list their
most common emotional states and explore what emotions they did not
include, and explore the reasons why they might have overlooked these
states.

Taking Ownership. Because existentialists believe strongly in free will, an existential

therapist will help their clients take ownership of their choices and the consequences
of these choices.

Exploring Values. The therapist guides the client with “values questions,” such as “How
do you want to live your life?” and “What is your overall sense of meaning?”

Role Playing. The therapist and client role play ideal life scenarios, such as what
specific details would indicate that the client is living their most meaningful life. This
helps the client determine what a “meaningful life” means to them.

❖ Philosophical concepts in existential psychology

Existence precedes essence

This is one of the most crucial concepts in understanding existentialist theory. This
explores the idea that we exist and find meaning later. We have free choice to create our
meaning and develop our values. The concept explains that this is our purpose in life: To
create meaning.

Existential philosophers believe that when we’re born, we’re “nothing.” Instead, through
developing meaning, we become what we make of ourselves.
Freedom

Existentialism emphasizes the importance of unrestricted freedom for individuals to make

their own choices. These choices, due to the freedom that individuals have, allow them to:

create goals

make something out of yourself

create meaningful experiences in your life

Absurdity

Existential philosophers connect the concept of the absurdity of life to the creation of
meaning. Absurdity refers to the idea that there are a lot of unknown circumstances in life,
and anything can happen to you at any time.

The idea explains events that could happen to you follow no specific pattern. Existential
theorists believe that life is “absurd” and has no meaning until we attach importance to it.

Anxiety

Anxiety often occurs when you become aware of the absurdity of life. Existentialists
suggest that the awareness of your freedom and responsibility can often lead to a sense of
overwhelming dread.

Yet, free choice allows us to make either healthy or destructive choices due to this
awareness. To quote Kierkegaard, “Anxiety is the dizziness of freedom.”

There are four ultimate anxiety concernsTrusted Source, that existential therapy addresses:

freedom and responsibility

isolation

death

meaninglessness
Authenticity

Authenticity is another crucial element of existentialist theory. Authenticity is about being

genuine and making choices in a way that is fundamental to who you are regardless of
external pressures.

Individuality is an essential aspect of existential theory — related to authenticity.

Existential theorists believe that there is no inherent state of “human nature,” so humans
must define what values or purposes to give attention to.

Abandonment

This concept within existential theory comes from the idea that humans are their only
source of value. The premise theorizes that this knowledge creates feelings of loneliness
and isolation.

It theorizes that individuals’ freedom can cause them to feel trapped.

(Marissa Moore on June 14, 2022, " Existential Theory: Finding Meaning and Application")
What is self-concept?
Self-concept is what you believe defines you as a person. It answers the question: “Who am I?”

In psychology, many theories on self-concept exist, but most of them parallel the notion that self-
concept is a critical component of identity development.

Self-concept involves everything about you, from your moral stance and everyday behaviors to
your recreational talents and political beliefs.

According to research published in 2020 that discusses the self-concept theory proposed by
William D. Brooks and Philip Emmert in 1976, your self-concept may be primarily positive or
negative and predisposes you to certain thoughts or behaviors.
Positive self-concept examples
believe you can make a difference
feel on par with others
receive compliments without shame
understand everyone has certain feelings or behaviors that may not be fully socially acceptable
have a willingness and readiness to work on yourself and resolve unhelpful behaviors

Negative self-concept examples

be sensitive to criticism
be over-responsive to praise
feel disliked by others
assume everyone views themselves in the negative
tend to be hypocritical
offer extreme negative criticism toward others
encounter social interaction challenges and barriers

be reluctant to interact with others

What are the 3 parts of self-concept?
According to Rogers, the three core parts of self-concept are:

Ideal self: your vision and ambitions of who you want to be

Real self (self-image): how you currently see and perceive yourself
Self-esteem: how much worth and value you believe you have
Rogers believed how your ideal self and real self aligned was important to the development of
your self-esteem.

If your ideal self did not match the reality of your real self, he suggested your self-concept was
“incongruent,” and your self-esteem was likely to be negatively affected.

Real selves matching ideal selves was labeled as “congruent” and associated with positive self-
esteem.
What are the four concepts of the self?

Within the framework for self-concept are coexisting theories, such as that of self-
presentation, which suggests your self-concept influences how behavior can be a way to
show others who you are.

In self-presentation theory, four concepts of the self exist:

Public self: your view of yourself as defined by other people’s public knowledge of you

Self-concept: who you believe you are

Actual or behavioral self: the self created by your actions and habits

Ideal self: the self you aspire to be

❖ Key concepts in existential psychology

• Four ways of be in the world
The "four ways of being in the world" is a concept in existential psychology introduced by
psychologist Irvin Yalom. It outlines four fundamental existential concerns that individuals
grapple with in their lives:

Relation to Others: This concerns how individuals interact and connect with others, including
issues of love, belonging, and social connection.
Imagine someone struggling with feelings of loneliness and isolation. They might seek out
relationships, longing for connection and intimacy. This person might join social groups, engage
in deep conversations, or pursue romantic relationships to alleviate their sense of aloneness and
foster meaningful connections with others.

Relation to Death: This involves confronting the reality of mortality and the awareness of one's
own eventual death, leading to questions about the meaning and purpose of life.
Consider a person who has recently experienced the loss of a loved one. They might grapple with
existential questions about the meaning of life and the inevitability of death. This individual
might contemplate their own mortality, reevaluate their priorities, and seek comfort in
philosophical or spiritual beliefs to cope with the existential anxiety surrounding death.
Freedom and Responsibility: This refers to the inherent freedom individuals have to make
choices in their lives, and the responsibility that comes with those choices. It involves grappling
with issues of agency, autonomy, and accountability.
Think about a young adult faced with the decision of choosing a career path. They might feel
overwhelmed by the freedom to pursue any profession, yet burdened by the responsibility of
making the "right" choice. This person might struggle with anxiety about their future, weigh the
potential consequences of their decisions, and ultimately embrace the autonomy to shape their
own destiny.

Search for Meaning: This pertains to the quest for significance and purpose in life, including the
exploration of personal values, beliefs, and existential meaning.
Suppose someone is going through a period of existential crisis, questioning the purpose and
significance of their existence. They might engage in introspection, explore their values and
beliefs, and seek out experiences that bring a sense of fulfillment and purpose. This individual
might find meaning in creative pursuits, community involvement, or acts of altruism that align
with their personal sense of meaning and authenticity.
These four dimensions are considered central to understanding human existence and the
psychological challenges individuals face in navigating their lives. They provide a framework for
exploring existential issues and developing strategies for coping with the complexities of
existence.

• The Daimonic

The term daimonic, having its source in Greek literature [literally, the daimonion], refers to
the inner urgings and warnings from the Gods, the pointer to the living out of one’s
character or destiny. It was sometimes used also as a guiding spirit (thus external, but
operating internally) sent at birth to accompany one throughout life.

EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY

PART 5: THE DAIMONIC: SOURCE OF VIOLENCE AND CREATIVITY

The daimonic, according to May, is “any natural function which has the power to take over
the whole person” (May, 1969). It can be either destructive or creative, and is often both. In
this way it is similar to Jung’s concept of the shadow, and May himself made that
comparison (May, 1991; see also Diamond, 1996, Reeves, 1977).

The Daimonic" is a concept in existential psychology that refers to the darker, more
mysterious aspects of human nature. Coined by existential psychologist Rollo May, the
daimonic represents the inner forces and energies within individuals that can manifest in
both creative and destructive ways.

Here's a breakdown of the key aspects of the daimonic:

Creative Potential: The daimonic is not inherently negative; it encompasses the creative
potential within individuals. It can fuel artistic expression, innovation, and personal growth.
This creative aspect of the daimonic is often associated with passion, inspiration, and the
pursuit of authenticity.

Consider an artist who channels their inner turmoil and existential angst into their work.
Their paintings or sculptures might reflect the depths of human emotion, exploring themes
of suffering, longing, and transcendence. Despite grappling with inner demons, the artist's
creative process allows them to transform their pain into beauty, fostering a profound
sense of catharsis and artistic expression.

Destructive Tendencies: At the same time, the daimonic can also manifest as destructive
impulses and behaviors. It represents the shadow side of human nature, including feelings
of rage, anxiety, and existential despair. These destructive tendencies can emerge when
individuals suppress or deny the deeper aspects of themselves.

Imagine a person struggling with unresolved trauma from their past. Despite their best
efforts to suppress their emotions, they find themselves plagued by intense outbursts of
anger and self-destructive behavior. These destructive impulses stem from the
unacknowledged wounds of their daimonic nature, manifesting as harmful patterns of
addiction, aggression, or relational conflict.

Conflict and Ambiguity: The daimonic is characterized by conflict and ambiguity. It reflects
the tension between opposing forces within individuals, such as the desire for freedom
versus the fear of uncertainty, or the quest for meaning versus the existential angst of
confronting the unknown.

Think of an individual torn between their desire for conformity and their longing for
authenticity. On one hand, they feel pressured to adhere to societal norms and
expectations, sacrificing their true self in the process. On the other hand, they yearn for the
freedom to embrace their unique identity and pursue their passions, despite the
uncertainty and risk involved. This inner conflict reflects the daimonic tension between
conformity and individuality, security and existential fulfillment.

Integration and Acceptance: To effectively navigate the daimonic, individuals must

confront and integrate these darker aspects of themselves. This involves acknowledging
and accepting the complexities of their inner experiences, rather than repressing or
avoiding them. By embracing the daimonic, individuals can tap into its creative potential
and achieve a greater sense of wholeness and authenticity.

Consider someone undergoing a spiritual awakening or existential crisis. As they confront

the deeper questions of existence, they encounter profound feelings of existential dread
and existential freedom. Rather than denying or escaping these unsettling experiences,
they choose to embrace the daimonic aspects of their journey, allowing them to delve
deeper into their inner psyche and cultivate a greater sense of self-awareness and spiritual
growth.

Overall, the concept of the daimonic underscores the multidimensional nature of human
existence, acknowledging the interplay between light and shadow, creativity and
destruction, in the ongoing journey of self-discovery and personal transformation.

❖ Nature of Anxiety
In existential psychology, anxiety is a fundamental concept that stems from the human
confrontation with the inherent uncertainties and challenges of existence. Unlike clinical anxiety,
which is often focused on specific fears or triggers, existential anxiety is more pervasive and
existential in nature, arising from the awareness of one's finitude, freedom, and responsibility in
the face of an uncertain and ultimately unknowable future.

Here's a breakdown of the nature of anxiety in existential psychology:

Awareness of Finitude: Existential anxiety arises from the recognition of one's mortality and the
finite nature of human existence. The awareness that life is temporary and that death is inevitable
can evoke feelings of dread, helplessness, and existential despair. This existential angst is not
simply a fear of death itself, but a profound sense of unease about the meaning and purpose of
life in the face of mortality.
Freedom and Responsibility: Existential anxiety is also rooted in the existential freedom and
responsibility inherent in human existence. Unlike other animals, humans possess the capacity
for self-awareness and agency, which grants them the freedom to make choices and shape their
own destinies. However, this freedom comes with the burden of responsibility and the anxiety-
inducing realization that one's choices have consequences and implications for one's own life and
the lives of others.
Search for Meaning: Existential anxiety can be exacerbated by the search for meaning and
purpose in life. In the absence of predetermined meaning or external validation, individuals must
grapple with the existential task of creating their own sense of meaning and significance. This
search for meaning can be fraught with uncertainty and existential doubt, leading to feelings of
anxiety and existential crisis.
Existential Isolation: Existential anxiety is often intensified by the experience of existential
isolation—the sense of being fundamentally alone in the universe and unable to fully connect
with others or find ultimate solace in human relationships. Despite our social connections,
existential isolation highlights the existential truth that each individual must ultimately confront
life's existential challenges alone, which can evoke feelings of existential anxiety and alienation.

Overall, existential anxiety serves as a powerful motivator for self-reflection, personal growth,
and existential exploration. By confronting and embracing the existential realities of finitude,
freedom, responsibility, and meaninglessness, individuals can cultivate resilience, authenticity,
and a deeper sense of existential fulfillment in the face of life's inherent uncertainties.
❖ Normal and Neurotic Guilt

In existential psychology, guilt is understood as a complex emotion that arises from individuals'
awareness of their freedom, responsibility, and the impact of their choices on themselves and
others. There are two main types of guilt: normal guilt and neurotic guilt.

Normal Guilt:
Normal guilt is considered a healthy and adaptive response to genuine wrongdoing or
transgression against one's own values or ethical standards. It arises when individuals recognize
that they have acted in a way that violates their own moral code or principles, leading to feelings
of remorse, regret, and a desire to make amends.Example: Imagine a person who, due to a
momentary lapse in judgment, speaks harshly to a friend and causes them emotional pain. After
reflecting on their behavior, they feel genuine remorse for their actions and apologize to their
friend, expressing their sincere regret and committing to being more mindful of their words in
the future. In this case, the individual's guilt serves as a healthy signal of their moral conscience
and motivates them to take responsibility for their behavior and repair the harm they have
caused.
Neurotic Guilt:
Neurotic guilt, on the other hand, is characterized by an excessive and irrational sense of guilt
and self-blame that persists even when there is no objective basis for feeling guilty. It often
stems from deep-seated feelings of inadequacy, unworthiness, or existential angst, and can be
perpetuated by unrealistic or unattainable standards of perfectionism.Example: Consider a person
who experiences chronic feelings of guilt and self-doubt, constantly berating themselves for
perceived shortcomings or failures, even when others reassure them that they have done nothing
wrong. This individual may harbor irrational beliefs that they are inherently flawed or unworthy
of love and acceptance, leading to persistent feelings of guilt and self-recrimination that
undermine their self-esteem and well-being. In this case, the individual's guilt is neurotic in
nature, stemming from unresolved psychological issues rather than genuine moral transgressions.
In summary, normal guilt is a healthy response to genuine wrongdoing that promotes ethical
behavior and personal growth, whereas neurotic guilt is an unhealthy and maladaptive response
driven by underlying psychological distress and distorted beliefs about self-worth and adequacy.
Understanding the distinction between these two forms of guilt is essential for promoting mental
health and well-being in individuals grappling with feelings of guilt and self-blame.

❖ four ultimate concerns relevant to psychotherapy: Death, Freedom,

isolation,
meaninglessness

Existential themes are broad and, as such, are often difficult to describe. Defined as themes or
issues that are central to human existence or the human experience, nearly any issue could be
thought of as existential. Yalom divides the common existential issues into four core themes,
which are now widely accepted by many therapists and experts in the field. The four themes—
death, freedom, isolation, and meaning—are categories that help reframe common problems
individuals encounter as givens of human existence. Furthermore, they provide a framework for
formulation by clarifying the nature of a patient concern or issue.
Death. While death is easy to define (i.e., the end of life via the ceasing of biological processes),
it is elusive to discuss. Yalom and other existential psychotherapists go so far as to propose that
death anxiety is the primary neurosis that underlies all others. May describes this anxiety as
“what we feel when our existence as selves is threatened.”7,9 An individual’s awareness of their
own inevitable death and the significant unknowns that accompany this (when, how, and what
happens after?) have the potential to create considerable distress. Avoidance of this distressing
fact is common, and the existential perspective suggests that it can be one cause of
psychopathology. Conversely, morbid ideation or other types of preoccupation with death may
also be presenting problems, and the existential perspective offers a way to name and address
these issues.
Freedom and responsibility. Another core existential theme is freedom. Yalom notes this
framework is somewhat at odds with other analytic theories, such as psychic determinism, as
humans are treated as beings with free will and the capacity to make choices. Despite this, the
two theories can coexist; it is possible to recognize that individuals think, feel, and act the way
they do for specific reasons and still hold that they can ultimately choose to act otherwise.
Indeed, the goal of a psychoanalytic approach to such a problem would be to help “free” a stuck
person from more unconscious patterns. With this wider view of human agency and freedom,
individuals may become overwhelmed with their own capacity for choice; helping a person come
to terms with this freedom and make meaningful choices anyway is one objective of existential
therapy.
Isolation. As Yalom defines it, “Existential isolation refers to an unbridgeable gulf between
oneself and any other being. It refers, too, to an isolation even more fundamental—a separation
between the individual and the world.”4 This hearkens back to the bleak notion that an individual
is born alone and must ultimately die alone. Yalom additionally describes two other forms of
isolation, interpersonal and intrapersonal isolation. Interpersonal isolation may be readily
identified by the therapist, as this refers to feelings of isolation from others, manifesting in a
sense of loneliness. Intrapersonal isolation refers to ways that an individual can isolate from
oneself, potentially through the form of defense mechanisms, dependence on others, or a
separation from one’s own autonomy. Therapists may attempt to discover ways that the
individual attempts to overcome a personal sense of isolation. This can present in problematic
relationships and intrapersonal psychopathology.
Meaning and meaninglessness. At the core of human experience, there lies the question of
meaning and purpose, one of the major foci of philosophy. Many philosophical and spiritual
systems provide a prescriptive view of how to find meaning in the world. Existential philosophy
instead argues that there is limited or no fundamental meaning in the world; others suggest that
the individual is responsible for discovering one’s own unique meaning in life.6–8 This concept
can place a heavy burden on an individual, as they are now the author of their own purpose. As
this may be an overwhelming task, the individual seeking meaning might look outward to others
to find the way forward. Meaninglessness and a lack of purpose are commonly unearthed in the
therapeutic encounter, across a wide range of problems, giving the therapist a unique opportunity
to explore the nature of meaning in the encounter.

❖ Logotherapy

Logotherapy is a therapeutic approach that helps people find personal meaning in life. It’s a
form of psychotherapy that is focused on the future and on our ability to endure hardship
and suffering through a search for purpose.

Psychiatrist and psychotherapist Viktor Frankl developed logotherapy prior to his

deportation to a concentration camp at age 37. His experience and theories are detailed in
his book, "Man’s Search for Meaning."1
Frankl believed that humans are motivated by something called a "will to meaning," which
is the desire to find meaning in life. He argued that life can have meaning even in the most
miserable of circumstances and that the motivation for living comes from finding that
meaning.

Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms—to
choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one’s own way.

— VIKTOR FRANKL,

This opinion was based on his experiences in the concentration camps and his intent to
find meaning through his suffering. In this way, Frankl believed that when we can no longer
change a situation, we are forced to change ourselves.

Techniques

Frankl believed that it was possible to turn suffering into achievement and
accomplishment. He viewed guilt as an opportunity to change oneself for the better and
life transitions as the chance to take responsible action.

In this way, logotherapy is aimed at helping you to make better use of your "spiritual"
resources to withstand adversity. Three techniques intended to help with this process
include dereflection, paradoxical intention, and Socratic dialogue.1

Dereflection

Dereflection is aimed at helping you focus away from yourself and toward other people
allowing you to become "whole" and to spend less time feeling preoccupied with a problem
or worry.

This technique is meant to combat "hyper-reflection," or extreme focus on an anxiety-

provoking situation or object. Hyper-reflection is often common in people with anticipatory
anxiety.

Paradoxical Intention

Paradoxical intention is a technique that invites you to wish for the thing that you fear most.
This was originally suggested for use in the case of anxiety or phobias, in which humor and
ridicule can be used when fear is paralyzing.
For example, if you have a fear of looking foolish, you might be encouraged to try to look
foolish on purpose. Paradoxically, your fear would be removed when you set an intention to
behave as foolishly as possible.

Socratic Dialogue

Socratic dialogue is a tool used to help you through the process of self-discovery by
noticing and interpreting your own words. During Socratic dialogue, your therapist listens
closely to the way you describe things and points out your word patterns, helping you to see
the meaning in them. This process is believed to help you realize your own answers—often,
these are already present within you and are just waiting to be discovered.

Benefits of Logotherapy

Logotherapy may improve resilience—or the ability to withstand adversity, stress, and
hardship. This may be due to the skills that this form of therapy encourages people to
develop, like:3

Acceptance

Allowance of "healthy" stress

Altruism

An active approach to life (rather than an avoidant or overly passive one)

Cognitive reappraisal, or reinterpreting the meaning of an event

Courage to face fears

Humor

Optimism even in the face of tragedy

Responsibility

Spirituality (which may or may not be religious)

Values-based lifestyle

Things to Consider

While logotherapy isn’t inherently religious, it is focused on spiritual and philosophical

concepts, and it is concerned with helping people who feel lost or dissatisfied on a spiritual
level. While many find comfort in this approach, it may pose problems if you’re not a
spiritual or philosophical person.
Similarly, logotherapy is focused on helping people uncover purpose or meaning. If you
already feel that you understand the meaning of your life or your problems aren’t existential
in nature, this form of treatment may not be a good fit for you.

Logotherapy is also not intended to be the sole treatment for some conditions. While
logotherapy may offer benefits for someone living with schizophrenia, for example,
treatment for their condition may also include medication and additional forms of
psychotherapy.

(Arlin Cuncic, " What to Know About Logotherapy" , 2023)