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Assessment of Light Pollution in Indian Scenario: A Case of Bangalore

Article in Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India) Series A · July 2021

DOI: 10.1007/s40030-021-00530-3

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40030-021-00530-3

ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION

Assessment of Light Pollution in Indian Scenario: A Case

of Bangalore
Tanya Kaur Bedi1 • Kshama Puntambekar2 • Sonal Singh3

Received: 27 October 2020 / Accepted: 7 April 2021

Ó The Institution of Engineers (India) 2021

Abstract Development in recent years has brought with it light pollution protruding and having high risks to the
increased artificial light at night for amenity or security environment, it is reducible through various practicable
lighting, which has led to a noteworthy change in the night solutions. Lastly, the study tries to address light pollution
scenario and brightness of urban areas. Light pollution is by developing spatial strategies using GIS as a tool and
now turning into a global issue as it is slowly fading away concludes with future research directions.
the ability to observe stars and originating various envi-
ronmental and energy issues. It comprises glare, increased Keywords Light pollution
Glare
ALAN
Bangalore

unrequited illumination, temporary lighting, and unex- Nocturnal biodiversity
pected fluctuations in lighting. The sources are diverse,
including streetlights, fishing boats, buildings, vehicle
headlights, and even lights on under-sea research vessels; Introduction
assimilation all these often results in the formation of a
domical sky glow. This study attempts to address the issue Light pollution (LP), in simple terms, is the unnecessary
of light pollution in an urban setting taking Bangalore, one light scattered into the ‘‘wrong directions’’, i.e. to the
of the fastest-growing cities in India as an example, with surrounding upward atmosphere or inside windows. It is
the help of night-time satellite imagery by the National now turning into a global issue as it is slowly fading away
Oceanic and Administrative Administration, USA. The the ability to observe stars and originating various envi-
study tries to observe a relationship between various ronmental and energy impacts [25]. In the year 1991, the
demographical and spatial factors of the city with the Macau authority stated lighting management as they issued
brightness levels. The analysis shows a considerable rela- an environmental law known as the light and illumination
tionship between road density and radiance. Further in a framework, parallel with the regulations for air, water, and
delineated area, site-specific situation and primary con- land. It states that ‘‘Residential areas, public semi-public,
tributing sources are detailed. The inverse distance recreational areas, and IT parks, all have the right to a
weighted simulation of the street illumination is found to comfortable and healthy lighting level, indicating that the
be four times the Indian Standard recommendation. Despite light must not disturb the ecological balance of the envi-
ronments on which people depend directly or indirectly.’’
Light perceived by the human vision is capable of three
& Tanya Kaur Bedi modes, namely photopic, mesopic, and scotopic. Under
[email protected]
well-lit conditions of more than 3 cd/m2 (candela/square
1
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, meter), photopic vision is active with the help of cone cells
India of the eye. Monochromatic/scotopic vision is active in dim
2
School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal, light and is facilitated by rod cells of the eye. A combi-
Madhya Pradesh, India nation of these two visions in near darkness condition,
3
Institute of Technology and Management, Gwalior, using both rod and cone cells, is known as mesopic vision
Madhya Pradesh, India (Innovative Lighting, 2018). This mesopic vision is

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 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

adversely affected by ALAN and triggers sleep disorders Literature Review

and other health issues [1]. The impact of this disused light
is associated not only with human health and energy The concentration of artificial light at night responsible for
wastage, but also astronomy, adverse effects on mammals, light pollution is continuously increasing with worldwide
and even to some extent, plants [28]. Moreover, ALAN has development. Several cities have a glowing sky visible
been linked to air pollution as well [17]. even from miles away; this is the most prominent effect of
The general classification of LP can be done based on light pollution. Besides the visible effect, the absence of
the visibility of its source. Direct LP corresponds to optical darkness sooner or later affects the well-being of the nat-
contact with the light source, while indirect LP corresponds ural environment and biodiversity negatively. Conse-
to visual contact with its effect or the sky glow. Collec- quently, approximately 40% of Americans and 20% of
tively, there are five types of LP, as depicted in Fig. 1, Europeans have never experienced a dark night. Further-
namely excess illumination, trespass, glare, light clutter, more, 66% of Americans and 50% of Europeans have
and domical sky glow above the city. The exploitation of never seen the milky way at night [8]. Night-time satellite
artificial light at night (ALAN) with deficient or no imagery is a brilliant source of evidence that notifies
shielding is the prime contributor to LP. First, excessive anthropological activities differently from daytime data.
illumination is unnecessary light usage that is responsible The night-time satellite imagery resolution has become
for resource depletion. Second, light trespass takes place considerably improved ever since 2012 with novel space-
when useless light enters a non-user’s property, which borne detectors. This has improved the accuracy signifi-
causes issues like disturbance and sleep deprivation. Third, cantly also increasing the array of potential applications.
glare is the difficulty experienced seeing in the presence of The VIIRS DNB (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer
direct or reflected very bright light, like car headlamps. Suite Day-Night Band) database has a suitable street-level
Fourth, light clutter indicates grouped lights; this may resolution to identify the crucial sources of waste light [4].
cause confusion or distraction from obstacles and even The world map illustrated in Fig. 2 highlights the brightest
accidents. Fifth, sky glow is the ‘‘glow’’ effect, or the union continents and nations susceptible to light pollution.
of all the light reflected upwards, into the sky [12]. Light Among a few investigative studies of light pollution,
pollution, like any other type of pollution, is dependent recently conducted in France between 2012 and 2019,
upon numerous factors; these can be social, economic, shows a strong correlation of light pollution with popula-
demographic, or ecological. This study tries to observe a tion and GDP [21]. The exponential growth of population
relationship between various demographical and spatial and the resultant rapid rate of urbanization and industrial-
factors with the brightness of the city. It also assesses in ization in India have significantly transformed its night-
detail one of the most prominent sources of LP, which is time light environment. The latest study of light pollution
public lighting. in India utilizing night-time data from 1993 to 2013
through the Defence Meteorological Satellite Program
Operational Line Scanner revealed that New Delhi, Kar-
nataka, Telangana, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh expe-
rience an increase in light pollution intensity [24].

Excess Illumination Trespass Glare Light Clutter Sky-Glow

Fig. 1 Types of light pollution [12]

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

Fig. 2 World night-time map highlighting India [22]

Fig. 3 Night-time imagery [22] and migratory bird routes through India [28]

Environmental Impact animal and plant physiology. More or less this scenario
helps predators take advantage and disturb the overall food
Light pollution can disrupt the ecosystem and poses a web cycles. In areas with water bodies like lakes, ALAN
serious risk to the nocturnal biodiversity, such as bats and impedes zooplanktons from consuming algae. Migrating
insects [15]. Artificial light at night can puzzle the noc- fish like herring and salmon get distressed and group under
turnal animals in their movement and navigation; this artificial lights, often used for trading activities and deco-
phenomenon is commonly noticed at night-time as insects ration. Turtles do not come to seashores and nest habitually
gather around light sources; it is therefore also the key being disturbed by light; sometimes mammals also have
principle behind bug zapper machines. The lighting affects difficulty hunting for food. Thus, ALAN can be disastrous,
a large number of migratory birds throughout the world and causing a decline in the population of various species that
shows in Fig. 3. India caters to various migration routes as rely on darkness for food or pollination [9]. Increased
well. Skyscrapers in cities may disorient the birds resulting mortality of distressed species like bats, deer, coyotes,
in loss of lives. Artificial light at night also alters predator– moose, and raccoons is also attributable to night vision
prey associations among faunae, posing adverse impacts on impairment. A drop is observed in biodiversity as well as

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 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

breeding activities in natural spaces using ALAN [26]. natural light spectrum from violet to red which is known as
Consistent with an urban forestry study by Purdue visible light. It has been recently known that a blue share of
University, in the current scenario, most ALAN does not this visible spectrum has the potential to regulate the time
affect processes like photosynthesis. Nonetheless, plants rhythms in humans and animals; this is commonly
receptive to day time would be affected. Artificial light at observed on day to day basis as loss of sleep due to mobile
night, particularly of red colour, extends the day time for phone usage at night-time which uses blue light spectrum
flora and may alter their flowering pattern and growth, thus [1]. Typically, the illuminance of a sunlit surface is about
preventing trees from dormancy; this can also help them 100,000 lx, a full moon night sky is approximately 0.2 lx,
persist through the harsh winters. As per research con- whereas streets at night are lit to about 5–50 lx. In densely
ducted in 2017, ALAN can have negative along with populated areas, sky brightness can sometimes be as much
positive impacts on plant life subject to wavelength. as 100 times brighter than the natural setting [20]. Other
Commonly used lamps such as incandescent and high- than the adverse impact on health, ALAN results in energy
pressure sodium vapour lamp emitting infrared wavelength wastage and effects anthropogenic activities like astron-
had a severe impact on trees, whereas fluorescent lamps omy that are darkness dependant. Lighting is responsible
(blue to red wavelength), metal halide lamps (green to for 25% of the electricity consumption in the world, also
orange wavelength) and mercury vapour lamps (violet to according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
blue wavelength) have a mild impact on trees [3]. public lighting is one of the most prominent causes of
Air pollution is also associated with the presence of greenhouse gas emissions [7] Each kilowatt of which
excess light during the night, as put forward by the learn- releases 1.3 lb of carbon dioxide gas, 2 gm of sulphur
ings of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric dioxide, and 1.6 gm of nitrogen dioxide into the
Administration (NOAA) and the Cooperative Institute for atmosphere.
Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES). Further-
more, findings by the American Geophysical Union’s study Light Pollution Guidelines
point to ALAN contributing to the glow over the cities
interference with the chemical reactions that take place Light pollution has been recognized in the global scenario,
naturally in the darkness of the night and help cleanse the leading to several organizations and nations producing
air. During night hours, emissions from numerous vehicle guidelines for its limitation. Some of these are the CIE
exhausts and various anthropogenic sources are destabi- 136–2000 technological reports of the International Com-
lized and barred from converting into air pollution, ozone, mission on illumination (CIE) [16], the Light handbook,
or several irritants through the nitrate radicals occurring 2020 published by the Commission for Dark Skies (CDS),
naturally in the atmosphere. These radicals are destroyed in Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
the presence of sunlight, and thus, this process solely (IESNA), etc. This section discusses a few focus points
occurs in the hours of pitch darkness. Measurements show from these guidelines. The European Union has adopted
that city brightness or sky glow is considerably account- the EU Green public procurement (GPP) criteria for road
able for suppressing this process. The result of such lighting and traffic signals. The main principle involved in
learnings may persuade urban areas to take up responsible the new GPP is ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable)
lighting practices and only basic illumination levels. This which determines appropriate illumination levels of all
solely cannot improve air quality [6]. types of lighting designs. This includes the standards for
dimming control compatibility, the ratio of upward light
Impact on Human Health and Anthropogenic output, annoyance, and the G-Index focussing on the glare
Activities factor. The guidelines recommend the G-index of lighting
fixtures not to be less than 1.5, and 2 at places near
In several sections of the world, particularly cities, health astronomical observatories. Through this, the government
care and living conditions have improved considerably is establishing a focus on both energy efficiency as well as
since the last decade. But these urban environments do not the impacts on night-time environment. It also establishes
appear to be certainly the healthiest places for living. limits on the correlated colour temperature, along with the
Besides numerous common health concerns, like water and blue light output to be 3000 K or less. This is in regards to
air pollution, lifestyle stress and various new health issues the increased use of warm coloured lights to curb the
emerge continually. A couple of wellness issues are linked impacts of excessive light pollution, as less the correlated
to light pollution; these include increased headache inci- colour temperature (CCT) value, warmer the light. The use
dences, anxiety, diabetes, worker fatigue, weight gain, high of luminaries with more than 4500 k CCT is not advisable.
blood pressure, increased breast cancer risk, and depression These glare-reducing shields and warm white LED’s
[14]. The human eyes are receptive to only a portion of the

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Table 1 Light pollution codes and comparison of common parameters

Light pollution codes and France decree on prevention, reduction and limitation of Shanghai DB31/T316 European union GPP
parameters light pollution

Outdoor lighting curfew Recommended Recommended No mention

Upward light ratio less than 1% 0%—astronomical 25%— 0%
commercial
Correlated colour temperature 3000 Kelvins (K), 2700 K for the built environment No mention G-index-1.5, CCT-
(CCT) 3000 K

suggested in the GPP not only reduce light pollution but observed that there is a need to revise the previous regu-
enhance visibility and save energy as well. lations to precisely mention LP and specifications for
France has also come up with a new law ‘‘Decree on the control of the same. It can also include guidelines for
prevention, reduction and limitation of light pollution’’. It illumination of tourist areas to be minimized in terms of
caters to the technical requirements for the design and duration, brightness, and colour, especially those sensitive
operation of outdoor lighting and imposes them on private to biodiversities like lakes and waterfalls. Specifically, blue
and public property owners as well as sets up astronomical lighting must not be installed near the water bodies such as
observatories around the country. The Decree of France ponds, lakes, rivers, and sea; areas with high conservation
accommodates maximum parameters for limiting the night- value such as the sites supporting sensitive species of
time brightness as well as standards for luminaries. A few significance like glow worms, rare moths, or protected
countries have developed LP regulations at a local level. species of invertebrates. Car parking areas should be
China for instance has similar yet separate guidelines for its located far from these zones, so the aquatic species and
municipalities. The decorative light specifications in the insects are not-attracted to cars for the egg laying. Some
Shanghai local standards specifications DB31/T316 give a situations are predominantly sensitive to light; lighting
set of laws for obstructive lighting in public and semi- arrangements in such areas must be intended to avoid
public areas, sidewalks and bridges, major traffic routes, adverse effects on the invertebrates and the nocturnal
and plazas. Besides, specifications for limiting outside light habitat. Areas with natural or near-natural light regimes
to enter from the window in local residential buildings in must be officially conserved. Lighting should be provided
Beijing localized standards (Shanghai Environment only when and where necessary, and lamps must be
Bureau). It includes the requirement of lights in the resi- shielded and directed downwards. Light trespassing for
dential and commercial zones, the lighting requirement for sensitive lighting zones must be checked and controlled
sideways, ramp, stairs, underground passageways, and the regularly. Also, warm colour lamps should be selected,
light conditions for the landscape of public areas such as prioritizing the most energy-efficient fixtures. Lamps in
gardens, squares, and parks. The Shanghai standards talk public parks can be subject to a 10 pm–6 am curfew or
about environmental zones, whereas the European Union dimming. Temporary or small solar-powered lightings, also
focuses on technological advancements and controls like known as the landscape lightings or solar garden lightings
timers, sensors, and motion detectors to activate, dim, or of around 50 lumens or less for each fixture, can
turn lighting on/off. Many organizations and alliances like undoubtedly be used for illuminating the walkways or low-
The Australasian Dark Sky Alliance (ADSA), STAR- traffic driveways (Table 1).
S4ALL, Dark Skies Advisory Group (DSAG), have come
up at the global level to spread awareness about the neg-
ative impacts of light pollution. They also educate the Public Lighting in India
public and policymakers about the need to conserve the
night sky and its importance. The table depicts the com- Public lighting regulations in India are based on road
parisons of major parameters related to illumination limits typology and their respective illumination requirements. As
as discussed in the standards. per the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), roads in India are
Currently, India has no specific light pollution control classified into four categories. First, the freeway roads are
guidelines. The guiding principle should be shaped, keep- wide inter-city traffic routes that carry fast vehicular traffic
ing in mind human health, ecosystem, and energy savings. with no pedestrians. Second, arterial roads are those car-
An amalgamated consideration of these is of utmost rying mixed traffic throughout and are the major city links.
importance in this context. Under The Air (Prevention and Third, collector roads are secondary roads with significant
Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, India also includes Noise traffic volume like shopping lanes or main residential
Pollution. Similarly, considering growth in LP, it is areas; basically, these roadways collect traffic and merge it

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 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

Table 2 Public lighting recommended illumination in India and commonly used lamps and their characteristics [23]
Road type and recommended illumination in India
Standard (ANSI/IES RP-8) (IS-1944) (BIS, 1981)
Road Residential Commercial Industrial

Freeway 14 lx 10 lx 17 lx 13 lx 30 lx—Cut-off
Arterial 20 lx 6 lx 13 lx 10 lx 15 lx—Cut-off
Collector 8 lx 4 lx 9 lx 7 lx 8 lx—Full/semi cut-off
Local 6 lx 4 lx 4 lx 2 lx 4 lx—Full/semi cut-off
Commonly used lamps and their characteristics
IL Tungsten filament Good CRI, high power consumption, short life, heat dissipation
Tungsten halogen Normal efficiency, excellent CRI
HDHP Mercury vapour Good luminous efficiency, long life, slow switching on
Metal halide Good luminous efficiency, long life, slow switching on, good CRI
Sodium vapour Very high luminous efficiency, slow switching on
HDLP Mercury tube High efficiency, moderate CRI, low-intensity, heat dissipation
Sodium vapour Economical, high visibility in fog, low CRI, slow switching on
LED (light-emitting diode) Low temperature, low energy consumption

Luminary Shielding Forms Street Light Representation in National Lighting Code

Full-cutoff Cutoff

Semi-cutoff Non-cutoff

Fig. 4 Luminary shielding as per IESNA [16] and Street Light Representation in National Lighting Code (NLC) [2]

with the arterial roads. Lastly, local roads are secondary fixtures do not permit any light to escape above 90° angle;
roads with mostly light vehicular traffic and more pedes- these fixtures give out light in a definite outline giving
trian traffic. The National Lighting Code (NLC) SP- more quantity of light on the surface at low electricity
72:2010 has been established by the Bureau of Indian consumption. Thus, it also limits the spilling of light on
Standards (BIS), Government of India, which deals with adjacent properties and reduces the amount of glare and is
standards and illumination for public areas and roads. The environment friendly causing zero LP [23]. Cut-off fixture
recommended illumination values vary from 4 to 20 lx, as arrangements are those where less than 2.5% of light leaves
per street description and purpose, these are given as fol- the lamp above the 90° angle; these have become more
lows. As depicted in Table 2 and Fig. 4, the Bureau of prevalent in recent years. The cut-off lens has a curved
Indian Standards classified luminaries for public lighting shallow glass, also known as sag-lens, which is visible just
into three main categories according to their degree of underneath the lighting area in the luminary equipment, the
glare [2]. disadvantage being it allows some amount of up-light from
There are four types of luminary arrangements classified the luminaries. Semi-cut-off fixture arrangements emit 5%
based on the amount of light scattered above the level of of the light above and 20% or less at an 80° angle.
the horizontal line of luminaries; these are non-cut-off, Although it is not as severe as the non-cut-off equipment; it
semi cut-off, cut-off, and full cut-off [23]. Full cut-off is the most conventional street lighting system. The non-

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

cut-off apparatus generally comprises a globe-shaped lamp industrialization and globalized development have resulted
mounted atop the lampposts. These lamps give light in all in a surprising increase in the population and also in the
directions. Disadvantages among many include glare expansion of Bangalore’s limits. The city had a population
leading to LP, and these fixtures also tend to blind the of approximately 12.5 million in 2018 and is the fastest-
driver [23]. Contrary to the public lighting requirements, growing Indian metropolis behind Delhi. The city lies
the NLC represents street lighting as non-cut-off between two major biological hot-spots that of the Western
equipment. Ghats and the Nilgiri Reserve. Urbanization has generated
The street lighting lamps used in India can be classified considerable stress on land cover, biodiversity, ecological
into four major categories, incandescent lamps (IL), high commons, native habitats, and the ecosystem services that
discharge high pressure (HDHP), high discharge low are important for human well-being.
pressure (HDLP), and light-emitting diodes (LED). Lamps Loris Tardigradus or Slender Loris found in south India
predominantly used are high-intensity discharge (HID) and Sri Lanka, being nocturnal relies on night habitat for its
lamps, metal halide (MH)/mercury vapour (MV), and high- survival. The worldwide population of Loris is estimated to
pressure sodium vapour lamps (HPSV). Few lamps, such as be fewer than 2,500 mature individuals. The Schedule-I of
LED are the most energy efficient. Not to be confused with the Wildlife Protection Act of India, 1972, and the Red List
efficiency, bulb efficacy is the quantity of light in lumens of International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
emitted by a luminary per unit power consumption in enlist Slender Loris under endangered species. Moreover, it
lumen per watt (lm/W). Furthermore, the ‘‘Color Render- is ‘‘protected’’ under Appendix-II of the Convention on
ing Index (CRI)’’ of a light source is its potential to make International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna
colours appear ‘‘normal,’’ a CRI value of 60 signifies that and flora [11]. Slender Loris was once abundant in Ban-
60% of the colours are well rendered and the remaining galore but has declined as a result of urban growth and
40% of the colours are poorly rendered [23]. fragmentation [11]. Light pollution may have an associa-
The height at which the lamp is set above the surface tion with the disappearance of the nocturnal species, as it is
also affects the intensity of illumination, brightness uni- highly reliable on darkness for its survival and habitat.
formity, and area covered. The higher the units are
mounted more will be the uniformity, coverage, and glare
reduction, but relatively low light. Pole Height is recom- Methodology
mended according to applications, a height of 6 m for
pedestrian streets, public gardens, alleys, and parking lots. There are various night-time data available freely as well
Narrow local traffic routes and residential junctions should as commercially with different features. An overview of
have an 8 m lamp height. For urban traffic routes where a the freely accessible night-time Light Datasets and their
large number of intersections and bends are present, 10 m important features are provided in the table. This infor-
lamp height is adequate. Wide heavy use roads, where the mation has been a guiding tool for the selection of satellite
benefit of longer luminary spacing can be taken, a lamp imagery for this study. The Defense Meteorological
height of 12 m height is suggested, and C 18 m height for Satellite Program’s Operational Linescan System (DMSP-
high-mast lighting at large areas like airports, stadiums, OLS) satellite imagery has been a popular sensor but is
industries, and major road intersections are recommended. dependent on older technology with lower resolution than
the current research demands. The Visible Infrared Imag-
ing Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the Suomi National
Study Area—Bangalore Polar-Orbiting Partnership (NPP) satellite has four times
better resolution with the range for visible light of about
The city of Bangalore in the southern Indian state of 505–890 nm [19]. Thus, the VIIRS DNB easily detects
Karnataka lies at the height of approx. 3000ft above mean most common street-level light sources such as fluorescent
sea level. The city has a comparatively higher altitude than and incandescent light bulbs, as their spectral ranges sig-
other major cities, which allows it to get a better mild nificantly overlap their spectral range. For detailed classi-
climatic condition than the cities located on coastlines or fication of light intensities, delineation of specific locations
lower elevations. Bangalore is an old town built jointly in a city where brightness issues occur, and for source
with several new areas such as the former suburbs that are identification, the study utilizes the NPP-VIIRS dataset of
laid in grid patterns in the northern and southern regions, improved resolution. This dataset also facilitates the rela-
along with various parks and wide roads. From the twen- tionship assessment with various parameters that may
tieth century, this city has become the centre for high-tech directly or indirectly be associated with the brightness of
industries, telecommunications, and software companies the city Table 3.
and has become the Silicon Valley of India. Speedy

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Table 3 Overview of freely accessible night-time light datasets and their important features
Satellite/ sensor Dataset Launch Spatial Wavelength Radiometric Pixel Acquisition time
year resolution range resolution value (local)

DMSP- OLS Annual 1992 2.7 km 400–1100 nm 6 bit DN 9 pm

Suomi NPP- Monthly 2012 742 m 505–890 nm 14 bit Radiance 1:30 am
VIIRS Annual 2015
Daily 2012 500 m
ISS Uncalibrated 2003 200 m RGB 8–14 bit Irregular
photos

The data used for this study is based on the day/night performance report 2016; population density (Persons/
band (DNB) sensor of the Visible Infrared Imaging sq.km) from Census of India; and per capita electricity
Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) instrument on-board the Suomi consumption (Kw/Person) from Bangalore Electricity
National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) satellite. Like Supply Company (BESCOM). Since all government data
any optical sensor, the principal challenge with the data is are at the ward-level, consequently, the LP map is also
to account for variations in the sources and intensity of generated at the ward level for better evaluation. These
anthropogenic light attributable to changing night-time factors are further analysed using correlation analysis
activities like infrastructure development, commercial obtaining R-squared values to identify factors that
fishing, etc. Similarly, land-cover parameters like vegeta- demonstrate an established relationship with LP.
tion and atmospheric conditions like clouds or auroras For the micro-level study, an area was selected dis-
influence the light captured by the sensor. The product playing maximum brightness level. The study further
suite was developed on the research of how light changes emphasizes understanding LP at a micro level by deter-
when it reflects off of surfaces with different angular and mining the brightness level in the focus area and identi-
spectral properties and predicts how snow, vegetation, fying primary contributing sources. Firstly, the base map of
moonlight, terrain, and clouds impact the light intensity. the study area was prepared with the help of a visual survey
The product suite removes these extraneous effects and to map the building uses, building heights (meters), roads,
creates consistent daily records of man-made lighting. The and streetlights along with their details; this was carried out
files contain values with units Nano-Watts/cm2/sr [22]. in December 2017. Secondly, the LP source or streetlights
The VIIRS DNB data have a 742 m x 742 m pixel foot- locations and elevations are mapped. For illumination on
print providing a 0.55 km2 area [5]. Due to the non- the street, measurements were taken under the lamp
availability of the annual imagery at the time of research, installation and at every 10 m distance at the centre of the
the monthly night-time satellite imagery by VIIRS DNB, road. As many of the lamps are installed 20 m or less apart,
NOAA, has been used to obtain the 2017 LP map by the in such cases, the measurements are taken at the centre of
weighted sum of the past 12 months in ArcMap GIS for the poles. The measuring tool used for this study purpose
obtaining light pollution map for the city of Bangalore. was the LX-101.00 lx-meter, which was used by placing it
This satellite imagery used for the research has been on the road surface and recording the illuminance (lux)
downloaded and processed in January 2018, describing the value. The survey was conducted between 9 and 11 pm.
brightest area incorporating a six-pixel area of 1.25 km2 for Circumstances like Pedestrian interference, parking access,
micro-level study. and vehicular headlights could affect the readings and
The study is divided into two parts, a macro-level study therefore were avoided. Commercial advertisement boards
undertaking the entire city and micro-level analysis of LP. illuminance measurements were recorded standing at the
At the macro level, the study analyses the association of LP footpath along the street. After mapping light measure-
with spatial and demographical factors that can be con- ments, Arc-Scene software has been used for visualizing a
tributing to LP. To assess the relationship of city brightness 3-Dimensional scene of the study area to have a better
at night with possible contributing factors, a ward-level understanding. The Inverse distance weighted (IDW)
brightness map of Bangalore is generated using mean interpolation method of simulation provides average Illu-
radiance values in each ward. The spatial parameters used minance in the study area. The illumination level on-site is
and their data sources are street light density (no. of lights/ then compared to Indian standards. Lastly, the study talks
km of road) obtained from Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara about illumination reduction to levels recommended in the
Palike (BBMP); road density (Km of road/sq.km.) and standards and developing suitable mitigation strategies to
streetlight adequacy (ward average lux) from Ward control LP in the city. These include infrastructure

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Fig. 5 Light dome of Bangalore city and endangered species Slender Loris [11]

measures (context-sensitive design) by the selection of or street lighting, the Ministry of Urban Development
luminaries/ dimmers and administrative measures (context- (MoUD) of India implies ten samples/km or 125 samples/
responsive area development). km as per the need [27]. For this study, survey points were
taken right under the luminary and at a 10 m distance from
the luminary or between two street lights in the centre of
Analysis and Results the road, whichever is less [29].
The total numbers of streetlights on the site were 2357,
Macro-Level and survey illumination points with lux values for these are
5016 in total. The number of samples is compliant with the
To assess the relationship of city brightness at night with guidelines by MoUD as road length on-site is 44 km,
possible contributing factors, a ward-level brightness map making it 5015/44 = 114 samples/km. The lux readings
is generated using mean radiance values. The possible were recorded, placing the lux meter horizontally on the
spatial and demographical contributing factors are popu- road surface. The significant sources of light in the study
lation density, road density, per capita electricity con- area were building interiors, commercial advertisement
sumption, street light density, and street illuminance. boards, and public lighting. Illuminance measurements for
As depicted in Fig. 4, when regressed against mean ad-boards on commercial buildings were carried out while
radiance in different wards, population density, road den- standing at the footpath. The illuminance levels were found
sity, street-light density, and street-light illuminance level to be low and not as much contributing to the overall
show a reasonable relationship. Per capita electricity con- brightness. Building heights are in the range from 3 to
sumption does not relate to radiance, the reason may be 24 m, coming in the category of low-rise high-density
high electricity consumption by industrial areas and IT development, which helps the light to reflect and escape
parks situated at the city fringe. In contrast, the core resi- into the sky. The inverse distance weighted (IDW) simu-
dential areas comprising of mixed-income groups consume lation in Arc GIS has been used to compute average values
less power. The R squared value of 0.67 shows a consid- for locations with no measurements using values from
erably good relationship of road density with radiance. nearby weighted locations. These values are proportionate
to the proximity of sampled to unsampled points and are
Micro Level indicated by the IDW power coefficient. After the appli-
cation of the IDW technique, the outcomes shown in Fig. 5
Light pollution essentially needs a local investigation of were obtained. The roads in the study area fall under the
sources to understand the root cause of the problem. The categories of light pedestrian traffic and very light vehic-
micro-level analysis study area utilizes six tiles of size ular traffic concrete roads. According to the BIS illumi-
450 m x 450 m of comparable brightness values were nation requirements, an illumination level of 4 lx is
selected to obtain an area of 1.25 km2 to study in detail. appropriate for streets on the site. The mean light intensity
The delineated study area partly includes ward no. 74, 75, obtained in the study area is 16 lx, which is four times the
101, and 102. The area comes majorly under residential standard recommended by BIS. Since averaged values of
land use but also consists of a few commercial zones the samples taken at the site are quite higher than pre-
around main roads. For a survey concerning public lighting scribed lighting levels, it is reasonable to consider LP while

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 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

Methodology

Macro-level Analysis Micro-level Analysis

Mapping Light Pollution Focus Study Area Delineation

(Software - ArcGIS) of 1.25 km2 (Software - ArcGIS)

VIIRS DNB Night time Composites Preparation of Study Area Map

(Monthly suits for 2017) (Software - ARC Scene)

2017 night time image - Weighted

overlay of 12 months (ArcGIS) Infrastructure Survey: Building
use & height, Roads (Visual Street Illumination (lux)
Survey); Streetlights location data collection using
Area delineation using Clipping tool (Distance Meter Calibration Light Meter
(city municipal boundary shapefile) Factor – 0.4), Installation Calibration Factor 1.0
height & Luminary

Image classification
Illuminance Simulation (IDW
interpolation)
Ward Illumination Map
Brightness values from attribute table Comparison of Average Street
Illumination with Guidelines
Assessing ALAN & related factors
(Pearsons Correlation using SPSS)
Context Sensitive DCR (Development
Design Control Regulations)
Infrastructure Demographic
BUG Ward Criticality Map: Lighting
Road Density Population Density luminaries (Population density, Environmental
Street Light Density Dimmers Brightness, water body,
Per Capita Power Zones
greenery, Air pollution &
Streetlight adequacy Consumption Warm Lighting Nocturnal habitat) as per LULC

Fig. 6 Methodology adopted for the Study

designing the facilities [18]. The operation and mainte- the range of 21 lx–78 lx. The pole heights as low as
nance of the street lighting system in wards is carried out 2.75 m–3 m were also observed in these areas. MIG and
by Municipal Corporation/ Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara HIG area street lighting emitted 24 lx–165 lx. Lastly, the
Palike (BBMP). roadside open shop interiors emitted colourful lights
It was observed that the lamp heights were inconsistent ranging from 15 lx–30 lx measured standing at the foot-
across the study area; the poles were relatively lower in path, which due to inconsistency is not included in the
height in the LIG areas. The luminaries and pole heights study. The street lights in the study area, which were the
recorded in the study area mainly included: 5 m high poles major contributor to the overall scenario, were switched on
with 36/40 W fluorescent tube lights; 5 m high poles with at 6 pm and switched off around 8–10 am. Based on resi-
11/18/36 W CFL lamps; 5/8 m high poles with I25W dent interviews, switching off time was irregular, and on
HPMV lamps; 5/8 m high poles with 70/150 W HPMH some days could be as late as noon. In the study area, the
lamps; 5/8 m high poles with 250 W HPSV lamps; 5/8 m luminary heights vary from 5 to 20 m, and as per stan-
high poles with 250 W HPMH lamps; 5/8 m high poles dards, road lighting should have a mounting height of 8 m–
with 400 W HPSV lights; 5/8 m high poles with 400 W 20 m. The low mounting height should necessarily use cut-
HPMH light; 5 m high poles with 72 W LED fittings and off or semi-cut-off luminary to minimize glare, which was
12 m high floodlights. Overall, a combination of fluores- absent on site. The two prominent glare sources were street
cent tube lights, CFLs, HPMV high discharge lamps, and statues with clustered decorative lighting and broken
LEDs was observed. The Illumination lamps at ‘‘Sid- lampshades exposing the bulb as shown in Fig. 6 above.
daRuda’’ Park, i.e. the park between the main roads, had
lighting installations 10 m–12 m apart and emitted an
average of 15 lx–20 lx. The LIG area street lighting was in

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

Recommendations and Spatial Planning Solutions incorporating a comparatively rough surface on the top or
by the usage of granules to scatter light (Fig. 8).
General Recommendations
Identification of Critical Wards for Implementation
The correlation of LP with road density shows a possible and Lighting Environmental Zones
relation with street lighting. Selecting the best luminary
with the least environmental impact is the principal con- The issue of LP affects not only the human population but
cern. For this purpose, consideration of various types of also plants and animals, especially nocturnal species that
light exposures indicating corresponding melatonin sup- reside in the green and blue infrastructure of any city. For
pression is essential. The degree to which night light sup- the phase-wise implementation of lighting regulations, six
presses melatonin is dependent on two factors, intensity ward-level maps, namely population density, brightness,
and wavelength of light. For instance, after 1-h exposure to blue area percentage, green area percentage, air pollution,
mid-night lighting, melatonin may perhaps be suppressed and nocturnal primate habitat, form the basis to generate
up to 71%, 67%, 44%, 38%, and 16% when light intensity ward criticality map. The population density map is based
is 3,000, 1,000, 500, 350, and 200 lx, respectively. Com- on census data from the Government of India website. The
monly used incandescent bulb requires a time duration of average brightness of wards has been computed from the
39 min to suppress the human melatonin level by 50%, NOAA satellite imagery. The blue and green area per-
fluorescent light takes 15 min, and white LED takes centage in each ward is recognized from the land-use land
13 min [10]. As well, the American Medical Association cover of the city. However, air pollution data for each ward
(AMA) stated in a comprehensive study that blue and blue is obtained from to ward quality score data-book. Lastly,
light is worst for hormone suppression compared to other mapping the distribution of Loris and its habitats were
warmer shades [13]. The Illuminating Engineering Society derived from a study conducted through online surveys and
Technical Manual no. 15, ‘‘Luminary Classification System interviews of residents in the year 2015 under the ‘‘Urban
for Outdoor Luminaries,’’ recommends evaluating fixtures Slender Loris Project,’’ [11]. Thus, considering above
based on three main factors: Backlight, uplight, and Glare, mentioned parameters, the task to identify vulnerable
also called BUG ratings. The rating includes an alphabet wards is carried out using the weighted overlay tool in
and a numeric value. The alphabet shall tell the feature type ArcGIS. The ward vulnerability map classifies wards into
that is rated, for example, B for backlight, G for glare, and four categories ranging from least to most critical. This
U for up-light. Likewise, UH: up-light high, UL: up-light, approach can be helpful for the phase-wise implementation
BVH: backlighting very high (glare), BH: backlighting of micro-level upgradations of the areas, ensuring the
high (glare), BM: backlighting medium, BL: backlighting critical wards are taken care of first (Fig. 9).
low, FVH: front-lighting very high (glare), FH: front- Classification of areas into lighting environmental zones
lighting high (glare), FM: front-lighting medium, and FL: as recommended by IESNA (Illuminating Engineering
front-lighting low, as seen in Fig. 7. The number value Society of North America) is an essential step towards
corresponds to the photometric value for the lighting fix- limiting LP. As per the concept of Lighting Environmental
ture and is constant among all the manufacturers. It is Zones, the E1 zone consists of naturally dark environment
generally printed on the pack of any lighting bulb or areas like the national parks, the E2 zone is a low ambient
fixture. lighting zone for industrial and residential land-use areas in
Reflectance is a somewhat ignored aspect that con- the city, the E3 zone is the medium ambient lighting zone
tributes to LP in urbanized areas. It adds to LP, not as much for suburban residential or industrial sectors, and the E4
as the light source, but undeniably increases the intensity. zone is a highly bright environmental area for the city
Every material has a light reflectance value (LRV), whi- centre or commercial business districts. The lighting
ch is the fraction of light in the visible part of the spectrum environmental zones map of Bangalore in the figure has
that gets reflected from its surface. It is measured using a been formulated using the land-use map of the city
solar spectrum reflectometer on a scale of 0 (not reflective) obtained from Bangalore Municipal Corporation Figs. 10
to 1 (100% reflective). Limiting the use of high reflectance and 11.
materials in dark or light-sensitive spaces can help reduce
LP. New building construction should not include glass
that produces horizontally polarized light. Furthermore, Conclusion
asphalt road surfaces near the environmentally sensitive
zones can be converted to a non-polarising substance by The challenge to limit senseless and wasteful light in
developing countries like India already dealing with basic
amenities like clean drinking water is enormous. The study

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 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

Mean Ward Illumination Road Density Street Light Density

Population Density Electricity Consumption Street Light Illuminance

180000 y = 36.014x + 6677.9 2500 y = 21.942x + 185.43

R² = 0.3277 R² = 0.6658
160000
140000 2000
120000
1500
100000
80000
1000
60000
40000 500
20000
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 20 40 60 80
y = 0.0399x + 33.544 2500 y = 79.353x + 82.561
140
R² = 0.4387 R² = 0.4206
120 2000
100
80 1500

60 1000
40
500
20
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 5 10 15 20
Population density Road density Streetlight density Street Illuminance

Fig. 7 Spatial and femographical Factors and their relationship with brightness

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

Survey Points
Area Profile
Area - 1.25 km2
Elevation - 897m
Buildings - 6407
Roads - 44 km

On-street Below lamp

(a) Study Area Delineation from Light Pollution Map

(b) Base map with Public Lighting Map and Illumination Survey Map

3D view of the brightest street in the study area

IDW-Statistics
Minimum - 2 lux
Maximum - 218 lux
Mean - 16 lux
Standard Deviation - 7 lux

(c) Interpolated Light Pollution Map of the Study Area

Fig. 8 Micro-level analysis of light pollution: a Study area delineation from light pollution map; b base map with public lighting map and
illumination survey map; c interpolated light pollution map of the study area

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 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

Fig. 9 Site photographs: night lighting (above) and condition of luminaries (below)

intends to assess light pollution and its possible mitigation need exploration. The inverse distance weighted simulation
strategies in urban areas. It analyses the association of LP of the street illumination is found to be four times the
with spatial and demographical factors and measures the Indian Standard recommendation. It can be derived from
level of LP in the delineated focus area to identify primary the study that light nuisance must be assessed on a case-to-
contributing sources. The R squared value of 0.67 shows a case basis, as sources and considerations can be entirely
considerably good relationship of road density with radi- different for another site or city. The study tries to address
ance in Bangalore; the same or different parameters might LP by developing spatial strategies using GIS as a tool that
be related in other cities as per their characteristics which can be practically used in urban planning processes and

Warm White Reflectance

BUG Rating Material
1000 K Value
Earth, Grass, Asphalt, Slate,
06 - 15
Gravel, Red Buff Brick
Granolite, Macadam, Glass,
16 - 25
Sandstone, Ochre Brick
Cement, Red Glazed Brick 26 - 35
Copper, Stippled Plaster,
36 - 45
Granite, White Marble
Light Buff Brick 46 - 55
Chromium 56 - 65
White Paint/Brick 66 - 75
Cool White
Smooth Plaster, Aluminium 76 - 85
10,000 K

Fig. 10 Light hues; BUG rating [17]; material reflectance [23]

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

Population Density Average Brightness Water Percentage

Air Pollution Nocturnal Habitat Greenery Percentage

(a) Ward Criticality Map (b) Lighting Environmental Zones Map

Fig. 11 Parameters considered with output ward criticality map and lighting environmental zones map

policymaking. To attain a sustainable lighting environ- moving traffic which may also be responsible for the issue
ment, the three major impediments which must be over- of light pollution. This study touches on one aspect among
come are poorly written or absence of laws and guidelines, various contributing factors. Thus, research should be done
vested and underhanded interests, and lack of education on the contribution of other factors, especially mobile
and awareness. Pupils must obtain knowledge about LP sources of light like traffic and its impact. The effect of
and its consequences in schools, just like water, air, and ALAN on native Indian plant species is still unclear, which
land pollution. requires extensive study to confirm a benefit towards lim-
iting LP without any disturbance in plant growth, flower-
ing, and related factors.
Limitations and Scope

This study is limited to public lighting or stationary light Funding The study does not involve any financial aids.
sources at street level. It does not take into consideration
Data Availability and material The data used for this study is
light emitted from other stationary sources of light like obtained using primary survey, open source spatial data, and freely
building fenestration or mobile sources of light such as

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 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A

available online published reports. This is a data-extensive study, all 14. IDA, Human Health, (2015)
sources for which are mentioned in the manuscript. https://www.darksky.org/light-pollution/human-health/. Accessed
21 November 2019
Declarations 15. IDA, Light Pollution Effects on Wildlife and Ecosystems (2015),
https://www.darksky.org/light-pollution/wildlife/. Accessed 21
Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding November 2019
author states that there is no conflict of interest. 16. International Commission on Illumination CIE 136–2000, Guide
to the lighting of urban areas (2000).
Consent for publication All participants have given consent for 17. International Dark-Sky Association, Lighting Zones (2011),
submitting the study for publication. http://www.darksky.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/
GrandCanyonNP_LMP.pdf. Accessed 23 December 2017
18. Jie Liu Xiaochun P, Qijia Z, Kui L, Haolin F, Hongjia H, Jiahua
D, Qiaoli F, Yanyu W, Case study of Investigation and Evalua-
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