Biology

For Cambridge IGCSE

Notes

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

01277778844
Dear all,

Before going through our course, I would like to thanks those who raised me
and pulled me up, I would like to thank the one who teach me since day one,
thanks for the tremendous effort and now I am here standing on my feet and
facing everything wisely, so I must thank her, my supporting system, my mother
and my backbone the one who stays by my side and supply me with the power
my father. Now talking to you, scoring A* is not a matter getting high scores
and doing achievements not tough, it is just depending on your quality of mind
that you set a goal and go through it although the difficulties you’re going to
face, but everyday remember that you’re A* STUDENT. We’re going to do it
together, we’ll strive or it and finally we’ll celebrate together. Enjoy everything
you’re going to do, achieve more and more, burn the midnight oil and always be
motivated, when you’re in doubt remember that before being your teacher am
your friend. We are not going to study biology only, but we are going to know
how life is going on. Welcome to your BIOLOGY IGCSE COURSE. Please follow
the system and the track you will be placed on

Yours’

Ahmed Shafai
 Cell Structure
Chapter1
Levels of organization:

Organelle Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism

Cells
The structural and functional unit of all living organisms
Ex. Blood cells, nerve cells, Plant cell

Tissues
Group of cells with similar structure working together to perform specific shared function
Ex. Xylem tissue Blood tissue

Organs
Structure made up of group of tissues working together to perform specific functions
Ex. Brain, heart and leaf

Organ systems
A group of organs, with related functions working together to perform body functions They
carry out separate functions and these functions combine to achieve major process.
Ex. Circulatory system, nervous system and flower

Organisms
A living thing that have organized structure, that can perform the following processes

 Respiration and energy release

 Excretion
 Nutrition
 Growth
 Sensitivity
 Reproduction
 Movement

N.B Some organisms are unicellular such as bacteria and amoeba they are
made up of one cell.

Explain why leaf is considered as organ not a tissue?

As leaf is made up of group of different tissues that work together to
perform specific functions, while it’s not made up of group of cells
similar in structure and function
3 Marks

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Animal and The Cell Structure
plant cells

Points of comparison Animal cells Plant cells

Cell wall Absent Present (made of cellulose)
Cell membrane Present Present
Cytoplasm Present Present
Nucleus Present Present
Chloroplast Absent Present
Vacuole Present Present
Small and temporary vacuoles Large permanent vacuoles
containing food stored in cell
sap
Starch grains Absent but have glycogen Present in chloroplasts
granules instead containing chlorophyll
Shape Often irregular in shape Often regular in shape

Cell Cell wall Cell membrane

membrane

nucleus

Nuclear
envelope

cytoplasm

chloroplasts

Large vacuole
containing cell
Nucleus sap
Small vacuole
Membrane
Nuclear envelope Cytoplasm around vacuole

Starch grains inside

chloroplasts

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Prokaryotic Cell
Bacterial Cell Division of labour

 Average length is 0.01 mm

 Cell wall made of murine (proteins, fats, sugars) Specialized Cells
 Cytoplasm containing glycogen , fat and other food reserves
 Ribosomes float freely in cytoplasm smaller than ribosomes of
1-Have a special function
animal and plant cell, but function as protein synthesis.
2-Distinct shape
 Contain single chromosome made of circular strand of DNA 3-Have special kinds of
with no nucleus chemical changes in their
 Have plasmids which is made of DNA used in gene modification cytoplasm
 Have filaments called flagella for movement and capsule for
protection
 Normally have cytoplasm, cell membrane

Assignment

Make a full comparison between bacterial cell, plant cell and animal cell in the space below: -

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Cell organelles functions

Cell wall (Made of -Prevent the cell from bursting when they’re filled with water
cellulose) -Give the shape of the cell
-Allow water and dissolved substances to pass through it
freely as they’re full permeable.
Cytoplasm Thick liquid with particles in it as food reserve. Jelly made of
about 90%water, contain many substances especially protein.
Site where chemical reactions take place
Nucleus -Control metabolic reactions and cell activities
(During cell -Carry genetic information
division -Control cell division
chromosomes
-Control cell development
shorten and thicken)
Mitochondria Found in almost all cells except prokaryotes.
In all cells except The power house of cells as they’re responsible for aerobic
prokaryotes respiration and energy release

Rough They synthesize protein by its ribosomes

endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosomes Tiny dots Attached to the network of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
May be Place where proteins are made by joining amino acids together in
scattered long chain, this is done according to instructions carried on DNA in
freely in nucleus which specify the sequence of amino acids that must be
cytoplasm strung together to make specific protein.
Cell membrane -Control movement of substances into and out of the cell
(Made up of fats and -Partially permeable
proteins) -Maintain the structure and chemical reactions in cytoplasm
-Form barrier between the cell and the surroundings
-Keep the content of the cell inside preventing from escaping
Chloroplast in green part Contains green pigment called chlorophyll that absorbs sunlight for
of photosynthesis. The main functions are: -
plants -Photosynthesis
-Stores starch
Animal cells store excess glucose as glycogen

Large vacuole Press A space in a cell surrounded by membrane, containing solution of

outward on the rest of cell salts and sugars called cell sap which keeps the cell turgid by
helping to keep its shape exerting pressure. The main functions are: -
-Store salts and sugars
-Full of water to keep the cell turgid and firm
Animal cell have small membrane bound spaces called vesicles
contain water and food
Secretory Vesicle (J17-P4) Transport the modified protein in a vesicle

Glycogen: Reverse fuel similar to starch broken to glucose to be used with oxygen in respiration

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Specialized cells Functions Adaptations

1 Plant cell with numerous

Palisade Cell Absorb sunlight and make
chloroplasts to trap light energy
nutrients by photosynthesis,
for photosynthesis. They’ve cell
found below the epidermis of the
wall from cellulose and a sap
leaf
vacuole
-Have long ‘finger like projection’ with very
thin cell wall that increases the surface
area for more water& mineral intake
Absorbs in water and -Have a large number of mitochondria
2
Root hair cell minerals and ions from soil which releases energy from glucose during
near the ends of plant roots respiration to provide the energy needed
for active transport of mineral ions
-A concentrated vacuole to help absorbing
water by osmosis
-Covered with sticky material to slide
easily between particles
3
Xylem Vessel
-Transport water and They are made of dead cells, with no
minerals nucleus and no cytoplasm so, water can
-Support the plant structures move freely
-No end walls so that many cells can form a
continuous hollow tube
-They run from roots right up through the
stem to leaves
-They have sticky cell wall containing lignin
which helps to resist bending strains by
wind.

4
Ciliated Cells -Goblet cells produce mucus which traps
They’re lining the trachea to sweeps dust and bacteria.
mucus carrying dust and bacteria out -Ciliated cells have thin hairy projections
of the lungs so as not to get blocked. (hair), which beat/ waft mucus out of the
Lining the trachea and bronchi lungs up to the back of throats to be
N.B they’re found in the lining of the swallowed and killed by acid in stomach
oviduct

-They are long and thin, so they can be

5 brought closer together forming a
Muscle cell contractile tissue
Contract and relax causing
movement -Have protein fibers in cytoplasm, which can
shorten the cell when energy is available.
They store glycogen as energy source

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

6 -The cytoplasm is filled with hemoglobin which
Red blood cell carries oxygen
-Shape biconcave increase the surface area
Contains hemoglobin to carry speeds up the rate oxygen diffusion in and out
oxygen from lungs to all body cells of RBCs.
where aerobic respiration occurs -No nucleus, so the whole cell is full of
In blood of mammals hemoglobin
-Flexible, small size so can squeeze through
narrow capillaries

7
Nerve Cell The cell has:
Long fiber called the axon along which impulses
Transmits nerve impulses in form of travel.
electrical signals all around your A Fatty sheath which gives electrical insulation
body throughout the body of Many branched endings which can connect with
animals many other cells

Head
-Contains nucleus carrying the genetic material
8 Fertilizes the egg cell and fuse
Sperm Cell -Produces enzyme that helps penetrate the egg
together to form a zygote. Produced cell membrane
in testes in huge numbers -Streamlined shaped which helps in faster
swimming & penetration of egg
-No cytoplasm and food store
Middle part
-Full of mitochondria to produce enough energy
for movement
Tail (flagellum)
-Can swim by beating the flagellum.

9
Egg Cells (Ovum) Eggs can’t move, but cilia in cells lining oviduct
push them down to uterus.
-Fertilized by the sperm cells Each egg contains a large store of food in its
and fuse together to form a cytoplasm, when it’s fertilized it uses the food to
zygote produce an embryo.
-Produced in ovaries one per Has a nucleus containing the genetic material.
month -Immobile
-Larger in size
-Smaller in number
-Has food store

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 El chapter
bykhlas
elhmdulah

Shafai:
3andoko Hw
w quiz ya
shabab

Animal Cell: Red blood cell

State one animal cell and one plant cell that has no nucleus? Plant Cell: Xylem vessel

Observed size of an image divided

Magnification by actual size of an image

𝑫𝒓𝒂𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈(𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅)
(X)Magnification=
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍(𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍)

cm mm x10
mm um x1000

Paper 6 main question

Microscopes
Light Microscope Electron Microscope

-Light used as source of radiation -Beam of electrons used instead of

-Less magnification (x1500) light
-Less Resolution -Higher magnification (x500000)
-Only large structures could be seen as -Higher resolution
nucleus -Used to see the ultrastructure of the
cell as ribosomes and mitochondria

Organelles can be seen by electron microscope only?

Nucleus, Mitochondria, Rough endoplasmic reticulum and Ribosomes

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Movement of molecules

Chapter2

1. Diffusion 2. Osmosis 3. Active Transport

It is the net movement of It is the diffusion of water The movement of

molecules and ions from molecules from the region molecules and ions in or
the region of their higher of higher water potential out of a cell through a
concentration to the (dilute solution) to the membrane through
region of lower region of lower water protein carriers, AGAINST
concentration DOWN potential (concentrated concentration gradient
concentration gradient, solution) DOWN water using energy from
as a result of their potential gradient respiration
random movement  through a partial
permeable membrane



1.Diffusion
It is the net movement of molecules and ions from a region of their higher
concentration to the region of their lower concentration DOWN concentration
gradient as a result of their random movement

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Factors affecting rate of diffusion

1.Steepness of concentration gradient

The steeper the gradient, the faster the particles
diffuse, so higher rate of diffusion

2.The surface area of exchange membrane

The larger the surface area of the exchange membrane,the
faster the particles diffuse like walls of small intestine
Eg. Folded villi and placenta

3.Thickness of the membrane (diffusion distance)

The thicker the membrane, the less the rate of difusion as it will be easier
for the particles to pass through the membarne
Eg. Thin thckness of alveoli during gas exhange

4.Temperature
Increasing temperature will increase the kinetic energy of particles so they
will move faster so faster rate of diffusion

5. Maintenance of concentration gradient

As the glucose molecules cross gut into blood,it is removed by circulating blood
so that the concentration doesn’t build up and equilibrium isnot reached

6.Size of molecule
The smaller the size of molecule the higher ghe rate of diffusion.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Importance of diffusion

In Plants
In photosynthesis
1) Carbon dioxide diffuses from air into leaves through stomata (Gas
Exchange)
2) Oxygen as a waste product diffuses out of the leaf through stomata
into open air (Gas Exchange)
3) Water vapour from transpiration stream diffuses out of the leaf
through stomata

In Animals

1) Some products of digestion are absorbed from ileum

(through villi) to blood by diffusion, and absorption of water
soluble vitamins into bloodstream
2)Gas exchange through alveoli

Both animals and plants

In gas exchange for respiration:

Where the cell membrane of cells are freely permeable to
oxygen and carbon dioxide, so they easily diffuse in and out of
the cells
In animals: occurs between alveoli and blood and between cells
and blood.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Importance of water

 Photosynthesis in plants
 Breakdown and dissolve food molecules in animals
2.Osmosis  Formation of plasma of blood
 Transport medium
 Excretion in animals

It is the net movement of water molecules from region of higher water potential
(dilute solution)to region of lower water potential (concentrated solution) down
water potential gradient, through partially permeable membrane.
N.B A cell is surrounded by a partially permeable membrane and water may cross
this membrane(as they are very small molecules)

If no partially permeable membrane, the sugar

will diffuse not the water

A-Plant cells and osmosis

1 Turgidity
Hypotonic Solution

-Cell placed in solution with higher water potential

where water movers by the role of osmosis from
region of higher to lower water potential down
water potential gradient through partially
permeable membrane
-Cytoplasm and vacuole will swell and push hard
against the cell wall causing turgidity

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Plasmolyed Begin to wilt
2
Hypertonic Solution

Cell is placed in a solution of lower potential

where water move by the role of osmosis from
region of higher to lower water potential down
water potential gradien through partially
permeable membrane. Water potential inside
more than water potential outside causing
plasmolysis

Features of plasmolysis
 Water move out of the cell by osmosis
 Cytoplasm and vacuole shrinks
 Cytoplasm is pulled away and the cell
membrane is seen

3 No Osmosis
Isotonic Solution

Cell placed in solution of equal water potential where

water otential inside the cell equal to water potential in
the outer solution. Net water movement equal zero, so
no difference in gradient so no osmosis

Isotonic

Hypertonic
Hypotonic
Some countries apply salt to
Using too much fertilizers
roads in winter to stop
formation of ice, but vehicle or irrigation will lower
wheels splash the salt on water potential of the soil
plants causing water loss so less osmosis by root
from plants by osmosis hair cell

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Surgeons tent to rinse wounds
during operations using saline
solution with same water
B-Animal cells and osmosis potential as body cells.

Animal cell have no cell wall, just a cell membrane. They are likely to suffer damage as a
result of osmosis

1 Hypotonic Solution

Cell placed in higher water potential. Water

move by osmosis from the outer solution to the
cell through partially permeable membrane.
The cell swell and may burst.

2
Hypertonic Solution

Cell placed in lower water potential. Water move

by osmosis from the cell to the outer solution
through partially permeable membrane. The cell
becomes flaccid and shrivels up.

Isotonic

Hypertonic Hypotonic

Single-celled organisms have

N.B contractile vacuole that collect
water as it enter the cell and
regularly removing it through
cell membrane keeping water
Isotonic solution of animal cell is the same in plant cell content in the cell under control

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 3.Active Transport

The movement of particles and ions rom region of

lower concentration gradient to region of higher
concnetration gradient through partially permeable
membrane against a concentration gradient through
specific protien carriers , using energy from respiration
The energy needed to
produce the change in
the shape of the
Importance of active transport
transport protein

- Absorption of nitrate ions(minerals)from soil by root

hair cells
-In small intestine: Glucose can be actively transported
from the lumen of the small intestine into the cells of villi

Epithelial cells in the villi of absorbs glucose against

concentration gradient, the cells have high number of
mitochondria in which respiration takes place, where
chemical energy released converted to kinetic energy for the
movement of glucose molecules

Cells of small intestine takes

Small intestine (low

in glucose through active

transport

Glucose is actively uptake Cells of villi (High conc.)

conc.)

Small intestine absorbs Athletes use sport drinks which are isotonic
digested food products containing water, glucose and salts to replace lost
fluid and provide energy without creating osmotic
problems within the body cells. Using those drinks
without exercising can cause weight gain as they are
sugar rich drink

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 To be discussed in excretion

-In kidney:
Glucose is actively transported out of the tubule and into blood
Proximal convoluted

The Blood
tubule (Low conc.)

Glucose is actively uptake

(High conc.)

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Exam Question

Describe the appearance inside the beaker?

Iodine will move by diffusion from high to low concentration gradient into the
visking tube giving blue-black color as iodine molecules are small in size, while
starch molecules can’t diffuse as they’re large in size, so the outer solution
remains yellow-brown

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Enzymes
Chapter Three

Enzymes: Protein molecules that function as a biological catalyst involved in all

metabolic reactions without being changed or used up and they’re specific in
their function

Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction and is not
changed by the reaction

Substrate: Substance upon which the enzyme work on and fit with it like lock
and key

How enzymes work: -

1) Enzymes are specific where each enzyme has a specific active site which
fits with one substance only

2) Substrate which is the substance acted upon by an enzyme at beginning of

the reaction to produce a product. The substrate is with complementary
shape to the enzyme

3) The enzyme is like a lock (active site), and the substrate fit like a key
Forming enzyme substrate complex. Then product leave active site unchanged

Enzymes function in 2 ways

Catabolic Reaction Anabolic Reaction

Breaking down reaction releasing Building up reactions requiring energy
energy
E.g -Starch+ amylase Maltose -Photosynthesis
-Protein+ protease Amino acids -Building up glycogen in the liver
-Lipids/Fats+ lipase Glycerol+ F.A -Building up starch in the plants

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Properties of enzymes

 They are protein in nature.

 They are biological catalysts.

 They are specific in their actions.

 They are formed inside the cells but can act inside the cells ‘intracellular”
ex. harmful hydrogen peroxide broken in liver cells by catalase or outside
the cells ‘extracellular’ like lipids broken into fatty acids and glycerol by
lipase.
 They are denatured by high temperatures, as protein molecules are
damaged by heat.
To measure the rate of the enzyme
 Their activity is affected by 4 factors: activity, you could either measure
 Temperature the decrease in substrate
 pH concentration or by measuring the
increase in product concentration
 Enzymatic concentration
 Substrate concentration

Effect of temperature on the enzyme activity

The activity of enzymes is affected by temperature. The temperature at which

the maximum rate of reaction occurs is called optimum temperature where this
is the best temperature for the enzyme to function. The shape of the active site
of the enzyme and the substrate are complementary to each other where the
shape of the active site determines the substrate will fit with the enzyme or it
will not. At first (A) increasing temperature will increase the rate of the enzyme
action more kinetic energy more chance for the enzyme and substrate
molecule to fit like lock and key reaching the (B)optimum temperature where Part B
maximum enzyme activity . Above optimum
Hydrogen bonds is broken Active site lost its
shape Enzyme Denatured(C).
Part A

Each enzymes has an optimum

temperature at which the enzymatic Part C
activity is reached to maximum
In human it’s 37 C
In plants it’s 28 C to 30 C
Bactria living in hot springs it’s 75 C

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Effect of pH on the enzyme activity

Many of the chemicals holding the structure of the

enzyme are weak bonds. These bonds are liable to be broken by changes in the
pH where the active site will lose its shape so it’s not
more complementary to the active site. No fitting
like lock and key leading to a decrease in the enzyme
activity. Enzyme denatured.

Effect of enzyme concentration on the enzyme activity

Increasing enzyme concentration will increase the rate of

reaction, as more enzymes will be colliding with substrate
molecules.
However, this will only have an effect up to a certain
concentration, where the enzyme concentration is no
longer the limiting factor.

Enzyme concentration

Effect of substrate concentration on the enzyme activity

Increasing substrate concentration increases the rate of

the reaction.
This is because more substrate molecules will be colliding
with with enzyme molecules so more product will be
formed.
However, after a certain concentration, any increase will
have no effect on the rate of the reaction, since substrate
concentration will be no longer a limiting factor. The
enzymes will be saturated, and will be working at their
maximum rate.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Limiting Factor: Is the factor that limits the reaction rate in any
physiological process controlled by many variables (the other factors that
affect the process)

Role of enzymes in sustaining our life: Lower activation energy needed for
many chemical reactions as without enzymes they would take place very
slowly.

How enzymes are named?

Enzymes are named according to the reaction that the enzyme

catalyzes. For example, enzyme which catalyzed the breakdown
of carbohydrates are named carbohydrases, enzyme that
breakdown proteins named protease. If they break down lipids
they named lipases. Sometimes enzymes are given more specific
names as carbohydrases are named accurately amylase, while
enzyme that breakdown sucrose named sucrase

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Practical parts are included in the practical
Paper 6
book, and they will be written in your
notebook

Shafai: Enzymes Denatured Student: El Enzyme Dies

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Characteristics of Living Organisms and Classification

Chapter Four

Characteristics of living organisms

Action by organism or part of organism causing change of position or place

Movement

Chemical reaction in cells that breakdown nutrient (glucose) and release energy for
Respiration metabolism. It may be aerobic in the presence of oxygen and anaerobic in the absence
of oxygen.

Sensitivity Ability to detect and respond to a change in internal or external environment (Stimulus)
Movement: Ability to change position or direction

Permanent increase in size of cells and dry mass due to increase in the number of cells
Growth
Respiration: or size of cells or both

Ability of living organisms to make more of the same kind produce

Reproduction new individuals of the same kind.

Removal pf waste [products of metabolism, and substance in excess of requirement,

Excretion and toxic materials

Nutrition Taking in materials, for energy, growth, and development.

Organisms
can be
Taxonomy
Classification of living organisms classified by
features
Science of placing living organisms into categories based upon morphology and that they
anatomy (shape and structure). share
Morphology: The overall form and shape of the living organisms

Anatomy: The internal detailed body structure determined by dissection

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Continue with classification methods

Today species are classified by protein structure, chromosome number or

DNA or RNA sequence.
• Protein structure: closely related organisms have similar amino
acid sequences in protein such as hemoglobin.

• DNA structure: Closely related organisms have similar base

sequences in DNA, by comparing sequence of nitrogen bases, the
more similar the bases the more closely related organisms
(Common ancestor)

Advantages of using DNA analysis instead of morphology and anatomy in classification

• Accurate
• Easier, Cheaper, Quicker
• Only trace samples required
• Large scale of identification

Organisms are divided into five kingdoms according to taxonomy:

1 Kingdom Animals

2 Kingdom Plants

3 Kingdom Fungi
Ex. Amoeba
4 Kingdom Protoctist

5 Kingdom Prokaryote

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Kingdoms are subdivided into: -

Kingdom

Phylum
Class
Order

Family
By moving down, more
similarities with fewer differences Genus
between the living organisms
Species

Genus Group of living organisms similar to each other but naturally they cannot
interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Ex: mule.

Group of living organisms that share the same characters and naturally they
Species
can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

Binomial system of naming species

Define: - Internationally agreed system in which scientific name of organism is made up of 2

parts showing genus and species

All living organisms have Latin name, consists of two names.

• The first represent the genus and it’s first letter is capitalized
• The second represent the species and start with small letter
The two names must be underlined or in italics
Ex. Homo sapiens

Genus Species

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Construction of Dichotomous Key

We use dichotomous key to identify unfamiliar organisms. Keys simplify the

process of identification. Each key is made up of pairs of contrasting features,
starting with quite general characteristics and moving on to more specific
ones. When we follow the key and make suitable choices, it is possible to
identify the organism correctly. Same technique is used for assigning. The first
question should be based on the feature that will split the group into two.
Question answer should give yes or no, then further question for each sub-
group.

Classification and evolutionary relationships

relationship

Scientists make it possible to understand evolutionary relationship when they classify organisms.

All vertebrates have: -

• Vertebral column
• Skull protecting brain
• Pair of jaws

Studying the anatomy of different groups of vertebrates helps us to learn about their Evolution.
The skeleton of front limbs of the 5 vertebrates shown below, although limbs have different functions as flying, running,
swimming, the arrangement and the number of bones almost the same in all vertebrates. Argument for evolution says
that, if these animals are not related, it feels very odd that similar limb skeleton should be used to do different things as
flying, swimming. However, if all the animals came from same ancestor, the ancestral skeleton could have changed in
small stages in different ways in each group, so we would expect that the basic pattern of bone was the same in all these
vertebrates.

Some species have evolved similar characteristics completely independently and have no cross links at all. If organism
share a common ancestor this will be reflected in how they are classified. However, if they are not sharing a common
ancestor their classification will be different, although some organisms may appear to be similar in appearance while
they are totally different with no common ancestor with major differences.

Panglion Both animals are mammals but cannot be classified at the same group Armalido

• Body covered from scales made of keratin • Armored body covering made of
• No teeth, but use its long tongue to feed on ants hard bony plates
and termites • Long claws used for digging and
making burrow
• Has small teeth not covered by
enamel to feed on grubs and
insects
• Cam roll up into balls when
threatened by predator

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Using DNA sequence in classification

DNA revolutionized the classification process. Most organism contain

chromosomes made up of genes which are formed from DNA , while
DNA made up of sequence of bases that codes for specific amino acids.
Each organism has a unique number of chromosomes with unique
bases in its DNA making it distinguishable and identifiable from other
species. This method is very useful when organisms are very similar
morphologically, and anatomically.

Types of Bird’s feathers and function of each:

Fluffy down: Forms insulating layer close to the skin

Contour feather: Cover the body and give the bird shape and coloration Tagmee3a
Large quill feathers: Vital for flight

Vertebrate Mammals Reptiles Fish Amphibians Birds

Class
Examples Mouse, Lizard, Snakes Trout, Rohu, Frog, Toad, Sparrow,
Stripped Sharks Newt Pigeon
Hyena
Body Fur/Hair Dry Scaly Skin Scales Moist skin Feathers, with
Covering scales on legs
Movement 4 Limbs 4 limbs except Fins 4 limbs, back 2 wings and 2
snakes feet often legs
webbed to
make
swimming
more efficient
Reproduction Produce live Produce eggs Produce jelly- Produce jelly Produce eggs
young with rubbery covered eggs covered eggs with hard
waterproof in water in water shell, laying
shell laid on eggs on land
land
Sense Eyes/Ears Eyes/Ears Eyes, no ears, Eyes/Ears Eyes/Ears
Organs with pinna lateral line
along the
body for
detecting
vibrations in
water
Other Details 1-Warm 1-Cold 1-Cold 1-Cold 1-Warm
blooded blooded blooded blooded blooded
2-Lungs 2-Lungs for 2-Gills for 2-Lungs and 2-Lungs for
3-Mammary breathing breathing skin for breathing
Glands breathing 3-Mammary
4- 4 Types of gland
teeth 4- 4 Types of
teeth

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Very
Important

Explain why in the past sea anemores classified as plant?

A sea anemores stay fixed in place, their tentacles look like flower petals

Viruses: -

Viruses couldn’t be related to one of the mentioned

kingdoms as they don’t include the main features of
living organisms MRS GReN, unless they’re inside the
cells of living organisms. They’re considered as
parasites causing harm to their host.

N.B
Size of virus is between 2um to 1500 um

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Comparison between bacteria and viruses

P.O.C Bactria Virus

Cell wall Present but no cellulose Absent
Cell membrane Present Absent
Cytoplasm Present with enzymes Absent
&food molecules but no
organelles
Flagellum Present and beats to Absent
move
Plasmid Found in small rings of Absent
DNA carrying only few
genes
Capsule Present to protect Absent
bacteria against
desiccation (extreme
dryness
Ribosomes Present Absent

Study well the

following

Bacteria Fungi

-The internal structure of bacteria -Internal structure of fungi

-Way of reproduction -Ways of reproduction

-The harmful forms of bacteria as cholera or TB -Using of fungus in: -

-Useful forms of bacteria as: - 1-Bread making

1-sewage treatment 2-Brewing making

2-Increase soil fertility 3-Antibiotic production in fermenters

3- Genetic engineering

4-Youghurt making

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Advantage of warm blooded? 1-Vertebral column

Animal’s activity doesn’t depend on surrounding

temperature
Point of Fish
-
Vertebrates
.Vertebrates
Amphibians
· Reptiles
2-Skull protecting the brain
Birds
3-Pair of jaws Mammals
comparison

Body covering Scaly skin Moist skin with no Dry scaly skin Feathers only Hair
scales legs covered
with scales.
Fluffy down,
Contour
feather,
Large quill.
Way of Eggs laid in water Eggs laid in water Eggs laid with tough Eggs laid on -Give birth &
reproduction covered with jelly coat covered with jelly paper like shell so they land with suckle young
coat. Most adults don’t need water to hard shell with milk
live on land, they go breed -Have
back to water to placenta
breed

Way of Gills Only larvae have Lungs Lungs Lungs

breathing gills, adults have
lungs

Blood Cold blooded Cold blooded Cold blooded Warm Warm

blooded with blooded with
internal internal
regulatory regulatory
mechanism mechanism
Ear Has lateral line instead Ear drum on the On surface Ear drum on Ear drum
surface surface with external
ear flap (ear
pinna)

Eye lids 3 eye lids 3 eye lids 2 eye lids

Limbs Have fins, Have 4 limbs. Frogs and 4 limbs with 5 toes 4 limbs with 4 limbs
operculum to protect toads the hind feet except snake the front
gills, and it is have web of skin limbs
streamlined in shape between toes to modified into
I.S.A to push against wings
water, while Newts
swim by wringling.
More -Mudskipper fish not -Amphibians are Fertilization, carried out -Have beak -Diaphragm
information living in water, they carnivores having internally. While some -Heart has 4 -Endothermic
spend short time breath moist skin with species keep eggs in the chambers -Different
in air good supply of body until they are ready -Endothermic types of teeth
capillaries with to hatch -Claws -4 chambers
lungs but no of heart
diaphragm or ribs

Fish reproduce sexually but

fertilization done externally

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Invertebrates

Most invertebrates have: -

Jointed legs for easy movement

Arthropods
Segmented body for flexibility and movement

No Waterproof exoskeleton for protection and reducing water loss

backbone to live on dry land (Cuticle)

Point of Insects Arachnids Crustaceans Myriapods

comparison
Legs 3 pairs of 4 pairs of More than 4 pairs Many legs
jointed legs jointed legs
Antennae Yes No 2 pairs ,sensitive to 1 pair
Have 2 pairs of touch and
Pedipalp on for chemicals (May
reproduction have specialized
and one to mouth part for
pierce prey feeding)
Wings Sometimes up No No
to 2 pairs of
wings
Key of Segmented Have 4 pairs of 2pairs of antennae Long body
identification body with 3 jointed legs &5 or more pairs of divided into
pairs of jointed jointed legs segments with
legs no legs on many jointed
abdomen legs
Way of Through Through gills Through gills
breathing trachea called book
lungs
Example
Eyes 2 Compound 8 Simple eyes Compound eyes Compound eyes
eyes with hundreds of
separate lenses
with light sensitive
cells
Length of Similar length Similar length Front legs are Similar legs
joined legs bigger &longer Centipede
hind legs are (Carnivores)
shorter and smaller Millipede
(Herbivore)

Can survive in extreme conditions

due to presence of cuticle

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Summary
 Flowering Plants

Flowering Plants characterized by: -

-Have roots, stem and leaves.

-Have xylem and phloem.

-Reproduce by producing seed which are enclosed in ovary

-Seed produced inside ovary, inside flower.

Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous
P.O.C

Roots Fibrous Tapering

• Have leaf stalk (has petiole)

• No leaf stalk (no petiole) • Large broad oval leaves
Leaves
• Elongated narrow leaves parallel • Network of veins
veins • Edges with spikes, spines,
• Smooth edges serrated or toothed

Seeds Contains one cotyledon

Contains two cotyledons

Flower Petals Petals are found in multiplies of Petals are from 4 to5 (Fives)
threes

Example Maize and wheat Beans and peas

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Ferns
Non flowering plants

Ferns characterized by: -

• Stem usually completely below ground
• In Bracken, stem grow horizontally below ground,
sending up leaves at intervals. Roots grow directly
from stem
• Produce gametes but no seeds, zygote give rise to fern plant, which then produce single-
celled spores from many sporangia on its leaves. Sporangia formed of lower side of leaf
usually arranged in compact groups
• Have roots, stem and leaves (Fronds).
• Have sieve tubes with water conducting cells like those of xylem and phloem in
flowering plant.
• Leaves are thick most have upper and lower epidermis with layer of palisade and spongy
mesophyll like leaves of flowering plant.
• Leaves called Fronds
• Don’t produce flowers
• They reproduce by producing spores
• They don’t have very thick cuticle, so can only survive in shady, humid areas

Shafai bygahzz lel Student lssa mazkrsh

mock el gaie el chapters el fatet

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Centipede
Summary Mammals

Protoctist

Amphibians

Prokaryotes Bird

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Reptile Monocotyledon and Dicotyledonous

Insect

Crustaceans

Arachnids

Ferns

Fish

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Nutrients and Diet
Chapter Five

Nutrition
Process by which living organisms obtain or to make food to get energy and raw
materials for growth and tissue repair.
The food supplies us with: -

 Raw materials for growth and tissue repair.

 Molecules (Glucose) used in respiration and energy release
 Vital elements and compounds that enables raw materials and energy to be used
efficiently.

Nutrition
Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition
Oorganisms as green plants depend on Animals obtain their organic food by
themselves in making their own organic depending on eating plants or other
food using inorganic molecules in animals.
presence of light energy through -Symbiotic -Saprophytic -Parasitic
photosynthesis.

The Main Nutrients

Carbohydrates ( Proteins (C, H, O, N) Fats "Lipids"
C,H,O) twice as many C +small amount sulfur (C,H.O and reduced
as H and O atoms Oxygen)
Monosaccharide It’s a long chain of linked Made up of glycerol
-Glucose, Fructose amino acids joined by and fatty acids.
specific sequence coding
Disaccharide for specific gene
-Maltose, Sucrose,
Glycerol
Lactose
Forms
Polysaccharides
-Glycogen N.B There are 20
-Starch different types of amino
-Cellulose acids
Protein molecule is about 3 Fatty acids
400 amino acids long.
The type of protein is
determined according to
the sequence of amino
acid.

Amino acid chain curls up into different 3-D shape, different sequence of amino acids produces
different shapes affecting the function of the protein

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Carbohydrates Proteins Fats and lipids

A source of energy by Proteins required for Used as important

respiration. growth and tissue source of energy 1
N.B 1gram glucose 17kj repair for making gm give 39 KJ. It can
energy new cells. be used as: -

Energy Required for: Materials made of -Insulation

proteins are: - *Thermal insulation
 Active transport  Enzymes beneath the skin
Importance  Cell division  Hormones reduce heat loss.
 Muscle as insulin.
contraction  Antibodies *Electrical insulation
 Manufacture  Hemoglobin. around nerve cells
of large  Cell (myelin sheath)
biological membrane
molecules. formation -Protection of vital
 Nerve impulse  Keratin organs as kidney or
transmission  Growth and heart
tissue repair
-Cell membrane
formation

-Cholesterol is
important for
making sex
hormones.
-Sugars as Amino acids are
monosaccharides and water soluble. Fats are insoluble in
disaccharides are soluble Proteins as water
Solubility hemoglobin are
Polysaccharides are soluble while
insoluble keratin is insoluble

In Humans In Humans In humans

-Changed to glycogen Excess amino acids
stored in liver and muscle can’t be stored due Stored in adipose
cells. Only small to presence of tissue underneath
Excess Food quantities of glycogen can nitrogen containing the skin at which the
be stored any more is part, so it’s cells become filled
changed into fat. deaminated by liver with large drops of
and excreted as fats or oils.
urea

In Plants Plants use some of Adipose Tissue

Excess carbohydrates are their glucose Animal fats contain
stored as starch in their combining with cholesterol which
seeds which we use as ammonium or cause:
food. Part is used in nitrate ions to make

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Biuret Biuret is CuSO4 mixed with water+ Dilute KOH

making cellulose in cell amino acids which -Atherosclerosis

wall. are then linked to build up in arteries
synthesize proteins CHD
-Obesity
Glucose+ Nitrates=
Amino acids -Heart disease
-Increase blood
pressure
-Diabetes
Starch Test for protein by Emulsion test
By using Iodine giving a biuret reagent By crushing fats with
blue black color. changing color from ethanol the add
Reducing sugars blue to distilled water
Benedicts reagent give purple giving cloudy
Food Test Brick red suspension

Starch Proteins Saturated fats and

rice –potatoes- wheat -Chicken –Meat- cholesterol
and cereals. Fish Meat and animal
foods (egg, milk,
Source of Food
Sugary food -Legumes (peas and cheese)
sweetening as in beans)
desserts sweets soft Unsaturated fats
drinks.
Glycogen Plant sources as
Stored in liver and sunflower seeds and
muscles liver peanuts.
Cellulose Fish as a good
Green vegetables source of omega 3
and 6

Other Nutrients
Vitamins:
 Not digested or broken to release energy
 Not built in the body
 Vital in small quantities for health
 Needed for chemical reactions working with enzymes

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Source of food Importance Deficiency
Vitamins
Fibers in connective Scurvy
tissue of skin and (Sailors Disease)
-Citrus fruit blood vessels
Such as lemon and (collagen) do not
form properly,
. Pain in joints
Vitamin C oranges-limes and and muscles.
raw vegetables leading to bleeding
under skin and
joints . Bleeding from
gums and other
- Strengthen blood places with loss
vessels. of teeth
-Keep teeth and
gum healthy.
. Skin ulcers.
-Protects cells from .Poor healing of
aging by keeping wounds.
skin healthy.
-Butter Rickets in which
-egg yolk the bones
Vitamin D -Fish liver oil Helps calcium and becomes soft and
-Can be made by skin phosphorous to be deformed.
when exposed to Common in young
absorbed for
sunlight age in industrial
making bones and
areas
teeth.
In adults
Osteomalacia as
fragile bones

Minerals
-Red meat For making Anemia
-Liver hemoglobin, the red No enough red
Iron -Egg yolk pigment in the blood cells so no
-Spinach blood carrying enough oxygen
oxygen delivered to the
tissues
1) Pale skin.
2) Shortness of
breath.
3) Feeling tired

Calcium -Milk dairy products. -For bones and teeth -Brittle bones and
- Bread teeth.
-Blood clotting

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 -Poor clotting of
blood and brittle
nails
-Muscle cramps
-Rickets and
osteomalacia
-Cereals grains
Fibers -Bread Stimulate peristalsis Constipation and
(Roughages) -Vegetables of the intestine to cancer colon, as
squeeze food along less peristalsis
the gut reducing
time of undigested
food to pass out

-Excretion Loss of 5 of
body's water can
Through drinking -Transportation lead to loss of
juices or water and ions and salts
Water food especially -Digestion Dehydration
salad food
-Cooling down (Diarrhea)
body temperature

Balanced Diet
Daily intake of all types of nutrients in appropriate amounts according to body needs to
supply them with the right amount of energy needed for body metabolism, which varies
according to age, sex and physical activity

Energy needed according to

Age
Sex Weather Physical
A growing child and a Activity
teenager need more Men requires more daily People living in cold
energy more protein energy intake than countries requires more
calcium iron vitamin D women as males have More active person
fats in their diet than needs more energy
relative to their size higher metabolic rates, those living in hot
than an adult for more have larger body muscles than a less active
countries. As fats provide person. As physical
growth and tissue repair more likely to do more thermal insulation by
physical activity activity requires
being stored as adipose more energy
tissue underneath the skin provided by burning
more food

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Physiological
Changes

A pregnant woman needs to eat more

protein to make tissues for her fetus more
calcium to build her baby's bones and teeth
more iron to make hemoglobin of baby.

 A lactating mother needs to eat more

protein and calcium and vitamin D to
pass to her baby through her milk
 Also a menstruating female needs
more iron to replace the lost blood

Eating too much of food over nutrition

Malnutrition Having to little food under nutrition

Eating too much or too little of a

particular nutrient

Over nutrition
Other harms
Obesity
-Excess sugar causes tooth decay
Where the storage of fats
exceeds its healthy limit -Excess salt causes increase in
resulting from eating too much blood pressure
of carbohydrates and fats
Excess fat causing artheriscelorisis

Complications of obesity: -
 Coronary heart disease as fat deposits on the lining of the
coronary arteries making them narrower so less blood with
oxygen and glucose delivered to the heart muscle, so can’t
respire normally.
 Heart attack also resulting from fatty deposition in arteries
causing blood clot.
 Physiological disturbances from the unattractive
appearance.
 Diabetes due to the high blood sugar level.
 High blood pressure.

Avoid obesity by?

-Decrease intake of fats and carbohydrates

-Regular exercise to increase food burning

-Eating more fibers

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Under nutrition

Deficiency diseases
Starvation
1) Pain in joints bleeding from
Not eating enough food for a Vitamin C gums and loss teeth
long period of time, so the symptoms 2) Skin ulcers
body starts break down
carbohydrates then fats and 3) poor healing of wounds
finally proteins resulting in
small weak shrinked muscles
1)Rickets in children
where bones can't grow
Calcium and 2) fragile bones in adults
vitamin D
N.B Brittle bones with
symptoms uncontrolled muscle contraction
and poor blood clotting are
specific symptoms to calcium
deficiency

Anemia
Iron
Less hemoglobin carrying oxygen
symptoms in the RBCs so less oxygen
delivered to body tissues with
shortness of breath, pale skin

⑲
and lack of activity

Protein Deficiency

Marasmus
Kwashiorkor
Protein Energy
Child is obliged on a diet high No protein and no
in carbohydrates and enough energy for the
probably no proteins. body
Symptoms Symptoms
-Swelling of the abdomen -Very low body mass
and legs
-Thin arms and legs
-Sparse(scanty) dry hair
-Little muscles
-Flaky skin
-Wizened old face
-Fat accumulation in the liver

Body weight below normal

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Summary

El student habeby hayakol eh

ba3d ma 3eref el balanced
diet

El student bytlob macdonald’s

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Sequences of bases in our DNA provides code that is used to determine codes of protein that are made in our cells

Structure of DNA “DNA is like a computer

program but far, far
more advanced than any
1 DNA is an abbreviation of deoxyribonucleic acid software ever created”
Bill Gates

2 DNA Structure

 DNA is made up of simplest nucleotides

 Nucleotide made up from nitrogen base (A, T,
C, G), phosphate and sugar as backbone.

3 Millions of nucleotides may be present in DNA

molecule, but there are only 4 different ones. Some A T C G
nucleotides contain Adenine(A), Thymine(T),
Cytosine(C), Guanine(G)

4 Nucleotides form a very long ladder showing two

strands with bases as the rungs of ladder. The
nitrogen bases pair up where

Adenine with Thymine

Guanine withy cytosine

5 Under certain physical force causes, the strands of

the ladder to twist around itself forming double
helix spiral shape

6 The specific sequence of nitrogen bases in the

DNA molecule can determine the order of amino
acids in protein molecule determining the type of
protein that are made in our cells. This
determines how or cells, tissue, organs develop.

DNA as gene controls the

production of protein
that is responsible for
certain characteristics

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Changing code words to amino acids

Gene
 Specific length of DNA coding for specific protein with specific
sequence of bases

 Each gene carries a series of codes to synthesis of proteins.

 Each code on DNA is made up of 3 base in a certain sequence.
 Each code word is called a triplet, which corresponds to a single amino acid in a
protein.

Genetic code
The code formed by specific sequence of the bases in DNA that determines
the organism’s characteristics by coding for specific proteins

A The four different bases in DNA (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine,

Guanine)

B Bases can be arranged in many different triplets

C Coding for all the 20 amino acids normally found in a cell

Where each protein molecule has made up of thousands of the 20 different amino
D acids linked together in a specific order

E This gives each protein its own specific properties

Role of DNA
 Carries genetic codes responsible for
protein formation
 Codes for the protein to be made by cell.
 Carry genes to be inherited for offsprings

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Protein synthesis
DNA is found in the nucleus. Protein synthesis happens in the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm
So how does the protein code pass from the nucleus to the ribosomes in
the cytoplasm?

 It is carried by another type of nucleic acid called messenger RNA

(mRNA)

Explanation

 By transcription process the mRNA is formed inside the

nucleus
 The mRNA leaves the nucleus through holes in the
nuclear membrane called nuclear pores
 Translation process takes place where ribosomes attach
to the messenger RNA and the instructions it carries are
used to set the amino acids in the correct order to make
specific protein

 The gene coding for the protein

required untwists then unzips the H-
bond between the strands break.
Transcription
 RNA Nucleotides form complementary
base pairs with one strand of DNA
bases. Then free RNA nucleotides join
together by RNA polymerase
synthesizing messenger RNA strand

Difference between DNA replication and RNA transcription.

Uracil
RNA never contains the base thymine (T) instead it's is replaced by a fifth base called Uracil (U) So
instead of the base pair A-T used in DNA replication in
transcription we have the base Pair A-U.

Messenger RNA attaches to the ribosomes

where thin mRNA molecule passes
Translation through the ribosomes. Ribosomes links
the amino acids together in the right
order to synthesize the desired protein
following the code contained messenger
RNA molecule

DNA Messenger RNA Protein

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Biotechnology and Genetic Modification
Chapter Six

Biotechnology: It is the use of microorganisms as bacteria and fungi to make

useful products or to carry out services for us such as making wastes harmless.

1-Using microorganisms

Bread Making Brewing Making Biofuel

Making

 Yeast respires  Yeast respire Yeast respire

aerobically using anaerobically anaerobically using
oxygen and using maltose sugar from maize.
glucose in the sugar from
dough producing germinating barley  Starch in the maize
Co2 which causes seeds releasing is digested into
the dough to rise Co2 and Alcohol glucose using
 Yeast starts to for beer amylase enzyme
respire  Yeast is added and
anaerobically respiring
releasing Co2 and anaerobically
ethanol  During making using the glucose
 During baking, wine, yeast will producing ethanol
yeast will die, Co2 respire and finally
trapped between anaerobically extracted by
crust layers raising using sugar from fractional
the dough and grapes distillation
making it porous
and spongy and
ethanol
evaporates

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Yeast Cell

Using ethanol as biofuel

Advantages:

1- Reduce the carbon dioxide that produced to the atmosphere

2- It’s a renewable source of energy

Disadvantages:

1-Arguments against growing crops to make biofuel as these crops

take up land that could be used to grow food for people

2-Using large quantities of maize and other crops to make biofuels increases
their prices making them more expensive for people to buy food

3-Burning ethanol will release less energy than burning fossil fuels

2-Making use of enzymes

Majority of enzymes used in industry are obtained from using

microorganisms growing inside the fermenter.

Microorganisms requires: -

 Optimum temperature
 Optimum pH
 Oxygen
 Nutrients

Functions of paddle stirrer?

1-Providing oxygen for aerobic respiration

2-Allow equal distribution of heat through the fermenter
3-Ensure contact between microorganisms and nutrients

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 The Fermenter
Sterile air supply: -

1-To limit danger of pathogens

2-Avoid competition on nutrients

Nutrients:

 Glucose as energy
source for respiration
and energy release
 Amino acids
Probe: - Monitor the
temperature and pH for
optimum enzyme
activity
Water jacket: -

1-Avoid high temperature causing low enzyme activity The product is filtered to obtain
clean and highly purified product
2-For optimum temperature for maximum enzyme free from any toxic microorganism
activity

3-Avoid extreme high temperature causing denature of

enzymes and kill microorganisms

A- Using enzymes in biological washing powder

Amylase, protease and lipase enzymes are used to remove stains as blood, milk, chocolate
and fatty food stains
Large insoluble complex stain molecules are broken down by lipase and protease
enzymes to small simple soluble fatty acids and amino acids to be easily removed by
water
Advantages of biological washing powder: - Disadvantages of biological washing
powder:
1-Prevent enzymes from digesting proteins and fats in skin of
people handling them as enzymes are packed into microscopic 1-People may be allergic to the biological
capsule that open when reacted with water detergents cause skin problems as itching
2-They work at low temperature so they are useful for delicate 2-Protease is denatured at high temperature
fabrics and less heating of water required Saves energy so fabrics must be washed at lower
temperature rather than hot temperature
3-If washing requires to be done at extreme high temperature
they have developed protease that can work at higher which is difficult as other components of
temperature from bacteria which normally live in hot washing powder get rid of certain stains or
environment. dirt at high temperature

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 B- Extraction of juice from natural fruits

Pectin is a substance in the fruits which allow holding of plant cells together.
Pectin is digested by pectinase enzyme which makes it easier to squeeze the fruit
giving clearer appearance of juice and higher volume (J15/V1/P6)

C- Production of lactose free milk products

Disaccharide sugar
in milk that can’t be Both are monosaccharide
Lactase
absorbed into the Lactose Glucose+ Galactose sugars that can be
blood absorbed into the blood

People who stop making lactase when they’re adults, they are not
able to digest lactose. They’ll experience: -

1-Abdominal cramps

2-Diarrhea

3-flatulence

4-Diarrhea

5-Nausea and vomiting

How to treat this problem?

By giving pills orally containing the enzyme, but lactase enzyme might
be denatured by the high acidity of the stomach due to the presence of
HCl

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Intake of lactose free products produced using Immobilized enzyme
Best solution
 Lactase enzyme trapped in very tiny alginate beads rather than
its solution form
 Milk is allowed to pass through the column of lactase
containing the beads
 Immobilized lactase digests the lactase in the milk into glucose
and galactose
 The milk now is lactose free.

Advantages of the immobilized lactase in producing lactose free products

 Enzyme is highly stable to changes in temperature and pH

 Substrate is able to be exposed to high enzyme concentration so
higher rate of reaction
 The produced mild or dairy products are not contaminated with the
enzyme
 Recycled enzymes that can be used many times to save the cost

Preparing lactose free milk?

1-Mix lactase enzyme with sodium alginate solution

2-Add this mixture to calcium chloride solution drop by drop

and leave the beads to set for few minutes

3-Wash the beads by tripping calcium chloride solution with

beads into tea strainer and run distilled water through them

4-Pack the beads into clean syringe

5-Pour some milk over the beads in the syringe

6-Glucose strip may be used to test for glucose

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Questions?

1-What is the purpose of the nylon gauze in the barrel

syringe?
-It’s used to hold the beads in its place so they don’t fall into the
syringe and block it.

2-What is the reason of washing the beads before placing

them in the barrel syringe?

-To remove any calcium chloride from them as it may affect the
reaction

Use of fungus in antibiotic production

-Antibiotics are medications that kill bacterial cells without harming

human cells. This process happened as antibiotic interfere with the
cell wall formation of bacteria, so bacterial cell will burst and die.

-Fungus (Pencillium) can be grown in large fermenters to produce

compounds (Penicillin) that can control the reproduction of harmful
bacteria

Air and Carbon Penicillin and

dioxide nutrients inlet

Cooling
water out Probe to control
temperature and
Paddle/Stirrer
pH
Air supply
Cooling
Steam for sterilization water in

And to control temperature OR

cold water to control temperature
Penicillin
out

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

-The rate of production of penicillin depends on the amount of sugar
available. The more the availability of sugar, the more penicillin
produced. If no sugar is present in the feedstock of the fermenter, so
no penicillin produced.

-Culture is kept a week after which the rate of production of

penicillin slows down that is not effective waiting any longer

-The culture is finally filtered and the liquid is treated to increase the
concentration of penicillin which it contains. The penicillin is
extracted, crystalized and packaged with proper dosage.

Gene Modification

It’s changing in genetic material of an organism by taking gene from one species
and inserting it into another species

Eg. Taking human insulin gene from human and placing it in bacteria growing in
large fermenters

1 3 Ligase enzyme used to

The insulin is cut from
human chromosome by stick the insulin gene to
using a specific restriction the plasmid forming
endoclease enzyme Recombinant DNA
leaving sticky ends

4
Re-insert the recombinant
2 DNA into the harmless
Plasmid in harmless
bacteria is cut and opened bacterial cell and provide
using the same restriction the fermenter with oxygen
endoclease enzyme supply and nutrients for
leaving complementary optimum bacterial
sticky ends reproduction

Giving large population

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 The genetically modified bacteria must be provided with optimum
temperature and pH in the fermenter with optimum amount of
nutrients producing extremely pure and cheap product

Advantages of Recombinant DNA: - Examples of products produced by genetic

1-Product is produced with very large quantity making
engineering: -
it less expensive and rapidly available  Insulin
2-The product produced is very pure and can be the  GH (growth hormone)
human version of protein rather than version produced  BGH (animal hormone speeds up growth of
by another animal cattle

3- The process may be switched on/off easily as

bacteria can be stored until needed again

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 The action of the restriction endoclease enzyme: - Restriction enzyme cut the DNA
molecule at certain points leaving
short lengths of unpaired bases at
both ends of the cut DNA called
sticky ends

Explain why we have to use the same restriction enzymes to cut the DNA of the desirable gene
and the plasmid?

As these restriction enzymes produce sticky end of the DNA molecule and the plasmid, so they’re
complementary and they will stick together as both sticky ends will pair together. Ligase enzyme will
link the two strands firmly together to form the recombinant DNA.

Important Examples of gene modification

A-Golden rice with Vitamin A: As sever deficiency of Vitamin A causes

night blindness

B-Producing crops resistant to herbicides: Crops are genetically modified

to be resistant to herbicides and insecticides

Eg. 1-Cotton plant: They’re modified to contain toxic substance to

insects so reduce the usage of pesticides

2-Soya bean: Genetically modified so that when farmers sprays

herbicides only the weeds will be killed

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Advantages and disadvantages of genetically modified products

Advantages Disadvantages
Much more predictable results than Farmers need to pay a premium to buy
selective breeding the engineered seeds, so the price at
the end doesn’t fall as predicted.
Food modified to be more convenient Plants modified to be resistance to
as potatoes which absorb less fat when pesticides may cross pollinate
crisps are made, or even contain producing super weeds
medicinal products as vaccines
Reduce the chance that herbicides Modified bacteria may escape from the
might cause harm to other plants and lab during the preparation of genetic
provide lower cost of crops engineering causing unpredictable
effects
Production of higher yields from fewer Company that has spent a lot of money
resources. on developing as organism might
refuse to share its benefits with other
consumers.
Modified crops adapt with the
environmental conditions, this allow
new areas of cultivation producing
higher yield.

Explain the benefits of using bacteria in gene modification?

 Bacteria reproduce very quickly

 They’re very small and easy to grow in the lab
 We share with them the genetic material (DNA). So we can take a gene
from a human cell and place it in bacterial cell and they’ll produce the
human protein.
 No ethical concerns like those that might arise if we use animals
 Bacteria have small loops of DNA called plasmids that are quite easy to
transfer from one cell of an organism to another

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Plant Nutrition
Chapter Seven

Photosynthesis: is the process by which plant synthesize carbohydrates from

raw materials (carbon dioxide and water) using energy from light.

Lamina joined to rest of plant parts by petiole

running through it the vascular bundle

Leaf Structure
Photosynthesis allow
plant to build up tissues
and release energy.
Photosynthesis requires
energy and enzymes

Transverse Section

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Parts of leaf Function
Cuticle  Waxy material that prevents water evaporation from leaf.
-It stops water evaporation (impermeable to water, thus decreasing transpiration)
-Sometimes present on lower  Protects the inner surface of the leaf by preventing entry of
epidermis disease causing organisms (ex: bacteria)
 Transparent with no chloroplast to allow passage of light to
inner layers of leaf.

Upper epidermis  Single layer of cells, secreting waxy cuticle.

-No chloroplasts  Help to keep leaf’s shape
-Protect inner layer of cells  Act as a barrier against bacteria and fungi.
-Secrete waxy cuticle
 Transparent with no chloroplast to allow passage of light to
inner layers of leaf.

Mesophyll layer  Tall thin layers arranged in columns, end on to keep as few
cell walls as possible between sunlight and chloroplast.
 Packed with chloroplast arranged broad side on to absorb
 Palisade as much sun light as possible.
mesophyll  Cells arranged close together with tiny airspaces, to absorb
as much light energy as possible.
 Chlorophyll arranged on flat membrane inside chloroplast,
to expose as much chlorophyll as possible to sunlight.

 Contains chloroplast to absorb light energy for

 Spongy mesophyll
photosynthesis.
 cells are rounded and loosely packed with large airspaces to
allow easier diffusion of gases through the leaf
 Air spaces are saturated with water vapor to allow diffusion
of water out of leaf down concentration gradient
(transpiration).
 cells are covered with a layer of water where carbon dioxide
dissolves and diffuse through cell wall/membrane

Stomata  Open to allow carbon dioxide to diffuse in and oxygen to

diffuse out. Allow transpiration and gas exchange

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 When concentration of ions increased, the concentration inside vacuole
increased, decreasing water potential inside vacuole, allowing more water to
enter the guard cell increasing the pressure causing stomata to open

Guard cells (Sausage shape)  Present in pairs surrounding a stoma (hole)

 Unlike other cells in epidermis, they contain chloroplast and
control the opening and closing of stoma for:
 Gaseous exchange.
 Controlling transpiration.

Vein (vascular bundle)

 -Xylem vessels  With thick lignified walls to transport water and mineral
salts to cells in the leaf. It also supports the leaf

 -Phloem tubes
 With thin wall to translocate sucrose and amino acids that
the leaf has made acids from source to sink.

Guard cell has cell wall, the cell wall next to stomatal
pore is thicker and stiffer, so even the pressure increased
due to water makes the whole cell bigger, the thick inner
wall can’t expand, causing guard cell to curve and
Photosynthesis stomata opens.

1. Carbon dioxide diffuses trough stomata in leaf till it reaches chloroplasts of palisade cells
2. Water absorbed from soil by roots, moves up to stem through vessels to leaf by osmosis.
3. Chlorophyll in chloroplast traps light energy converting it to chemical energy. Where light
energy makes carbon dioxide combine with water (with help of enzymes) to make glucose.
4. Oxygen is released
Sunlight
Sun

2
Water travels to
Carbon dioxide chloroplasts by osmosis 2
diffuses through
air spaces

Water is brought
from roots in xylem
1
1
1
Carbon dioxide diffuses
through stomata from The chlorophyll absorbs light energy to split the
the atmosphere water molecules to oxygen which escapes out of
leaves, and hydrogen which combined with
carbon dioxide forming glucose

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Summary in the last page

Leaf function and adaptation

1-Adaptations for gaseous exchange

 Thin leaf to shorten the distance for faster diffusion of carbon dioxide and
oxygen in and out of the leaf
 Large surface area to expose as much air as possible for gas exchange
 Has stomata for gas exchange
 Has large air spaces to increase rate of gas diffusion

2-Adaptations for absorption of light

 Broad and flat leaf for large surface area to absorb more light
 Thin leaf to make it easy for light to penetrate and reach the cells
 Palisade layer is packed with chloroplasts found near the upper
surface
 Chloroplasts move toward the light source
 Spongy layer and guard cells contain chloroplast to trap more light
 Epidermal cells are thin with transparent cuticle for easier penetration of light

Photosynthesis Vs Respiration
In Dim Light
In Dark Rate of
The plant In bright light photosynthesis
respires only The rate of nearly equal the
so oxygen photosynthesis is rate of
diffuses into higher than the rate respiration so no
the leaf and of respiration. gas exchange as
carbon Carbon dioxide the product of
dioxide out diffuses into the each process is
leaf and oxygen out used by the other
one =
compensation
point

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Fate of glucose

 Used in respiration and energy release

 Change to starch for storage as starch insoluble (not
affect osmotic balance)
 Changed to cellulose to form cell wall
 Changed to sucrose to be translocated to other parts of
plant
 Changed to amino acids (by combining with nitrogen)
needed to form protein for growth
 Used to make nectar to attract pollinators

Limiting factors: Internal or external environmental factor present in short supply that limits the rate of
reaction

Light Intensity Carbon dioxide

Temperature

Temperature affects the enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions of

photosynthesis and affect opening and closing of stomata. During hot
weather stomata closes to reduce water loss so less carbon dioxide
diffuses in lowering the rate of photosynthesis

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Another factor rather than
light intensity becomes the
limiting factor. Any increase
Light intensity is a in the light intensity will not
limiting factor increase the rate of
photosynthesis

For maximum growth rate of plants, they should be provided with the following
 No disease
 Controlling of suitable temperature to avoid over heating leading to enzymes
denature Higher rate of photosynthesis More starch produced for
. growth
 No predators to feed on the plant
 More fertile soil by adding more minerals

How to control the limiting factors for maximum growth?

Removed from
Glass house the syllabus

o Thermostat for controlling temperature.

o Providing artificial light source when light intensity is low.
o Providing shade when light intensity is too high.
o Temperature control by cooling and ventilation
o CO2 enrichment using bicarbonate HCO3-
o Controlling humidity by ventilation.
o Using fertilizers to provide required ventilation.
o Easier to control pests, disease and weeds.

Why to ventilate the green house?

 To decrease temperature during the hot days Thus avoiding denaturing

of enzymes and avoid plant wilting by excessive transpiration.
 Allow carbon dioxide to enter during day and oxygen to enter at night, so
allowing plant to respire.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

  Allow water vapor to escape surrounding, to avoid air becoming to
humid.
 Reducing chance of fungal infection.

Mineral salt
The plant requires nitrates and magnesium for growth. Those minerals
are absorbed by the roots in the soil by active transport as mineral ions
are dissolved in water

Mineral Element Importance Deficiency

Nitrates or Nitrogen -Required to synthesize amino -Weak growth

Ammonium acid forming protein for growth -Yellow lower
ions and tissue repair leaves and pale
-Needed to make the DNA green upper
leaves
Magnesium Magnesium Needed to make chlorophyll Yellow leave
ion which is needed for Will die due to
photosynthesis by absorption of lack of
light to make glucose. photosynthesis
(chlorosis)
Phosphate Phosphate Making DNA for cell division for Poor growth and
growth and tissue repair no cell division

How to increase soil fertility?

o Add artificial fertilizers.
o Using animal manure which is not easily leached.
o Using humus which prevent soil erosion.
o Growing leguminous plants to allow growth of nodular bacteria that
makes nitrogen fixation.
o Allow soil aeration.
o Allow mixed crop rotation to prevent the removal of some nutrients
specifically from soil.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Photosynthesis is essential for maintaining a constant global level of oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Oxygen given off is used in respiration, while carbon dioxide
produced by respiration and from combustion of fossil fuels is used in

a tt
-
photosynthesis, which helps to stop the level of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere from rising too high

The Importance of
Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is essential for maintaining a constant global level of oxygen and

carbon dioxide. Oxygen given off is used in respiration, while carbon dioxide
produced by respiration and from combustion of fossil fuels is used in photosynthesis,
which helps to stop the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from rising too high
causing global warming

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Transport in plant
Chapter Eight

Phloem
Xylem vessel

Thick cell wall

containing lignin Companion cell containing nucleus
and dense cytoplasm
Pits to allow lateral
Cell wall contain cellulose
movement of water
but no lignin
Space containing no Sieve tube containing strand
cytoplasm of cytoplasm but no nucleus
Gap where end wall of Sieve plat formed from end
cell has been lost wall of sieve tube element

Xylem tissue 1) Transport water and  They are made of dead cells, with no
dissolved mineral nucleus and no cytoplasm so water and
mineral ions can pass freely without
ions from root up the
end walls
system to leaves.
 They run through roots up through
2) Support the stem. stem to leaves.
 They have thick cell wall containing
lignin which is water proof and help
keeping the plant upright
Phloem tissue Translocation of sucrose  Formed of sieve tubes which has thin
and amino acids from Layer of cytoplasm but no nucleus or
organelles so sugar pass from one cell
region of
to next.
production(source) to  Pores in sieve plates through which
region of storage or sugar pass from one cell to the next.
utilization (sink)  Companion cell doesn’t transport sugar
but carry out some life processes of
sieve tubes.

Group of xylem vessels and phloem tubes is called the vascular bundle and it’s located in the
mesophyll layer of the leaf

Xylem

Phloem

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Water uptake
3
2

 Water will enter the root by the role of osmosis from region of higher to
lower water potential gradient
 The water will pass across the root from cell to another by osmosis
 Water will move up the xylem as transpiration is constantly removing
water from the top of them (Transpiration Pull)

Transport of Water

The water movement begins with diffusion of water vapor

out of the leaf surface. Almost all of the water taken up by a
plant is lost to atmosphere by transpiration to help cool down
the plant in hot weather. Not all the water is lost in
transpiration

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Transpiration Transpiration Stream

Loss of water from plant leaf by evaporation of water at the surface of

spongy mesophyll cells, followed by loss of water vapor through stomata.

1. Water moves from the xylem, To enter leaf tissue down water potential by osmosis
Water moves up the stem in the xylem by:
 Transpiration pull which reduces the water pressure at the top of the vessel while at
the bottom the pressure stays the same maintained by:
 Cohesion between water molecules forming water column.
 Adhesion of water and cell walls of xylem vessels.
 Capillarity (ability of liquid to flow in narrow spaces without assistance of gravity)
2. Water Uptake
Occurs by osmosis from soil to root hair cells down water potential.

Internal Factors
Factors affecting transpiration rate
External Factors

External factors

Temperature

Increasing the temperature causes increase in transpiration as during hot

day water will evaporate quickly from a leaf by increasing the water
evaporation thus increasing concentration gradient thus increasing diffusion
of water vapor out of leaf.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Humidity

Humidity means the moisture content of the air. The higher the humidity the
less the water will evaporate from the leaves. This is because there is not
much of diffusion gradient for the water between the air spaces inside the
leaf, and the wet air outside. As humidity increases, transpiration decreases

Light

Increasing the light intensity causes increase in transpiration as light

affects stomata opening so brighter light allows more diffusion of water
vapor so more water loss from the leaves

Wind speed

Higher wind speed and air movement causes increase in

transpiration as water molecules moves away from stomata
so altering concentration gradient so more water loss. More
transpiration on a windy day

Water Supply

If water is in short supply, then the plant will close its

stomata. This will decrease the rate of transpiration.
Transpiration decreases when water supply decreases to a
certain level

Advantages of transpiration to the plant?

It keeps water moving up the xylem vessels and evaporation helps to

cool the leaves. But if the leaves lose too much water, the roots may
not be able to take up enough water to replace it. If this happens the
plant wilts because cells lose water by osmosis and become flaccid

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Internal factors

 Numbers of stomata Transpiration

 Air space in leaf Transpiration

 The exposed surface area Transpiration

 Thickness of cuticle. Transpiration

If water is absent?
Importance of water in plant
Cell will become flaccid and the plant will wilt as: -
1) Prevent wilting and maintain cell
Rate of transpiration is higher than rate of water
turgidity.
uptake.
2) Transport of mineral.
When plant is placed in low water potential, so
3) Medium for enzymatic balance.
that concentration of water in cell sap is higher
4) Raw material for photosynthesis
than the soil, so water moves from inside cells to
outside down water potential by osmosis.

Translocation

Is the transport of sucrose and amino acids to move through phloem tube by
active transport or diffusion. From region of production of to region of utilization
in respiration and growth.

Growing parts are sinks

Leaves Fruit
Sink  Need water for
 Water as raw material in swelling of ovary wall
photosynthesis. if succulent.
 Magnesium as a  Need sucrose to be
component of chlorophyll converted into starch
molecule. as any energy source.
Source: Flower:
 Glucose formed from: Need sucrose to form nectar
photosynthesis, which is Growing points:
condensed into sucrose  Need water for
to be translocated swelling.
through phloem to sink.  Need sucrose as
energy source for cell
division.
 Need all nutrients as
raw material for cell
production

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Roots are both source and sink
Sink:
Sucrose translocated from leaves to root to be: -
 Stored as starch
 Converted to glucose for respiration and energy release for growth and
active uptake
Source:
 Water absorbed from soil by osmosis
 Ions absorbed by active transport
 Stored starch broken into sucrose to be translocated through phloem to
leaves and other parts of plant when they’re not able to carry
photosynthesis

Autumn/Spring
Summer
Roots are source
Leaves are source
Fewer leaves Less
Too much sunlight available
photosynthesis So light is
which is trapped by the
a limiting factor and starch is
chloroplasts to carry out
broken into sucrose to be
photosynthesis producing glucose
translocated through the
that is converted into sucrose to
phloem to different parts of
be translocated through phloem
the plant to need energy for
to: -
growth

Leaves are sink Fruit as sink Roots as sink

As leaves use the sugar in -To make nectar -Stored as starch
respiration and energy -Converted to -Converted into
release for growth until glucose for glucose for
leaves are above ground respiration and respiration and
and start photosynthesis energy release energy release
-Another part of
glucose stored in
fleshy part of fruit

If the water supply is not sufficient the plant

reduces the water loss by one of the following: -

Wilting Leaf fall

Leaves collapse and In winter, plant allow leaf to fall so no
stomata close to water loss can occur. But there will be no
reduce heat photosynthesis at the same time, but the
absorption and plant can remove chlorophyll from leaves
evaporation of water. for storage before allowing leaves to fall.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Hydrophytes

 Large air space: for buoyancy and floating of plant and to allow gas
diffusion.

 Thin cuticle as there’s no need to reduce water loss.

 Little thin lignin in xylem since the leaf is supported by water.

 Leaves are floating on water surface for efficient absorption of light.

 Stomata found on upper surface of leaf to allow diffusion of gases

from air and prevent entry of water. as CO2 diffuses faster through
air than in water

 Roots do not attach to the bed of river or pond so as not to cut water
current

Xerophytes

Stomata
Leaf adaptations Root

-Small reduced leaves decreasing the -Roots are deep to penetrate the very -Rolled leaves with stomata
surface area so less transpiration low water table on the inner surface close
OR to trapped layer of humid
-Hair on leaves reducing air flow -Roots are shallow branching near the
over the surface of the leaf and surface of the soil for absorption of -Stomata are sunk in
increase the humidity over the leaf lightest rainfall before evaporation grooves to avoid wind
by trapping water molecule inside reducing transpiration
the leaf decreasing transpiration
-Fewer stomata which close
-Thick waxy cuticle to increase during hot days reducing
distance for water to move out of transpiration
the leaf reducing evaporation of
water

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Stem

 Green stem to carry

out photosynthesis
 Upright shape
reducing surface area
of heat absorption
 Swollen stem to store
water

How the structure of the plant is well adapted to take up water and move it through the plant?

 The root hair cells provide large surface area through which water can be absorbed.
This increases the quantity of water that can move into the plant at any moment.
 The hollow, narrow xylem vessels provide an easy pathway for water to flow all the
way up from the roots to the very top of the plant.
 The many air spaces inside the leaf mean that there is a large surface area of wet
cells from which water can evaporate into the air. This increase the rate of
evaporation, drawing more water out of the xylem and speeding up the flow of
water up the plant.
 The stomata, when open allow water to diffuse easily out of the leaf reducing water
potential inside the leaf, which encourages more water to evaporate from the
surface of the mesophyll cells

El Chapter khels ya
shababbb

Elhmdullah Elhmdullah
Elhmdullah

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Reproduction in Plants

Chapter Nine

Reproduction Process by which an organism produces more fertile offspring

Sexual Asexual

The fusion of the nuclei of 2 gametes A process resulting in the production

from two parents producing zygote of genetically identical offsprings from
producing genetically different one parent only by mitosis
offsprings from each other and from
their parents

Two parents required One parent required

Gametes are involved showing more No gametes are involved so less energy
energy lost. Zygote is formed through the required
fusion of gametes giving diploid zygote

The cell division is meiosis producing Cell division type is mitosis to make
gametes then mitosis for growth offspring

The rate of reproduction of The rate of reproduction of

offsprings is slow offsprings is rapid

The offsprings are few and non- Offsprings are many, and identical to
identical to the parents showing the parents showing no variation
variation

Example: Animals and flowering plants Example: Simple organisms as bacteria

and fungi (Binary fission)

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Advantages of sexual reproduction Disadvantages of sexual reproduction

 It shows more variation, adapt more,  Two parents are needed

survive more and reproduce more,  Complicated process
bringing about evolution passing the  Depends on chance
good characteristics to the offspring.  Fewer offspring are produced and
 Less chance to pass on genetic many offsprings are lost
diseases through offspring  Loss of a lot of energy
 Very slow process

Advantages of asexual reproduction Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

 Only one parent is needed  No variation, adapt less, survive

 Rapid process less and reproduce less showing
 Less energy involved and less energy no evolution
lost  Disease in one parent will be
 If the parents are well adapted, so passed to the offspirngs
offsprings will be adapted to
surroundings

Type of cell division involved in asexual reproduction is mitosis at which the

Asexual Reproduction
new cells contain the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Parent Diploid cell containing full number of chromosomes

2n
Offsprings
2n Mitosis 2n

Mitosis Mitosis

2n 2n All the cells have diploid 2n 2n

number of chromosomes,
and they are identical to
their parents

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Examples of asexual reproduction

1 Bacteria by Binary fission 2 Potatoes by tuber formation 3 Fungi by spore formation

1-Bacteria by binary fission

 DNA replicates
 Cell divides into two identical
cells
 Then the process of replication
and division is repeated

2-Potatoes by tuber formation

 Potato tuber has buds

 Cells in bud divide by mitosis forming new
shoot and roots
 Leaves develop they start to carry
photosynthesis
 Food (sucrose) is translocated through
phloem to leaves to these underground
shoots the tip of which swell to form new
tubers where sucrose converted to starch to
be stored
 Connection to the parent plant dies
 Tubers has buds that grow to form new
plant

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 3-Fungi by spore formation

 Mature sporangium rupture releasing spores

into air
 When the spores fall on a suitable media, they
will be activated
 Spores secrete extracellular enzyme to digest
the food and divide by mitosis forming new
hyphae
 The new hyphae will grow to form new fungus

Sexual Reproduction Type of cell division involved in sexual reproduction is meiosis where gametes
are formed. Gametes are the reproductive cells containing half number of
chromosomes present in the parent cell

Male body cell Female body cell

2n 2n

Meiosis

Haploid cell containing

half number of n n
chromosomes

Fertilization
As a result of the fusion between the two gametes,
zygote is formed containg full number of
chromosomes, but not identical to the parent cell.
2n The 2 sets of chromosomes, one received from the
male and the other from the female

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Flower is the reproductive
organ of plant Examples of Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction in
flowering plants
Flower Structure

Sepals Green part protecting flower in bud

 Protection of reproductive organs

Petals  Scented to attract insects for pollination
 Has Guide lines to guide insects to the nectar for insect pollination
 Large, colored, scented to attract insects for insect pollination

Anther Produce pollen grains (male gamete)

Stigma
Hold the anther to deliver pollen grains for pollination Style
Filament

The surface which receives the pollen grains. It also produces Ovule
Stigma
nutritive materials to help in germination forming pollen tube Ovary wall

Style Hold stigma to allow the passage of the pollen tube to the ovary
Ovary

Ovary Produces ovules (female gamete)

Micropyle Ovules

Small opening in the ovule which allows pollen tube to Contains the female
enter in fertilization, and water to enter for germination gamete

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Nectary Located at the base of the ovary. It secretes sugary fluid called nectar
Glands that insects are attracted to it which is important for pollination

The Steps For Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plant

1 2 Fertilization and seed formation 3 Seed Germination

Pollination

It is the transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma. It may be cross pollination if
Pollination the pollen grains transfer from anther to stigma of another flower. It may be self-
pollination if the pollen grains transfer from anther to stigma of the same flower

Self-Pollination Cross Pollination

-Occurs in bisexual flower only -Occurs in both unisexual and bisexual flowers

-The pollen grains transfer from anther to -The pollen grains transfer from anther to
stigma of the same flower stigma of another flower

-Stamens are longer than carpels (Anther is -Stamens are shorter than carpels
above stigma)
-Male and female organs could be mature at
-Both male and female organs are mature at different time
the same time
Implications: -
Implications: -
 More genetic variation, adapt more, survive
 Less variation, adapt less, survive less more and reproduce more bringing about
and reproduce less showing no evolution evolution
 If there is disease it will be transmitted to  Disease in one parent, less likely to be
the offspring transmitted to offspring
 Less chance of pollen grain lost  More chance of pollen grain lost

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Methods of pollination

P.O.C Insect Pollination Wind Pollination

-Large, colorful and scented -Small petals with dull colors

Petals petals with guide lines without guide lines

Nectary Present Absent

Reproductive Both stigma and stamen Both stigma and stamen hangs
enclosed inside the petals of the outside the petals of the flower.
Organs
flower. Filaments are firmly Filaments are loosely attached
attached to be easily shaken by wind

Stigma Stigma is sticky and it may be flat Stigma is feathery with large
or bi-lobed with smaller surface surface area to catch pollen
area grains from air

Pollen Grains Pollens are large in size and more Pollens are smaller in size and
in number. They’re sticky to stick less in number. They’re light to
to the insect be easily carried by the wind

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Summary

Fertilization and Fertilization: Fusion between male and female gamete forming a
diploid zygote
the seed formation

1
The pollen grain of the same species
falls on the stigma, where stigma
produces sugary substance for
nutrition to be absorbed by the pollen
grain to start growing forming pollen
tube

2
The formed pollen tube starts growing
down through the style, where the
pollen tubes secretes enzymes which
digests its pathway through the style

3
The nucleus (Male gamete) travel
down the pollen tube

4 The pollen tube grows and enter

through the micropyle into the ovule
where the male nucleus enters the
ovule and fuse with the female
nucleus forming diploid zygote

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Seed and fruit
formation

Zygote formed by fertilization starts to divide by mitosis

Seed Formation forming embryo. The ovule (female gamete) stores food
and develops into cotyledon, so ovule is called a seed.

 The integument (outer wall) of the ovule

becomes hard and dry forming testa
(impermeable seed coat)
 The embryo consisting of radicle and
plumule
 Cotyledon acts as a food storage containing
starch and protein + Inactive enzymes

Plumule
Grows upwards into a shoot system

Cotyledon Radicle
Store food to be Grows downwards into a root system
used at early stages
of germination Micropyle
Allows water to enter the
Testa seed during germination
Tough cover to
protect the seed

The ovary forms the fruit which protects the seed. Wall of
Fruit Formation
the ovary develops into wall of fruit which is called pericarp

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Seed
Germination

1 Dormant Seed: Embryo and the stored

food which is starch and proteins are
surrounded by impermeable seed coat
with a gap called micropyle. It also
stores oil required for growth, Inactive
enzymes are also present

2 Water enters through the micropyle

to activate the enzymes amylase to
break down stored starch into
glucose, and protease to breakdown
stored proteins to amino acids.
Enzymes are working at their
optimum temperature. Water will
make the tissue swell so testa is split

3 Glucose used in: -

 Aerobic respiration and energy
release for embryo to grow
 Some glucose will be converted to
cellulose for cell wall formation
 Some glucose will react with
nitrates to form proteins required
for growth and tissue repair

Amino acids used in: -

 Amino acids are translocated
through the phloem to the
embryo where enzymes link them
forming proteins needed for
growth and tissue repair

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Factors affecting seed germination

Warm optimum temperature: for optimum enzyme activity

Oxygen: for aerobic respiration and energy release
Water: to activate enzymes in the seed

N.B Light is not required for seed germination

Temperature For optimum enzyme activity
Factors affecting germination
Oxygen For aerobic respiration and energy release
Water To activate enzymes in the seed

Draw the germination of a seed curve in the following space

Stored food starts to be

broken by enzymes

Mass of seeds/ g
Leaves are developed
and photosynthesis The produced glucose from
starts photosynthesis starts to be
stored in the chloroplasts,
showing increase in mass
of the seed

Time/ Day

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Plant Sensitivity
Chapter Ten

Tropism
Plant respond to stimuli as light and gravity coming from one direction.
Either parts of plants grow towards or away from the different stimuli

Response in which a plant grows towards or away from the

Phototropism direction which light is coming

Response in which plant grows towards or away from gravity

Gravitropism

What is auxin hormone?

Plant hormone that causes the plant cells to elongate, and they’re produced in
the growing tips and redistributed under the effect of light. Auxin hormone is
growth promotor at the shoot of the plant, and growth inhibitor at the root of
the plant

Mechanism of auxin

Shoot tip sensitive to light this is where the receptor that

responds to light is just behind the tip. Auxins made in the tip
diffuses down into the part just below the tip making cells in
this part gets longer as the more auxins present the faster
they will grow and without auxins they will not grow.

To show which part of the shoot picks the stimulus of light shining on it (the tips which
Investigation
makes auxin)

 If the tip of the coleoptile is cut off and then replaced the
coleoptile will still grow towards light.
 If the tip is cut off and separated from the rest of the
coleoptile by a piece of agar jelly
 The coleoptile still grows towards the light.
 But if a piece of mica separates the tip of the coleoptile
then it doesn't grow towards light
 This suggests that the response to light is caused by a
substance which made in the tip and diffuses down the
coleoptile.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Phototropism

 The plant shoot grows towards light showing positive phototropism.

 The plant root grows away from the light showing negative photo tropism.

The Shoot

When the shoot is exposed under light auxins produced in the tips spreads equally
down both sides of the plant. When light is coming from one side of the shoot
auxins will accumulates on the shaded part away from light. As auxin in the shoot
is growth promoter, so the shaded side will grow more over the side in front of
light bending the plant toward light, more light is absorbed, so more
photosynthesis. Cell absorb more water in shaded side So cells elongate more so
higher rate of growth in cells in darker side So shoot bends towards light showing
positive photo tropism.

The Root

When light is coming from one side of the root

Auxins will collect and concentrates on the shaded part away from
light
So cells elongate less so lower rate of growth in cells in darker side
So root bends away from light showing negative photo tropism
Advantages of root growing part downward: -
To absorb water and minerals from soil and also help anchor the
plant
Sun

Gravitropism

 Plant roots grows downward in direction of pull of gravity

 The plant shoot grows away from the gravity showing
negative geotropism the plant root grows towards gravity
showing positive geo tropism.

Shoot Root

In shoot cells on lower side will grow more In root cells on lower side will grow slowly
so shoot bends upwards away from so root bends downwards towards gravity
gravity Negative geotropism.
Positive gravitropism.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Etiolation Commercial use

Seedlings grow in dark are very tall thin with smaller pale leaves as in dark auxins is
also distributed evenly around tip and the shoot grows rapidly upwards but
chloroplast will not develop in dark. Plants become yellow and spindly they grow
very tall and thin with smaller leaves. If this plant reaches the light, chlorophyll will
develop, and the plant will start to grow normally, if they can’t reach light they will
die as they can’t photosynthesis

Selective weed killer

They contain synthetic plant hormones auxin such as 2,4-D

Where when they are sprayed onto lawns where weeds absorb more auxins but crops and grass
absorb much less of this synthetic auxin, then weeds grow so quickly that they either become
etiolated and die leaving more space nutrients and water for the grass and crops to grow
Leaves and stems are stimulated to grow rapidly where growth gets out of control. Root growth
inhibited by high concentrations of auxin so plant die

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Alimentary Canal

Digestive System
Associated Organs
Chapter Eleven
The Alimentary Canal
Specialized tube running from the front of the animal (Mouth) end by the anus.

Ingestion
Taking food through mouth into the alimentary canal.

Digestion
Large insoluble food molecules are broken down to small ones it may be chemical
or mechanical digestion.

Absorption
Small food molecules are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood.

Egestion
Passing out of food that has not been digested, nor absorbed, as faeces through
the anus.

Assimilation
The movement of digested food molecules into the cells of body where they are
used, becoming part if the cell.
Eg.

 Using glucose in respiration and energy release

 Using amino acids by muscles to make proteins

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Digestion in
The Mouth

Food in The
Oesophagus

Digestion in
Stomach

Food in The Small

Intestine and
Large Intestine

Digestion

Mechanical Digestion
Break down of large complex insoluble food molecules into smaller pieces without
being changed chemically to increase the surface area for chemical digestion.
 Teeth Crushing and grinding food molecules to increase surface area for
better enzyme activity
 Stomach Churning food by contraction and relaxation of stomach muscles
forming chyme.
 Emulsification Breaking down of large fat drop into smaller fat droplets by bile
salts in bile juice to increase surface area for better lipase activity

Minerals and vitamins are already small in size, so they are not needed to be
N.B digested

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Chemical Digestion

Breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small soluble

molecules by the action of enzymes to be easily absorbed

Nutrients Enzyme Product

Starch Amylase ( carbohydrates) Simple sugars
Proteins Protease Amino acids
Fats Lipase Fatty acids and glycerol

Mechanical Digestion
Digestion in The Mouth
Chemical Digestion

Teeth
 Premolars and molars crush and grind food into smaller pieces to increase
surface area for better chemical digestion by enzymes (amylase).

Salivary glands Producing saliva which contains the following: -

Water Mucus
Amylase
-Activate enzymes which -Bind food in the mouth
helps in digestion of food Breakdown starch
together forming bolus
molecules to small
molecules
-Lubrication of food for simple sugars
-Solvent for nutrients and easier movement (Maltose)
enzymes to dissolve in through the canal
-Soften the food for easier -Form protective
chewing and swallowing covering over the inner
surface of stomach from
digesting cells
Oesophagus
N.B Oesophagus has no role in digestion and it contains no enzymes

Peristalsis
Series of contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscle alimentary canal
for squeezing and pushing the food forward. Circular and longitudinal muscles work
antagonistically one contracts and the other relax to push food forward.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Explain why roughages are important in human diet?
 Stimulates peristalsis.
 Reducing risk of constipation.
 Reducing risk of colon cancer.

Stomach
Cardiac sphincter: Relaxes to allow
food to enter the stomach

Mechanical Digestion
Pyloric sphincter: Relaxes to allow food
to enter small intestine

Strong muscular walls contract and relax to churn food and

mix it with gastric juice forming chyme.

Gastric Juice

Pepsin Hydrochloric Acid Mucus

Breakdown protein molecules The HCl provides the Mucus is secreted from
into polypeptides. The optimum acidic condition goblet cells present in the
optimum p H is acidic required for the action of walls of the stomach. It
condition pepsin enzyme. It also kills forms a lining to protect
N.B Pepsin secreted as inactive any bacteria in food the wall of the stomach
pepsinogen to prevent the from being digested by
action of pepsin from digesting pepsin
the walls of the stomach

-Small intestine is about 5m long

Small Intestine
-MOST water is absorbed from small intestine

Bile Juice Pancreatic Juice

Duodenum
Produced by the liver and stored in
Produced by pancreas and enter
the gall bladder.
the duodenum
-Bile Salts: Cause emulsification of
-Amylase: Breakdown
large fat drops into smaller droplets
carbohydrates as starch into
to increase surface area for better
maltose
lipase activity
-Trypsin: Breakdown proteins into
-Bile pigments: Made from broken
polypeptides
RBCs in liver and excreted with
faeces. It gives color of faeces -Lipase: Breakdown fats into fatty
acids and glycerol
-Hydrogen carbonate: Neutralize
acidity of chyme coming from -Hydrogen carbonate: Reduces the
stomach acidity of chyme coming from
stomach

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Functions
 Absorption of digested food
 Complete the digestion of all food types
Ileum
Adaptations

 A very long with folded inner lining with finger like projections (villi) to
provide large surface area for faster rate of absorption.
 Has Villi which is
 Covered with epithelium cells which are only one cell thick for shorter distance of
diffusion of digested food molecules
 Epithelium cells have even smaller projections on them called microvilli giving a larger
surface area for faster rate of absorption by diffusion or active transport.
 Capillaries rich in blood supply to transport glucose and amino acids water minerals
and vitamins rapidly to the liver through hepatic portal vein then around the body.
 Epithelium cells have lots of mitochondria to provide energy needed for active
transport
 Lacteal to transport fatty acids and glycerol through lymphatic system
 Goblet cells that produce mucus to protect the lining against digestion by enzymes

Lining of the villi

Villi

N.B Small intestine has a peristaltic action in which its walls contract to
increase absorption

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Summary

Intestinal Juice

Maltase Breaks down maltose into glucose

Peptidase Break down polypeptides into amino acids

Lipase Breaks down fats into fatty acids and

glycerol

Large Intestine

Rectum Anus
Colon

Faeces formed of from Egestion of the

Reabsorption of more indigestible food as undigested food as
water and salts fibers bacteria and faeces
Most waster are some dead cells from
reabsorbed by small inside of alimentary
intestine canal.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Summary

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Diarrhea

It is loss of water faeces and salts as a result of not enough water is

absorbed from faeces

Water and salts should be reabsorbed to prevent the following

complication?

 Diarrhea.
 Loss of water and ions.
 Dehydration.
 Decrease blood volume.
 Increasing in blood concentration and decrease in water potential.
 Some tissues and body organs stop working leading to coma and eventually
death.

What might cause diarrhea?

Infection by bacteria that causes cholera (Vibrio Cholera)

How these bacteria are transmitted?

 Cholera transmitted orally transmission

through drinking or eating food that has been
contaminated with the faeces of an infected
person.
 Living in an unhygienic condition in areas lack
sanitation with unclean water supply

Methods to reduce transmission of cholera

 Sewage treatment.
 Vaccination.
 Using suitable antibiotics and oral rehydration therapy
for treatment.
 Don’t use human faeces as fertilizers.
 Use chlorinated water.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Mechanism of action of cholera

 Cholera bacteria are ingested and start to multiply in the small intestine.
 The bacteria attach to the wall of the alimentary canal.
 The bacteria release toxins.
 The toxins stimulate the lining of the intestine to secrete chloride ions,
which accumulate in the lumen of the small intestine.
 This increases the concentration of the fluid in the lumen lowering the
water potential.
 So water will move out of blood into the lumen of small intestine by
osmosis.
 There is now a lot of water in the canal watery diarrhea, so large
quantities of water will be lost from the body in the watery faeces.

How to treat diarrhea?

 Giving oral rehydration therapy which is water with small amounts of salts and
sugars dissolved in it where: -
Water Rehydrates the blood and other tissues
Sodium Replace ions lost from blood and tissues
Glucose To provide energy for active uptake of sodium from intestine
Potassium and Chloride Replace ions lost in diarrhea
 Or drink of yoghurt and salt and drink water

N.B
If the lost fluid is replaced almost every person suffering from cholera will
eventually recover

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Functions of The Liver

Deactivation Destruction
Deamination Detoxification

Converting Old RBCs are destructed

Excess amino acids Break down of
hormones after and stores the iron they
can’t be stored due to alcohols and other contained and excreting
the presence of finishing their
toxins to be the remains of
nitrogen containing actions into in
excreted with urine. hemoglobin as bile
part where it is active compounds.
pigments in faeces.
removed and changed
to ammonia that is
converted to urea to be
excreted by the kidney

Additional Functions
-Stores Vitamins A, B, D, E, K
-Production of bile juice for emulsification of fats
-Stores excess glucose as glycogen
-Stores potassium

Synthesis plasma proteins as fibrinogen by linking amino acids with

each other by peptide bond

-Control blood glucose level by the action of insulin and glucagon

Blood Glucose Level Low Level

High Level
When blood glucose level is
When blood glucose level is below normal, pancreas
above normal, pancreas detects detects and responds by
and responds by secreting insulin secreting glucagon hormone
hormone travelling in the blood travelling in the blood
plasma to stimulate the liver to plasma to stimulate the liver
store the excess glucose as to breakdown the stored
glycogen returning blood glucose glycogen to glucose returning
back to normal. This is a negative blood glucose back to
feedback mechanism normal. This is a negative
feedback mechanism

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 The Liver Blood Supply

Deoxygenated blood leaves the

liver and return to general
circulation through hepatic vein

Small intestine
Deoxygenated blood from the small Oxygenated blood
intestine enters the liver through enters the liver through
hepatic portal vein. Blood contains hepatic artery. Blood
dangerous high concentration of food contains oxygen needed
molecules depending on what has for aerobic respiration
been absorbed through the intestine and energy release

The Human Teeth

 There are 16 teeth in each jaw, 32 teeth in the oral cavity

Four types of human teeth, they are: -

4 incisors 2 canines 4 premolars and 6 molars each specialized for different functions.

Incisors Canines Pre molars Molars

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Types of teeth

Shape Incisor Canine Premolar Molar

Description Chisel shaped with Slightly more Broad with 2 or 3 Broad with 4 and
sharp edge pointed incisors cusps 5 cusps

Position Front Both sides of Behind canine Back

incisors
Function Cutting and biting Tearing of food Crushing and Grinding and
chewing of food chewing of food

Teeth Structure

Enamel

 Hardest tissue in the body which is very difficult

to break.
 Dissolved by lactic acid produced by bacteria
when it feeds on sugary food left on teeth.
 Made of calcium salts.
 Can’t be renewed

Dentine

 Less hard than enamel but harder

.than bone Dentine
 It has a channels containing
cytoplasm.
 Made of calcium salts.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Pulp Cavity
Pulp Cavity

 Blood vessels are present to supply the

cytoplasm in dentine with food and
oxygen.
 Has nerve endings which detect pain.

Cementum

Cementum covers the root of the tooth. It has

fibers emerging out to attach the tooth to the
jaw bone allowing the tooth to move slightly Cementum
during chewing and mastication (Periodontal
ligaments)

Periodontal Ligaments
Removed from
syllabus just read
Gum Disease
Dental Diseases
Diseased
Tooth Decay

Gum Disease

Step1 Plaque from saliva, bacteria and Step2

Step3
remains of food builds up around the
If the plaque is left to
edges of teeth and gums Tooth is loosened and
harden forming tartar
may fallout or
At this stage: - where bacteria can work
indicated to be
down around roots of
Gum swells and inflamed. It may bleed extracted (removed)
the tooth
during brushing your teeth.
At this stage: -
No signs of pain
Tooth is loosened

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Tooth Decay

 Particles of sugary food is trapped in cracks in teeth.

 Bacteria in plaque will use this sugar to respire
anaerobically producing lactic acid which dissolves
calcium in enamel then into dentine.
 Dentine dissolves more rapidly than enamel then it
reaches pulp cavity where there are nerves so sever
toothache
 The bacterial infections in pulp may lead to
formation of abscess at the root of the tooth

Protection of gums and teeth

 Avoid eating too much sugar

 Regular visit to dentist so that any gum disease or tooth decay can be treated
before it gets worse.
 Using fluoride toothpaste or fluorinated water as fluoride is absorbed by teeth and
helps them to resist attack and decay.
 Eat food reach in calcium phosphorous and vitamin D needed for formation of
enamel.
 Regular brushing of your teeth.

 Remove remains of food

 Remove bacteria.
 Increase blood flow through blood vessels
 Removing lactic acid formed by bacterial anaerobic respiration
 Remove the soft plaque

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 With Against
Fluoride Argument

 Fluoride strengthen enamel  Teeth discoloration (Mottled

teeth)
of the tooth
 It’s available to the all  Change the taste of the water
 Individuals can’t control the
population
dosage
 Cheap to supply
 Some people within population
may be allergic

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Chapter Twelve
Circulatory System
1 3
2
Heart Blood
Blood Vessels

The circulatory system supplies all the cells and body organs with the appropriate amount
of nutrients and oxygen they require. The circulatory system also carries the waste products
to the organs of excretion.

Heart It’s a hollow muscular organ made of cardiac muscles

which is a strong type of muscles that helps keeping the
heart contracting to pump blood to all the body through
the entire life without getting fatigue.

Septum

Separates the oxygenated

blood in the left heart side
from deoxygenated blood
in the right heart side
prevent mixing of blood

2 Upper thin walled atria

Heart is divided into 4 chambers
2 lower thick walled ventricles
2 upper thin walled atria Receives blood from veins to the heart
2 lower thick walled ventricles Pumps blood through the arteries

Explain why the walls of the left ventricle thicker than the walls of the right ventricle?
Left ventricle has stronger muscles to contract to pump blood with higher blood pressure to
overcome the high distance and the resistance as blood pumped through aorta to all body organs,
while the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs only through pulmonary artery

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Valves Valves allow blood to flow in one direction and prevent its back flow

Atrioventicular Semilunar

1. Tricuspid valve between right 1. Pulmonary valve between

atrium and right ventricle right ventricle and pulmonary
artery
2. Bicuspid valve between left
2. Aortic valve between left
atrium and left ventricle
ventricle and aorta

Adaptation of the valve

The flaps of the valves are attached to the inner heart walls by tendons,
which allow the valve to close and hold the valve flap in place
preventing the valve from flipping up

Coronary Arteries

 Branch of the aorta which supply blood to the heart muscle, as they require constant
supply of nutrients& O2 used in respiration to release energy needed for contraction&
relaxation of the heart muscle
Why does the heart need the blood supply through its filled with blood?
-Because heart muscles are so thick so that nutrients& oxygen in blood inside heart wouldn’t be able
to diffuse to all the muscles quickly enough

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Circulation

Single Pulmonary
Circulation Systemic Circulation
Circulation

Single Circulation

In the single circulation the blood flow through the heart once for
each complete circuit of the body
Disadvantages: -
Rapid fall in velocity and pressure as blood leaves the gills, so slower delivery of
oxygen for respiration and energy release. The low pressure of the blood is not
enough for proper kidney function in mammals

Pulmonary Circulation

Pulmonary circulation starts from the right ventricle pumping the

deoxygenated blood out of the heart through the pulmonary artery to the
lungs for gas exchange and returning into the left atrium as oxygenated
blood.

Question: Describe how the blood moves from the venacava to the
lungs?
 Blood enters the right atrium and the atrium contracts, so the
atrioventricular valve opens (Tricuspid) and blood passes to the
right ventricle. The right ventricle contracts and the semilunar valve
opens and the blood is pumped to the lungs from the right ventricle
through the pulmonary artery

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Systemic Circulation Double Circulation

Systemic circulation starts from the left ventricle pumping blood to

out of the heart to all body organs through the aorta and returning
the blood as deoxygenated blood into the right atrium.

What is meant by the term double circulation?

Double circulation means that blood passes through the heart twice
during one single circulation.
 Heart to the body organs through aorta (systemic circulation)
 Heart to the lungs through pulmonary artery (pulmonary
circulation)

Benefits of having double circulation?

 Prevents mixing od oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
 When blood enters the lungs it loses some pressure given to
the blood by the pumping heart so the blood returns to the
heart again to raise its pressure before being delivered to the
body organs by the aorta
 If the blood pumped with high pressure to the lungs, this
may cause damage in the lungs

Functions of the heart

Pumping blood with glucose and oxygen to all

body organs with all the required nutrients, and
to remove waste products and carbon dioxide
from the cells to be excreted by the organs of
excretion out of the body.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Systole
How does the heart carry its function?
Diastole

Systole Diastole

Contraction of heart muscle Relaxation of heart muscle

Phase Diastole Atrial Systole Ventricle Systole

Atrium Relax Contracts pumping Relax
blood into ventricle
Ventricle Relax to allow blood
to flow into veins Contracts to pump
through the atria Relaxes to receive blood to the
where some blood blood from atrium pulmonary artery or
pass to the ventricle the aorta out of the
through the heart
atrioventricular
valves

Atrioventricular The valve opens as Closes as the blood in

valve the pressure in the ventricle with
atrium is greater high blood pressure,
Open than in the ventricle, so the blood is forced
so it opens to into the pulmonary
prevent the back artery or aorta
flow of blood. preventing its back
flow

Semilunar valve Close Close Open

Diagram

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Explain how the blood is pumped by the heart with different pressure?

 The cardiac muscle of the heart has a pacemaker which sends

electrical signals through the walls of the heart at regular periods
to make the heart muscle contract
 The ventricles of the heart contracts increasing pressure of the
blood to be pumped out of the heart where: -
 Right ventricle has thinner walls so lower pressure
required as blood will be pumped to the lungs only
 Left ventricle has thicker walls so higher pressure
required as blood will be pumped to all body organs

The pressure of the blood in the heart blood vessels

The blood pressure in the aorta is higher than in the pulmonary artery as
blood pumped through the aorta goes for higher distance so pumped by left
ventricle, while the pulmonary artery will pump blood to the lungs only, so
right ventricle contracts as less distance the blood will move so less pressure
required.
The blood pressure in the venacava and pulmonary veins is under low
pressure as blood coming from capillaries passing with low pressure then
enters the veins which have wider lumen than arteries.

Muscular walls of the heart are different from other muscles as they contract and
relax continuously without getting fatigued or tired as each contraction is followed
by relaxation. The pattern of contractions and relaxations is kept going by electrical
signals sent from the right atrium of the heart called the pacemaker.

How the rate of heart beating is controlled?

The rate of heart beats controlled by the pacemaker which sends electrical signals
through the wall of the heart which confirms: -

 The atria contracts before the ventricle, where the blood flow from atrium
to ventricle
 The heart beat is rapid enough to meets the required demand of oxygen and
nutrients and for removal of carbon dioxide and waste products to organs of
excretion out of the body

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 What increases the heart rate during exercise?

The more the exercise the more the carbon dioxide produced as a result of the respiration which will lower
the p H of the blood. The brain detects this change in p H through specific receptors (chemoreceptors). The
brain is stimulated to send more impulses frequently to the pacemaker, increasing the breathing rate.

Question: Explain the effect of exercise on heart beats?

 During exercise, the heart rate increases because more adrenaline is secreted
causing, faster circulation of blood with more glucose and oxygen to muscles for
more aerobic respiration and energy release. More removal of carbon dioxide, so
less anaerobic respiration, so less lactic acid production and less chance of oxygen
debt

If the pacemaker stops functioning properly?

-Artificial pacemaker could be placed in the patient’s heart producing electrical

impulses at regular intervals around one impulse per second (normal pacemaker sends
60-100 impulses per minute)
-Modern pacemaker is adapted to detect changes in breathing, body temperature and
movement and change the heart rate properly as the normal one. The battery of the
artificial pacemaker should be replaced annually.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Monitoring of heart rate

Heart rate is the number of heart beats per minute.

Heart beat The flow of blood into the heart through veins into atria to
ventricles to be pumped out of the heart again through arteries.

Pulse rate Caused by the expansion and relaxation of an artery caused by the
flow of blood.
Stethoscope
How can the heart beats have heard? Measuring Pulse

ECG

1 Stethoscope

Stethoscope is used to hear the lub-dub sound. The sound of

the heart beat is alternative to the sound of the valves of
the heart, where each complete lub-dub shows one heart
beat

Lub caused by the closing of Dub caused by the closing

the atrioventricular valves of semilunar valve

Expansion and relaxation of

2 Measuring Pulse Question
artery

Why pulses are measured at these

Pulse can be measured by placing thumb on
sites?
artery near the surface of the skin. Thumb may be
placed at the neck or wrist. Stress the thumb over -Artery near the surface of the skin
an artery near the skin and count number of
-Artery compressed over bones
pulses per minutes. Use stopwatch and repeat the
count 2 or more times for reliable results

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 3 ECG

Electrocardiograph could be used by The labelled letters show the

placing little electrodes are stuck on different stages of heart beat
the body, and the electrical activity
in the heart recorded on a graph
paper
Normal Heart Rate
60-70 beat/min
How to calculate the heart beat from the ECG?
graph?

To measure the heart rate, the time between two successive QRS
where the large box= 5mm= 0.2seconds, while the small box= 1mm=
0.04seconds

Heart rate= 300(fixed number) / No. of big squares

The effect of exercise on heart rate

The more the exercise, the more the increase in the heart rate to allow: -
-More blood with glucose and oxygen pumped to muscles for more
respiration and energy release for muscle contraction
-To remove carbon dioxide and lactic acid from muscles

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

To reach the required demand of oxygenated blood the heart tends to:
-
The contractions of the heart increases to increase the heart rate,
increasing the stroke volume, so more volume of blood. Adrenaline
hormone also increases the heart rate and the stroke volume

Coronary Heart Disease

Coronary heart disease is narrowing and blocking of the coronary arteries causing heart
attack, myocardial infarction and angina.

Factors causing CHD

 Diet high in saturated fats or cholesterol which increases blood pressure
 Smoking as nicotine increases the blood pressure
 Diet high in salts as it increases the blood pressure
 Obesity and lack of exercise
 Genetic predisposition
 Stress for long periods
 Gender M>F

Question:
Explain how too much fats in diet and poor lifestyle may cause coronary heart
disease?
 Coronary arteries normally have smooth lining, by eating too much fats, it’ll
be deposited in the lining of the arteries causing partial
blockage(atherosclerosis). Less blood flow in coronary arteries, so less blood
pumped to heart muscle with, so less glucose and oxygen leading to less
aerobic respiration. Total blockage by blood clot may take place leading to
death as heart muscle dies.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Treatment of CHD

Improving health by Surgical operation

1 Taking drugs
3
lifestyle changes 2

Improving health by changing lifestyle

1-Excercising
 Stops weigh gain
 Lower the blood pressure
 Decreasing stress as specific chemicals released by the brain giving
the feeling of well being

2-Stop smoking
3-Improve diet with less saturated fats and less salts

Taking Drugs

1-Anti platelet medications

 Aspirin reduces the risk of blood clots formation in blood vessels

2-Statins
 Lower the cholesterol level to reduce the risk of heart attacks

3-Anti hypertensive
 Helps in lowering the blood pressure

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Read only

Surgical Operations

A By Pass Surgery

Replaced with length of blood vessel taken from another part of the body

If the coronary arteries are blocked or damaged, coronary

artery bypass operation may be carried out. The damaged or
blocked artery can be replaced with a length of blood vessels
taken from another part of the body (mainly the leg)

B By angioplasty

If the coronary artery is narrowed, angioplasty could be carried

to expand the narrowed artery. Special cable with non-inflated
balloon (stent) will be passed into the narrowed artery, then the
balloon is inflated using water. This will push the artery to open.
The balloon is then removed leaving a metal cage (stent) to keep
the artery open allowing flow of blood

Insert mesh tube called stent inside artery to keep it open OR Insert tiny balloon in
collapsed artery then inflated using water pushing artery to open then balloon
removed
In severe cases we go for heart transplant

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Blood Vessels

Artery Capillary Vein

 Has no valves  Has valves
 High blood pressure  Low blood pressure
 Pulse can be felt  Pulse can’t be felt

Function
-Artery carry oxygenated -Vein carry deoxygenated
blood from the heart to body -Capillaries allow the blood from the body organs
organs except pulmonary exchange of substances to the heart under low
artery and umbilical artery between blood and cells. pressure except pulmonary
veins and umbilical veins
Adaptations
-Thick walls to withstand
-One cell thick with very -Thin walls
high blood pressure as it’s
thin wall, to shorten the To be easily affected by
pumped by the heart
distance for faster diffusion surrounding muscles as blood
of small molecules as glucose flow under low pressure
-Thick and strong muscles and useful substances from
To contracts pumping blood the blood to tissue, and
with high blood pressure -Thin layer of muscle and
carbon dioxide with urea
less elastic fibers
from tissues to blood.
-Narrow lumen
To allow blood to flow with -It has pores to allow -Wide lumen
high blood pressure passage of fluid under To minimize resistance of
pressure gradient. blood flow
-More elastic fibers and
fibrous tissue -It forms a network of -Has valves
To stretch and recoil To allow blood to flow in one
blood capillaries to
direction and prevent its back
increase surface area for
flow
more exchange of substances
and to slow down the flow of
blood for more exchange of
substances

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 How blood move through veins?

 Through Valves
 Through contraction of
surrounding muscles

What is tissue fluid?

Tissue fluid is the plasma without the plasma proteins

(fibrinogen, albumin, globulin) as they are large in
size, so they can’t pass through the capillary pores.

Naming of blood vessels

Pulmonary Vein
Pulmonary Artery

Aorta
Hepatic Vein
Hepatic Artery
Hepatic Portal
Vein

Renal Vein Renal Artery

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Blood

Blood Cells Plasma

RBC Platelets WBC

Lymphocytes Phagocytes

Plasma
55% of blood, yellowish fluid consists of:

 90% Water
Main solvent at which all substances are dissolved to be transported to different parts of body.

 10% dissolved substances

As glucose, amino acids, minerals, hormones, CO2, urea
Function: -

Transport blood cells, plasma proteins, soluble nutrients and waste products. Plasma also distributes
heat.

Blood Cells

RBCs

Biconcave to increase surface area to carry more oxygen -More in number

No nucleus to increase surface area to carry more hemoglobin -Smaller in size

Has hemoglobin which combines with oxygen giving stable -Made in bone marrow
molecule oxyhemoglobin
-No Nucleus
Small and elastic to squeeze itself inside narrow capillaries

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 -Less in number
WBCs -Larger in size
-Made in bone marrow
1 Lymphocyte -Has Nucleus

Lymphocytes produce specific antibodies in response to foreign

antigen. The antibodies cause the following functions: -
 Making agglutination (aggregation of pathogens together)
 Causing bacteria to lysine by bursting its cell wall
 Neutralizing of pathogen’s toxins
 Stop bacteria from moving
 Preventing bacterial reproduction and division

2 Phagocyte

Phagocyte carry out phagocytosis process where it engulfs,

ingest and finally digest the foreign body by specific
digestive enzymes, Phagocytes attracted at sites of injuries
to engulf and digest any microorganisms which might get
in

Platelets

Small fragments of cells without nucleus, made in bone

marrow. Involved in blood clotting
Process of blood clotting: -

As a result of the damaged blood vessel, platelets are

stimulated where thrombin enzyme and vitamin K converts
the soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin. Network of fibers
formed by the fibrin to trap the RBCs and platelets together.
Finally, they dry out forming scab which prevents blood loss,
entry of pathogens and allows healing

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Blood Vessels Summary

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Respiration and Gas exchange
Chapter Thirteen

It’s a complex chemical reaction that breaks down nutrients molecules in living cell
to release energy.
Glucose is the main
nutrient providing energy
The released energy will be used for: -
 Contracting muscles, so that we can move parts of the body
 Making protein molecule by linking amino acids together forming long
chain
 Cell division for growth and tissue repair
 Active transport, so that we can move substances through cell membrane
against concentration gradient
 Transmitting nerve impulse, so that we can transfer information quickly
from one part of the body to another part
 Producing heat inside the body, to keep body’s temperature constant

Respiration
Aerobic Anaerobic

The chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen The chemical reactions in cells that breakdown
to breakdown nutrient molecule completely to nutrient molecule incompletely without using oxygen,
to release small amount of energy
release large amount energy
Used in bread making and brewing
Glucose+ Oxygen Carbon dioxide +Water+ In Yeast
Energy (linked to biotechnology)

C6H12O6+6O2 6CO2+6H2O+Energy Glucose Carbon dioxide+ Ethanol

C6H12O6 2CO2+2C2H5OH

In Muscles

Glucose Lactic acid

C6H12O6 2C3H6O3

Disadvantages

-Less energy release from glucose molecule

-Lactic acid produced is toxic which if builds up in

muscles, it inhibits muscular contraction causing
muscle fatigue and eventually death.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Fate of lactic acid? During
Exercise
The lactic acid is carried by the blood to
the liver to be oxidized into carbon
dioxide and water using oxygen debt

During severe exercise, the

1 demand of oxygen and energy
increases, so lungs increase the
rate and depth of breathing, so
more oxygen in blood Page 8

3 2
The liver oxidizes the lactic More aerobic respiration and more
acid into carbon dioxide and energy release for more muscle
water contraction. More anaerobic
respiration to release energy as
oxygen supply is not sufficient
producing lactic acid

Oxygen Debt? The amount of oxygen needed to oxidize lactic

Comparison between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic Anaerobic
Uses oxygen Doesn’t use oxygen
No alcohol or lactic acid made Ethanol in yeast or lactic acid in animals
made
Large amount of energy released from Less energy released from each glucose
each glucose molecules molecule
Carbon dioxide always produced Carbon dioxide is made by yeast and
plants, but not by animals
Takes place in mitochondria Takes place in cytoplasm mitochondria not
involves

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Breathing and Gas exchange

Common pathway for food and air epiglottis closes the trachea during swallowing
Pharynx
which is an involuntary reflex action.

Larynx is the vocal box containing the vocal cords responsible for voice
Larynx

The trachea is the airway which delivers air to the lungs for exchange. It has
Trachea rings of cartilage to keep the air way open and to prevents it from collapse

Site of gas exchange thin walled large surface area moist rich in blood
Alveoli
supply well ventilated.

The pleural membrane has pleural fluid which prevents friction of the
Pleural Membrane lungs with the ribs

Between ribs to contract and allow movement of ribs during breathing.

Intercostal Muscles

 A muscle sheet separating the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.
Diaphragm
 Its dome shaped in the relaxing state and flat in the contracting state.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Gas Exchange

Breathing through nose is better than through mouth

 Hairs: trap dust particles in the air
Why?
Turbinal bones: Covered with thin layer of cells some of these cells are called goblet
cells which makes a liquid containing water and mucus which evaporates into the
air in nose and moistens it besides mucus has a sticky nature which traps dust and
bacteria.
 Ciliated cells: cells with hair like projections called cilia, where cilia beat mucus with
dust and bacteria out so it doesn't block the lungs.
 Blood capillaries to warm the air.

The air entering through the nose is filtered, moist and warm. The lining of the trachea and
bronchi lined by ciliated epithelial cells to get rid of dust and bacteria to purify air entering
the lungs. The air passing to the alveoli for gas exchange is filtered.

Adaptations of alveoli

Thin Wall To shorten the distance for faster diffusion of gases

To increase surface area of gas exchange, so many gas molecules can diffuse at
Large Surface Area
the same time

Moist Alveoli covered with thin layer of water to facilitate diffusion of gases by dissolving gasses and
to prevent dryness

So that gases can be carried to and from cells that need or produce them, where
Rich in blood supply
oxygen diffuses from alveoli to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to alveoli

Well Ventilated Maintain concentration gradient for oxygen and carbon dioxide by regular fresh supplies
of air

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Breathing

Muscular movement which keep the respiratory surfaces supplied with

oxygen by changing the volume of thoracic cavity and pressure inside it
where air moves from area of high pressure to that of low pressure.

Inhalation Exhalation

-External intercostal muscle contracts -External intercostal muscle relaxes

-Diaphragm Contracts moving down -Diaphragm relaxes moving up
and becomes flattened forming dome shape
-Internal intercostal muscle relaxes -Internal intercostal muscle contracts
-The volume of thoracic cavity -The volume of thoracic cavity
increases decreases
-The pressure of thoracic cavity -The pressure of thoracic cavity
decreases increases
-The ribs move upward and outward, -The ribs move inward and downward,
forcing air to rush into the lungs forcing air out of the lungs

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Comparison

Respiration Gas Exchange Breathing

Series of chemical The exchange of gases across

Muscular movements
reactions which happen respiratory surface(alveoli), as which keep the
in all living cells, in oxygen is taken into the body
respiratory surface
which food is broken and carbon dioxide released supplied with oxygen
down to release energy. from it. Gas exchange also takes
place during photosynthesis and
respiration of plants

Composition of inspired and expired air

Composition of inspired Composition of expired Reason

inhaled air exhaled air
21% oxygen 16% oxygen O2 is absorbed across the
alveoli then used by cells in
respiration
0.04% CO2 4% CO2 Co2 is made inside respiring
cells and diffuse out across
the alveoli
Moisture content is Moisture content always Alveoli surface are kept
variable according to high moist, some of this
humidity in environment moisture evaporates into
air besides it’s a product of
respiration taking place
inside the cell
Temperature is variable Temperature always warm Air is warmed as it pass
higher through the respiratory
passage besides energy
released due to respiration
increases the temperature
of exhaled air
78% nitrogen 78% nitrogen Remains the same cause its
insoluble

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 The Effect of Exercise

Before Exercise (At rest)  Normal Heart Rate= 70beats/minute

 Normal Breathing Rate= 15 breaths/minute
Respiration is mainly aerobic

During Exercise  Heart rate= 140 beats/minute

 Breathing rate= 50 breaths/minute
Respiration is mainly anaerobic

1 Increase in cardiac output Cardiac output= heart beat/min x stroke volume

-The heart rate increases to increase the blood flow to supply the muscles with more glucose and
oxygen. This will allow muscles to respire more aerobically to release more energy for more muscle
contractions and to remove the produced carbon dioxide rapidly with rapid removal of heat

What stimulates this increase?

-The more the exercise, the more the carbon dioxide produced from the high respiration rate. This
will lower the p H of the blood. Receptors in the brain (chemoreceptors) detect this change in p H.
More frequent impulses are sent to the pacemaker to increase the heart rate

2 Increase in breathing rate and depth of breathing

-The rate and depth of breathing increase, to deliver more oxygen to muscles needed
for high respiration rate, to release more energy for more contraction of muscles
during exercise, and to remove the carbon dioxide produced from respiration.

What stimulates the increase

Exercise strengthen the
in rate and depth of breathing
heart muscle. The fit person
has lower heart rate and
-The more the exercise, the more the carbon dioxide produced from the high rate of higher stroke volume.
respiration which will lower the p H. The decrease in p H detected by receptors in the
brain (chemoreceptors) to send more impulses to the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles too contract more harder

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 N.B During exercising muscles are getting energy without paying for it (respiring) anaerobically so they are
building up an oxygen debt and lactic acid in muscles. More fit person has lower heart rate and bigger stroke
volume. As exercising strengthen the heart muscle cardiac so heart beats less frequently with higher stroke
volume making heart more efficient in maintaining blood pressure and reducing risk of heart diseases and
stroke. The more the respiration, the more the increase in temperature as energy released as heat.

After Exercise (Recovery Period)

The rapid heart rate continue until the lactic acid is completely broken
down by the liver

Why heart beat Why breathing

still rapid? rate still rapid?

-To transport lactic acid from -The breathing rate remains

the muscles to the liver rapidly high to repay the oxygen debt
for oxidizing the lactic acid
-For rapid transport of oxygen produced from anaerobic
debt to liver needed for aerobic respiration
respiration oxidation of lactic
acid into carbon dioxide and
water

What stimulates the continuous increase in breathing rate and heart rate?

As the lactic acid produced as a result of the anaerobic respiration lowers the p H
od the blood which is detected by receptors in the brain. More impulses are sent to
the pacemaker to increase the heart rate, and impulses sent to diaphragm and
intercostal muscles to increase the breathing rate and depth of breathing

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Excretion
Chapter Fourteen

Getting rid of waste products of metabolism, excess substances

required by the body and toxic materials

Waste products of Excess Substances Toxic Materials

metabolism Toxic substances in the
The excess of the
-Carbon dioxide body are excreted out of
substances required by
produced by respiration the body as: -
the body are excretes as: -
-Urea produced as a -Urea
-Water and salts
result of deamination o -Drugs
excess amino acids
-Alcohols

 Lungs: Carbon dioxide and Water vapor

Execratory Organs  Kidney: Urea + excess water and salts

 Liver: Bile pigment

 Skin: Sweat containing water and salts with some urea

Very Important

Egestion which is getting rid of undigested food, is as wastes of egestion (faeces) not
waste product of metabolism

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Urinary System

Aorta Venacava

Kidney Renal Artery

Formation of urine
Renal Vein
and osmoregulation

Ureter
Carries urinary from the
kidney to the urinary
bladder

Urinary Bladder
Stores Urine

Urinary Sphincter Urethra

Ring of muscles that Carries urine outside the body. In males
controls urination it carries urine and semen, while in
females it carries urine only

Renal Artery Renal Vein

Blood entering the kidney contains: - Blood leaving the kidney contains: -
 Glucose  Carbon dioxide
 Oxygen  Some glucose
 Urea  Some water and salts
 Water
 Salts

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 How urea is formed?

By deamination process in the liver, as excess amino acids couldn’t be stored

due to the presence of the nitrogen containing part. The nitrogen containing
part is removed and changed to ammonia which is converted to urea to be
carried by the hepatic vein to be excreted by the kidney in urine

Kidney Structure
Contains loop of Henle
and collecting ducts

Contains Bowman’s capsule

and coiled tubule

The region where the nephron

joins up with the ureter

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Ultrafiltration

Urine Formation Selective Reabsorption

Excretion

Blood with high urea concentration enters

Step1 the kidney through branch of the renal
artery

Ultrafiltration: Blood under high pressure pass from the glomerulus

Step2 to the bowman’s capsule, where the small soluble substances as
glucose, amino acids, water, urea and salts are able to pass under
pressure. Plasma proteins and RBCs are not able to pass from the
Passive
glomerulus as they’re large in size. The product of the ultrafiltration is
Process called glomerular filtrate and it’s collected in the bowman’s capsule .

Selective reabsorption: Active process, where useful molecules as all

Step3 glucose and amino acids with some salts and minerals are selectively
reabsorbed into the blood by diffusion and active transport by the
proximal convoluted tubule

The water reabsorption is controlled by the effect of the ADH hormone

according to the body’s demand as the hormone affect the
Step4 permeability of the collecting duct. The remaining fluid after the
selective reabsorption process mainly contains water, salts and urea
dissolved in it. The fluid pass along the collecting duct into the ureter to
be stored in the urinary bladder then out of the body through urethra

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Osmoregulation

Osmoregulation is keeping the amount of the water in the body constant

Hot Weather Cold Weather

During hot weather or during exercising During cold weather or drinking too
the respiration rate increases producing much water, less sweating to
large amount of heat energy so increase prevent heat loss from the body to
in sweat to cool down your body keep the body warm, so less water
temperature, so more water is lost lost through sweating Kidney will
through sweat. Kidney will produce small produce large volume of diluted
volumes of concentrated urine To keep urine to get rid of the excess water
the amount of water in the blood and to maintain the blood pressure
constant preventing dehydration, and

⑱
maintaining the blood pressure

Kidney Failure

Person can survive with one kidney, but if both kidneys are damaged the condition
becomes fatal and may lead to death. Presence of protein in urine indicates kidney
failure.

This happens when the glomerulus damaged and the large protein molecules could
pass to the bowman’s capsule.

The best treatment is kidney transplant, but it’s difficult to find a suitable donor and
tissue rejection may happen.

Kidney failure leads to: -

 Building up of waste products as urea in blood
 Useful substances lost in urine as they’re not
reabsorbed
 No osmoregulation

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Homeostasis

It’s the maintenance of constant internal environment involving negative feedback mechanism

Many of the body’s system requires optimum chemical and physical conditions to keep things
in steady state where the body uses a system of detectors and effectors

Detectors Effectors
Deviation from
set point
Detect the changes inside the body Bring about changes inside the body in
opposite direction to restore equilibrium
state
Negative feedback mechanism

Alteration from a set point condition act as a signal to set off a set of changes which cancel this alteration

Homeostasis examples

 Temperature regulation
 Blood glucose level regulation
 Osmoregulation to keep the
amount of water in the body
constant
1 Temperature Regulation

Question: - Explain why do the temperature of the body must be kept constant?
A-To have constant metabolic rate B- For optimum enzyme activity

Hair erector muscle Hair Hair Follicle Sweat Pore

Cornified layer Sweat Gland -37 degree is the
optimum temperature
Temperature where maximum
receptor Epidermis
enzymatic activity
Neuron
-At higher
Pressure temperature enzymes
receptor
will be denatured
Shunt vessel Dermis -At lower
Blood
capillary
temperature, low
Fat cells enzymatic activity
Venule

Arteriole

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Body’s Temperature

Overheated Overcooled

Skin receptor detect the change in temperature Skin receptor detect the change in temperature below
above 37 c then signals are sent through sensory 37 c then signals are sent through sensory neuron to
neuron to the hypothalamus in rain, where the brain the hypothalamus in rain
sends impulses through the motor neuron to sweat Brain send impulses through a motor neuron to sweat
glands, hair erector muscles and skin arterioles glands hair erector muscles arterioles large muscles

1 Sweat Glands 1 Sweat Glands

More blood is pumped to sweat glands,

Less blood is pumped to sweat glands, so
stimulating them to secrete more less secretion of sweat, less evaporation
sweat where water evaporates using where body’s temperature doesn’t drop
excess heat to cool down the body

2 Hair erector muscle 2 Hair erector muscle

Erector hair muscles relaxes so hair Erector hair muscles

falls down thus traps less heat and contracts so hair stands up
allow better cooling by convection thus traps more warm air
and which act as insulator

3 Skin Arterioles
3 Skin Arterioles

Vasodilation where skin arterioles Vasoconstriction where skin arterioles

supplying the capillaries get wider dilation supplying the capillaries get narrower constrict
More blood flow near skin surface less blood flow near skin surface decreeing heat
increasing heat loss by radiation. Body loss by radiation
temperature drops No drop in the body’s temperature. The
The arterioles supplying the sweat glands
arterioles supplying the sweat glands constricts
dilates bringing more blood so the gland bringing less blood so the gland stop making
can make more sweat. The shunt vessels sweat. The shunt vessels dilate to direct blood
narrows.
to other parts of body eg. muscles for shivering

Arterioles in the skin constricts,

so not much blood flows through
them. Capillaries supplied with
less blood from arterioles, so
remains narrow

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Negative Feedback Mechanism

Negative Feedback

Because the information that the Refers to the fact that when the hypothalamus has
blood cooled down stops the made your skin take action to increases heat loss
hypothalamus making your skin do in case of hot weather, so the information of this
these things. action is feedback to it, as it increases the drop in
the blood temperature

Discussed before
2 Blood glucose level regulation

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Summary urine formation

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Coordination and Response
Chapter Fifteen
 Living organisms respond to changes in the internal and external
environment (stimuli) where this response can be controlled by either
Nervous system, which deals with short term and rapid responses, or
Endocrine system, which deals with slower responses, long lasting
response.

Point of comparison Nervous system Endocrine glands

Speed of impulse Impulse travel very Chemicals travel more
quickly slowly
Nature of message Electrical impulses Chemicals called
traveling through nerves. hormones travelling
through blood plasma
Duration of responses Impulses travel very Impulses travel very
rapidly with short term slowly with long term
duration. duration
Area of responses Related to one area of Related to many organs
the body where the where the response is
response is localized. wide spread
Origin Pathway neurons. Pathway blood plasma
Examples Reflexes as blinking, Growth: Development of
movement of limbs (Knee reproductive system
jerk)

Nervous System
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Sensory Nerves Motor Nerves

Brain Spinal Cord

Central nervous system coordinates the Nerves are carrying information to (sensory)and
messages travelling through the nervous system from(motor) the central nervous system

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Nerves and Neurons

The information carried by the nervous system travel through specialized cells called neurons

Motor end plate: -

Dendrites: - Short fibers that
pick up electrical signals from Passes the electrical
other neurons lying nearby. signals to another nerve
cell a muscle or gland.

Axon: - Long fiber carrying

information away from
Cell membrane body cells

Cytoplasm

Node of Ranvier
Nucleus

Myelin sheath: - Layer of fats

covering the axon to: -
Cell Body Controls the metabolism of nerve cell
-Speed up nerve impulse
-Protect nerve fiber and
prevent leakage of electrical
signals
-Insulate nerve fiber
Synapse
Junction between two nerve cells with a minute gap between the nerve cells
across which impulses pass by diffusion of neurotransmitters

-The vesicles containing neurotransmitters move towards the membrane

and releasing the neurotransmitters which diffuse across the synaptic
cleft binding to the receptors on the post synaptic membrane to trigger
the nerve impulse in the next neuron.
-Many different neurotransmitters in the brain that transfer nerve
impulse across the synapse from one neuron to another. Receptors on
the cell surface membrane has specific shape where the
neurotransmitters fit with it properly.

Mitochondria

Pre-synaptic
membrane Vesicles

Synaptic cleft/Gap
Neurotransmitters
Receptors
Post-synaptic membrane

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Explain how synapse acts like one-way valve? June2017/V1

Synapse act like one way valves as there is only neurotransmitters on

one side of the synapse, so the impulse can only pass from that side,
ensuring that impulse travel in one direction. Receptors also are present
on one side only.

Types of neurons

-Carry electrical impulses from

receptors in sense organs to the CNS
Sensory Neuron
-Present in ganglion
- Cell body is not at one end of the cell

-Has myelin sheath

-Short axons and one direction

-Carry electrical impulses from the

Relay Neuron sensory to motor neuron in the CNS

-It belongs to the CNS where it is

present in the grey matter of the
spinal cord

-No myelin sheath so the impulses

carried slowly across the spinal cord
to give time for impulses to be
modified
Motor Neuron -Carry electrical impulses from the CNS
to the effector organ showing response.
-Cell body present in the grey matter of
the spinal cord
-Has myelin sheath
-The cell body present at one end of the
cell

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Reflex Arc
Change in the internal or external environment
1 Stimulus of the body.

2 Receptors Parts of the body that can detect the stimulus

and change it into electrical impulse

3 Sensory Neuron Send electrical impulses from receptors to CNS

4 Relay Neuron Send electrical impulses from Sensory neuron to

motor neuron

5 Motor Neuron Send electrical impulses from the CNS to the

effector

6 Effector Effector could be muscle to contract or gland to secrete, after

receiving impulse as a result of the stimulus through motor neuron

7 Response The action done by the effector as a result of the stimulus

Relay Neuron
Summary

 A receptor detects a change in

conditions a stimulus.
 A message impulse is carried from
receptors to CNS by a sensory neuron.
 Impulse is being processed in the CNS
along the rely neuron.
 Then the impulse is sent from CNS to
an organ effector through the motor
neuron
 The effector then carries out the
response.

It’s involuntary, protective and rapid response to a stimulus. The

message gets from the receptors to the effector very quickly. The
Reflex Action function of the reflex action is protection of the body from
mechanical damage or injury. The center is located in the spinal
cord. It’s already present immediately after birth before learning
takes place.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Examples on reflex actions

Reflex actions Stimulus Response

Hand withdrawal A hot plate. Muscles in your arm
contract so that your
hand is pulled away.
Swallowing Food particles making Contraction of the
contact with the back of muscles of the epiglottis
the mouth which chose the entrance
to the trachea.
Pupil reflex Bright light falling on the Contraction of circular
retina. muscle of the iris

Coughing Particles making contact Contraction of diaphragm

with the lining of the and intercostal muscles
respiratory tract

The Reflex Arc

2

3 1 Stimulus

(Effector)

4 Relay neuron

Synapse: Which is a junction between two Relay neuron: Carry nerve impulses
neurons where electrical impulses pass from slowly across the spinal cord. There is no
neuron to another by diffusion of myelin sheath to give time for the action
neurotransmitters, to slow down nerve to be modified by impulses carried down
transmission giving more time to allow the spinal cord from the brain
modifications of electrical impulses in the CNS

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Comparison between voluntary and involuntary action

Involuntary Action
Voluntary Action

 Non automatic action that  Automatic action that doesn’t

requires a conscious decision involve a conscious decision by the
by brain brain
 Start in the brain as brain  Initiated by stimulation of
initiates the action receptors
 Effector is muscle only  Effector maybe muscle or gland
 Controlled by brain or spinal  Controlled mainly by spinal cord
cord  Response is very fast to protect
 Response maybe fast or slow the body from any damage.
 Not inherited Particular stimulus always leads to
 Eg. Reading a book the same response
 Inherited
 Touching hot plate/ Coughing

Sense Organs

Organs containing group of receptors cells responding to a specific stimulus

Sense Organ Receptor Stimulus

Eye Photo receptors retina Light
cones and rods

Ear Sound receptors Sound

Nose/Tongue chemoreceptors Chemicals
Skin Skin receptors Touch, Temperature,
Pain and Pressure

Sequence 3
Receptors
Stimulus Traducers that receive CNS
1 2 stimuli and converts them
Change in the environment
into electrical impulses
Understand the
electrical impulse and
decides what to do with
these impulses
Sensory neuron
Carries electrical impulse from receptors to CNS

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 The Eye

Blood supply: Choroid and Sclera Pupil

System making most of light: Lens and Iris
Receptors: Rods and Cons Sclera

Tear duct
Tears wash the surface of the eye and
contain mild antiseptic which is an
enzyme called lysozyme that kill bacteria
Iris
Color of the eye

Structure of the eye

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Structures and functions

Thin transparent membrane that covers the front part of the eye to protect the cornea.
Conjunctiva

 A transparent layer which allow light to penetrate eye.

Cornea
 Responsible for most of the bending refraction of light rays that enter the eye.

Aqueous Watery fluid supporting the cornea and the front chamber of the eye.
Humor

 The colored part of the eye.

 Control the amount of light that enters the eye by controlling the
Iris
diameter of the pupil thus protecting the retina from excess light.

Pupil Circular opening allows light to enter the eye. It appears black because the
choroid is visible through it.
Has role in
Lens Change its shape to focus light onto the retina accommodation

Tough outer layer to protect they eye from damage

Sclera
 A darkly colored layer which.
Choroid  Contain blood vessels which supply the cells of retina with food and oxygen.

 In the center of the retina.

Fovea  This area has the highest density of cones and thus offers the maximum sharpness of image (Best vision)

Blind spot  At the exit point of the optic nerve.

 It contains no light sensitive cells so light falling on this region can't be detected.

Sensory neuron which carry impulses to the visual center in the brain.
Optic Nerve

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Vitreous Jelly like structure which keeps the shape pf the eye ball supporting the retina at the back of
Humor the eye.

Receptors are located at

Receptors of the eye the light sensitive layer of
the eye which is the Retina

Rods Cons

-May be wired to a single sensory -Wired to a single neuron in

neuron in optic nerve providing optic nerve providing detailed
images lacking details. colored images.
-Large in number -Small in number
-Sensitive to light of low intensity - Sensitive to light with high
(dim) intensity(bright)
-Concentrated at edges of retina -Concentrated at the fovea
-Provides black and white vision -Shows ability to distinguish
between colors of light
-Less accurate image lacking details
as each group of rods share only one -Provides detailed colored
sensory neuron in optic nerve image as each cone is
connected to one sensory
-Rods are one type responsible for
neuron in optic nerve
night vision
-Cons are three types, Red,
Green and Blue

How do we see colors?

The three types of cones that respond to different wave lengths red green blue
converting light energy to electrical impulses sent to brain via optic nerve. Brain
then interprets impulses in terms of colors (red, green, blue).

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Pupil Reflex

Change in the size of the pupil according to the amount of light entering the eye

 Light falls on retina

 The rods and cones are stimulated to produce nerve
impulse:
 Nerve impulses reach to sensory neurons in optic nerve
 Nerve impulses travel to brain along optic nerve,
where correction of the inverted and reduced size of
image done in the visual center of the brain.

Controlling how much light entering the eye

Dim Light Bright Light

1 Stimulus: Light falling on retina stimulating

rods and cons producing nerve impulse

Nerve impulse travelling through optic nerve

2 reach the sensory neurons in optic nerve

Correction of the inverted and reduced size of

3
image done in the visual center of the brain.

Impulses in motor neurons will reach the

4
effector (Muscles of iris)

Bright Light

 Circular muscles contracts to reduce the amount of

the light entering the eye.
 Radial muscles relax.
 The pupil becomes narrower.
 Less light to enter and reach the retina thus
protecting photoreceptors from being damaged by
excess light.

Dim Light

 Radial muscle of iris contracts.

 Circular muscles relax.
 The pupil id dilates to allow more light to enter
and reach the retina.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Accommodation of the eye for near and far objects

Change in the convexity of the lens to focus the light on certain point on
the retina (fovea) according to the distance of the objects from the eye.

Close Objects

 Ciliary muscle contract.

 Suspensory ligaments loosen.
 Lens become thicker and more
convex.
 So more light refraction for focusing
on close objects.

Far Objects

 Ciliary muscles relax.

 Suspensory ligaments tighten.
 Lens become thinner and concave.
 So less refraction of light.

Near Vision Far Vision

When people gets older, the elasticity of

the lens is lost, so lens couldn’t change its
shape. This makes harder to refocus quickly
on objects at different distances. Smokers
experience this problem at earlier age

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Endocrine System

They’re ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the blood plasma
Endocrine Gland
reaching the target organs

Chemical produced by endocrine gland that

transported in the blood plasma affecting the
Hormones
activity of the target organ. They’re deactivated
by the liver. Hormones are protein in nature.

The endocrine glands respond to a stimulus

The endocrine glands release hormone directly in the blood plasma

Hormone travels throughout all parts of the body

The detectors on the target organs will detects the change in hormonal level

The organs respond to the released hormone

1 Adrenal Gland

-The adrenal gland is located above the kidney

-It releases adrenaline hormone which is released during fright or fight and voluntary
during actions as sports. It’s also released during dangerous conditions.
-Target organs and effect of the adrenaline: -

 Heart: Increase heart rate and stroke volume

 Lungs: Increase rate and depth of breathing
 Blood vessels: Vasodilation of muscles and vasoconstriction of digestive
muscles and skin to allow more blood to reach muscles
 Liver: Breakdown stored glycogen into glucose to increase blood glucose level
for more respiration and energy release
 Eye: Dilates eye pupil
 Faster reaction time

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 2 Ovary

-The ovary releases oestrogen and progesterone hormones

 Oestrogen: -
-The target organs of osetrogen are the ovaries and pituitary glands
-It controls the puberty in females. It also controls the menstrual cycle
to stimulate the production of LH hormone and inhibits FSH

 Progesterone: -
-The target organ of the progesterone is the uterus
-Progesterone maintains the thickness of the uterus lining. It also
inhibits FSH production from the pituitary gland

3 Pancreas

The pancreas release insulin and glucagon hormones to regulate the blood
glucose concentration.
-Liver is the target organ of the both hormones.

 Insulin: -
Store the excess glucose in the blood as glycogen to reduce the blood
glucose concentration. It’s a negative feedback mechanism

 Glucagon: -
Breakdown the stored glycogen into glucose to increase the blood
glucose concentration. It’s a negative feedback mechanism.

4 Testis

-The testis release testosterone hormone

-The target organs of testosterone are the male reproductive organs

Effect: -
It controls the puberty in males causing the development of the
secondary sexual characteristics

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Pituitary Gland

-The pituitary gland releases: -

 ADH Kidney
 FSH Ovaries
 LH Ovaries

ADH: Controls the water level in the blood by stimulating the uptake of
water in the kidneys

FSH: Stimulates the egg maturation and osetrogen production in ovaries

LH: Stimulates the egg to release and produce progesterone in ovaries.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Reproduction in Humans

Chapter Sixteen

Reproduction Process by which the organisms can make more of the same kind.

Sexual Reproduction in Humans

1 Male Reproductive System

Produce male gametes called sperm, and produce

Testis male sex hormone testosterone

Storage of sperms till ejaculation.

Epididymis

Protects the testis from physical damage by

Scortum keeping the testis at cooler temperature 2
to 3 degrees lower than body temperature
for better survival of sperms

Sperm Duct Transports the sperm from the epididymis

(Vas Deference) to the urethra by peristalsis.

Produce seminal fluid as nutrition for Sperm+ Seminal fluid=

Prostate gland and sperm to keep they alive, and it Semen
provides medium for sperm to swim
and seminal vesicle

Carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of A ring of muscles valve which closes
Urethra
the penis. It also carries urine outside the body during sexual intercourse making sure
that there is no chance for semen and
urine get mixed up they never get out
Penis Erectile tissue that pass semen into the vagina of a
through the urethra at the same time
woman during sexual intercourse, and it passes
urine outside the body of the male

Consequences of reduction of diameter of urethra

1) Reduction in flow of urine difficulty in

urination.
2) Pain when urinating.
3) Increased risk of bladder infection.
4) Difficulty to ejaculate.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Sperm Cell

 Smaller in size than ovum

 Large in number (300 million/ ejaculation)
 Motile/Mobile as they can swim by beating their flagellum
 Streamlined shape with pointed head to swim faster and
penetrate the membrane of the ovum
 Have bag of enzymes called acrosome which releases enzyme
to penetrate the ovum
 Contains X and Y chromosomes
 No food storage
 Has less dense cytoplasm
 Have large number of mitochondria to release energy for
beating flagellum for swimming

Head
Nucleus containing
chromosomes
Flagellum (tail) for swimming
movements Middle part, containing
mitochondria to release
energy for swimming
Acrosome which is a
vesicle containing
enzymes, to dissolve a
Length 0.05mm pathway through the jelly
surrounding the ovum

2 Female Reproductive System

 Formation of the ovum female gamete i.e. site of ovulation.

Ovary  Produce female sex hormone progesterone and estrogen. Will Discuss it later

Oviduct  Site of fertilization in first third of oviduct.

 Carry the ovum or zygote to the uterus by peristalsis and beating of cilia.
(Fallopian tube)
-It’s a muscular bag with a soft lining.
 Site of implantation of a fertilized egg zygote. -If fertilization happens, the fertilized
Uterus  Site of growth and development of the embryo. egg forms an embryo which settles in
its mother uterus and begins to grow.
-Then 9 months later a baby is born
 Closer lower end of uterus to keep the baby in place where muscles of uterus contract and
Cervix while the woman is pregnant. squeeze it out through vagina.
 Dilates and relaxes to pass the baby during birth.
-It’s a muscular tube that leads from the

Vagina  Site of copulation sexual intercourse. cervix to the outside of the women's body.

 Site of sperm deposition. -A man's penis gets into the woman's vagina
 Is the way out for the baby at birth. during sexual intercourse, so that man's
sperm enters the vagina up to her uterus also
the vagina is the way out for the baby at
birth

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

  N.B The sperm cells can only survive inside the woman's vagina for one or
Very Important
two days they need to get up to the oviduct to fertilize the egg before its late.

Movement of ovum through the oviduct?

Ovum can’t move as it’s not motile, but the oviduct is lined by tiny cilia (same as cells
lining trachea). Cilia sweep the matured ovum inside the oviduct down to the uterus.
Muscles in walls of oviduct also help to move ovum by peristalsis (same as esophagus)

Female Reproductive System

Uterine Tube

Ovary

Uterus

Urinary Bladder
Symphysis pubic
Urethra
Clitoris
Lablum minus
Labium majus
Vaginal Orifice

Egg cell= Ovum

 . A woman's egg cells are all formed before she

is born.
 Egg is larger in size than a sperm.
 One egg usually matures every month.
 Eggs can't move, but cilia in cells lining oviduct
push them down to uterus.
 Each egg contains a large store of food when its
fertilized it is used for early development of the
zygote/ ball of cells.
 No acrosome.
 No flagellum.
 Larger nucleus than sperm.
 Denser cytoplasm.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Puberty and sex hormones

Adolescence Time when puberty is occurring and emotional

changes happen. Starts between 11-15 years and ends
about 18 years. It’s usually early in girls than boys.
When you reach puberty, your brain causes secretion
of sex hormones of males and females into the blood
this is the primary sexual characteristics.

Puberty At puberty children become adult capable of producing

and delivering sex cells, where their reproductive organs
gets bigger and mature.

Secondary Sexual Characteristics (as a result of sex hormones)

Boys Girls

 Menstruation starts(Period)
 Voice deepens  Hips girdle widens
 Shoulder gets wider  Ovaries start to release ovum
 Puts on more muscles  Uterus enlarged and developed to
 Penis and testis enlarged increase thickness of uterus lining
 Testis stimulated to produce  Breasts develop and increase in
sperm size
 Hair grows in face, chest, arm  Hair grows in arm pits and pubic
pits and pubic areas areas only
 Body Smell increases  Body smell increases
 Growth spurt  Growth spurt

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Menstrual Cycle

This is a regular series changes to the female reproductive system changes in the
ovaries and lining of the uterus in preparation for fertilization and pregnancy.
This changes controlled by hormones from the pituitary gland and ovary

Stage 1

Menstruation
If the egg isn’t fertilized the girl’s
progesterone dropped this makes
the lining of the uterus break
Stage 4
down it leaves her body as a flow
of blood through her vagina.
Pregnancy occurs and periods
stop
Stage 2
-If no fertilized egg the uterus line
begins to degenerate.
Repair Phase
-If egg is fertilized an embryo forms
Linking of the uterus starts to
and implants in the thick lining where
thicken by the action of
progesterone from corpus luteum,
oestrogen hormone released
maintain the thickness of uterus
from the ovary graafian follicle.
lining.
Stage 3

Fertile Period
Uterine lining is well developed -Ovulation occurs at the peak of
at stays thick by the action of oestrogen the release of egg from the
progesterone hormone ready to Graafian follicle into the oviduct.
receive an embryo.
-This is stimulated by LH and associated
with some vaginal secretions and
increase in body temperature.

 The days of the menstrual cycle are counted from the first day of bleeding.
 Menstrual cycle usually lasts for 28 days, but can be longer or shorter and
it can vary from month to month.
N.B  Period stop when the woman is pregnant or when she reaches the age
menopause which is about 50 years’ old

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Summary of menstrual cycle

Day 1 Day 4 Day 14 Day 14 to 28

Bleeding starts when Oestrogen Level Ovulation, an egg is The lining of the uterus stays thick by the
progesterone level starts to increase released and lasts action of progesterone awaiting the arrival
drops and uterus making the line of for about 3 days’ of fertilized egg if one doesn't come so
wall starts to break the uterus grow fertile period. progesterone is not secreted anymore and
and passes out of thick and spongy. Ovulation stimulated so the lining of uterus breaks down.
vagina. by LH and FSH

Hormones controlling menstrual cycle Pituitary gland

Releases FSH and LH to control
FSH stimulates the the activity of the ovary
development of Grafiaan
follicle in the ovary, LH stimulates the release of
which is the fluid sac mature ovum from ovary and
with the ovum inside development of corpus
luteum from the remains of
the follicle

Grafiaan follicle secretes

oestrogen to repairs the
uterus lining and stimulates Progesterone secreted by the CL keeps
the development of secondary the uterus lining thick to be ready for
sexual characteristics implantation and pregnancy. It inhibits
secretion of FSH stopping release of
any more mature ovum by feedback
inhibition

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 What happens at day 14?

Ovulation occurs at day 14, where the Grafiaan follicle becomes mature with high
concentration of oestrogen in the blood. The Grafiaan follicle moves to the
surface of the Ovary and burst where the ovum is released into the funnel of
oviduct. The fertile period of the female where the female has a fertile ovum and
pregnancy may occur extends from before ovulation directly and 3 days after
ovulation.

Summing up hormones
1 Released from
Released from corpus luteum
Grafiaan follicle Oestrogen and Progesterone

 Thickening of the uterus lining to for implantation and pregnancy.

 Development of the secondary sexual characteristics in female.
 Stimulates the release of LH.
 Keeps the lining of the uterus thickened ready for implantation and
pregnancy.
 Inhibits the release of FSH to prevent release of more mature ova
which ensure that only one fertilized ovum develops in the uterus at
any time.
 Stimulates development of mammary glands.
2
3
Follicle stimulating hormone Both released from Luteninising hormone
pituitary gland

Stimulates the development of Graafian Stimulates release of mature ovum from GF,
follicle in ovary around on ovum. Grafiaan and development of corpus luteum from
follicle releases oestrogen to increase the remains of follicle.
thickness of the uterus lining to be ready for  Where corpus luteum release
implantation. Oestrogen also stimulates the progesterone to maintains thickness of
release of LH uterus lining and inhibits formation of
other follicles
 Also progesterone is released from
placenta after 3 months’ pregnancy at
the end of pregnancy it stimulates the
mammary glands.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Sexual Intercourse

 Male is sexually excited so; blood enters the erectile tissue in the penis so
penis erects
 The erected penis is inserted into the vagina of the woman.
 Finally, as a result of the friction between penis and vagina, ejaculation
takes place where semen is released at the top of the vagina near the
cervix.
 Ejaculation when the muscles in the walls of the tubes containing sperm
cells contract rhythmically sperm cells are squeezed along out man's
urethra and into women's' vagina.

Fertilization

It’s the fusion between the haploid male nuclei and the haploid
female nuclei producing diploid zygote. After ovulation, the ovum is
mature and moves from the ovary to the first third of the oviduct by
peristalsis of by the movement of cilia and ready to be fertilized by
the sperm where, the sperm penetrates the ovum membrane using
enzymes released from the acrosome to dissolve the jelly like layer
surrounding the egg. The head of the sperm enters the ovum leaving
its tail outside. The fertilization process occurs in the first third of
the oviduct.

Implantation

By the time the embryo ball of cells is a ball of 16

or 32 cells the embryo sinks in the thin spongy
lining of the uterus this is the beginning of
pregnancy.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Formation of Placenta

 The placenta beings to develop at implantation

 Where a growing body needs food and oxygen so when embryo
settles in uterus some of its cells make contact with the mother's
blood supply by forming placenta and umbilical cord.

Fetus Formation

The rest of the embryos cells carry on dividing starting to specialize and
produce different tissues and organs starting with the brain spine and heart
the embryo becomes a fetus 8 weeks after fertilization it depends on its
mother for protection, Oxygen, Nutrients through placenta as it is developing.

8 weeks
6 weeks 10 weeks
Most organs are
All the organs have All organs are
now present. Some
begun to grow now developed
movement occurs
and more
movement occurs

It’s disc like structure with fingers like projections named Villi
to provide the blood vessels of placenta large surface area
Functions of placenta

 Allows diffusion of oxygen, glucose, amino acids, minerals

and vitamins from maternal blood to fetal blood through
umbilical vein
 Allows diffusion of carbon dioxide and urea from fetal blood
to maternal blood through umbilical artery
 Secretes progesterone to maintain the thickness of the uterus
lining during pregnancy
 Transfers antibodies from mother to fetus
 Provides a barrier that prevents mixing of maternal and fetal
blood, why?
-If both have different blood groups this may cause blood clot
-The high blood pressure of the mother could burst the delicate
blood vessels of the baby
-To prevent entry of many bacteria and harmful substances to the Amnion
Placenta
fetus
Amniotic fluid

N.B
The placenta begins to develop at implantation and after 12 weeks it becomes a thick disc like Embryo
structure with finger like projections.
Called villi that extend deep into the wall of the uterus.
The placenta continuous to grow to keep pace with the developing fetus and is about 12-15cm in
diameter and 3cm thick at the time of birth after the baby has been born
The placenta amniotic sac and umbilical cord are expelled from the uterus as the afterbirth.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Summary

Artery from the mother

delivers blood which is:
Mother
-High in nutrients and oxygen

-Low in carbon dioxide and urea

Fetus
Vein to the mother takes Placenta
away blood which is:
Umbilical vein Umbilical artery
-Low in nutrient and oxygen
Carries oxygenated blood Carries deoxygenated
-High in carbon dioxide and urea cleared of wastes from blood containing wastes
placenta to fetus blood such as urea from fetus to
contains high concentration placenta
of food such as glucose,
amino acids and iron

Umbilical Cord

Contains blood vessels 2 arteries and one vein which

carry material for exchange between mother and fetus.
The cord connects the fetus to the placenta.

Functions

 Joins the fetus to the placenta.

 It contains artery which take away carbon dioxide
and urea from baby to the mother.
 Contains vein which deliver oxygen and nutrients
from mother to baby at birth it is tied and cut.
The amniotic fluid

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Amniotic Sac Amnion is the membrane that encloses the amniotic
fluid that is ruptured before birth immediately

Functions -Protects the fetus against mechanical shock by acting as mechanical

barrier
-Protects the baby from drying out
-Protect the fetus against fluctuations of temperature
-Provides sterile environment for the fetus
-Allow movement of the fetus

ne
Placenta
Fetus

Amniotic sac Cervix

Before Birth
Vagina
Antenatal Care
1
Eat balanced diet: -
-Has a plenty of calcium to help to form the growing fetus's bone and teeth
- Extra iron because her body will produce a lot of extra blood to help to carry
oxygen and nutrients to the placenta and her growing baby is also forming blood
iron is needed in making hemoglobin in red blood cells.
-A little extra carbohydrate because she needs extra energy to help to move her
heavier body around
-Extra protein to help for growth and tissue repair

2
Continue to take exercise as swimming or walking to
facilitate labor and strengthens the circulatory system.

3
Regular visits to the doctor to follow up
St
4
Avoid smoking and drinking alcohol nicotine and carbon
monoxide passes to the baby across the placenta
barrier causing the baby to grow more slowly and
smaller than normal size also alcohol may damage the
brain of the baby fetal alcohol syndrome.

5
Regular blood test, weight check and blood pressure.

⑰)#a
Dr. Ahmed Shafai
Take notes:

Surgical Methods
Female
1 Vasectomy 2 Sterilization

Tie and cut both sperm so no sperm can Tie and cut both oviducts so that no
be ejaculated. It’s a permanent and eggs can be passed down to be
reliable method of birth control fertilized. It’s a permanent and
Oviduct reliable method of birth control

Ovary

Sexually Transmitted Disease

Infection caused by bacteria or viruses transmitted through body fluids during sexual intercourse

caused by HIV human

AIDS (Acquired Immune deficiency syndrome) immune deficiency

Signs/ Symptoms Transmission

Same as flu illness in the early stages.  Unprotected sexual intercourse with infected
Many aids related conditions may follow as partner.
the immune system beings to fail person  From mother to fetus during pregnancy of
become very vulnerable to other infections. through breast feeding.
 Blood transfusion of contaminated blood.
 Sharing contaminated syringe or razor
Treatment No Cure contact with an infected person's blood.

 Checking or heating blood before transfusion.

 Using condoms/ femidom during intercourse
with infected person
 Using disposable syringe.
 Avoid breast feeding of babies of infected mother
 Abstinence of sexual intercourse.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Immunity and Disease
Chapter Seventeen
Pathogens Microorganisms that live on body of a host and causes disease

Mechanisms of causing disease

1 Some produce harmful 2 Pathogens may cause 3 As a result of the immune

substances called toxins damage to our cells by response where when the
that spread around body living in them and using up host detects pathogen, it
and can damage tissues their resources, as they directs more blood to sit of
and organs, they cause start reproduction forming infection which can cause
symptoms as fever, rash large colonies to increase swelling and fever.
and make you feel ill. in number
Eg. Bacteria Eg. Virus

Pathogens may be: -

Fungi Protoctists
-Athlete foot Bacteria Virus -Malaria

-Ring worm -Cholera

Bacterium -Poliomyelitis -Amoebic Dysentery

-Tuberculosis
-Tube -Influenza

-Syphilis -AIDS

Reasons why Tb is fatal infectious

disease?
*Poor disease control program.

*Resistance to antibiotics.

*Rapid increase in the population of young

adults as they’re more liable to be infected

Disease

Non Infectious Infectious Disease

Disease

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Non-Infectious Disease
Disease not transmitted from another individual. They are caused by: -

. Deficiency of nutrition diseases as anemia

. Inherited disease as sickle cell anemia
. Degenerative disease like COPD
. Cancer resulting from exposure to U.V rays

Infectious Disease
Diseases caused by pathogens and are transmissible diseases that can
be transferred from one organism to another.

How infectious diseases are spread?

Direct contact Indirect contact

➢ Pathogens transmitted by touch ➢ Through drops in air from infected

Eg. athletes' foot person during coughing
Eg: Influenza, Tuberculosis
➢ Pathogens can pass through
placenta or breast feeding of
pregnant woman to her fetus or
➢ Through contaminated food.
baby.
Eg: HIV Eg: salmonella bacteria that cause food
poisoning.
➢ Pathogens can pass through
contact with body fluids during
sexual intercourse. ➢ By vector
Eg: HIV, gonorrhea, syphilis
EX: Malaria (plasmodium) Carried in the
saliva of female anopheles mosquito

➢ Through contaminated water.

Eg: virus causing polio and bacteria causing

cholera.
N.B cholera is transmitted through fecal oral as drinking
water contaminated with faeces of an infected person

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 How to stop the following diseases?

Cholera Salmonella
Malaria
Bacteria
-Sewage treatment. -Decrease number of -Wash food by clean water before eating.
mosquitos by killing
-Avoid usage of contaminated them. -Eat recently cooked food as cooking
human faeces as fertilizers. destroys bacteria.
-Avoid being bitten by
- Use chlorinated water. mosquito using insect - Cover food away from animals as house
repellent and flies.
- Decrease the number of mosquito nets.
infected people using effective -Keep raw meat which is full of bacteria
antibiotics and oral rehydration away from fruits and vegetables.
therapy.
Tuberculosis
-Don’t keep food at warm temperature for
long time.
-Vaccination.
-Drink pasteurized milk.
-Wash hands with antiseptics before
-Less overcrowding and well ventilating houses.
touching food.
-Balance and better diet to improve immunity.

The General Ways to Spread Diseases

➢ Food hygiene
➢ Waste disposal
➢ Personal hygiene
➢ Sewage treatment

Food Hygiene

• Keep your own bacteria and viruses away from food. Wash your hands
before touching or eating food

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Body Defenses

Natural Barrier Chemical Barrier

Mechanical Barrier Chemical Barrier

-Skin: has thick outer layer -Ears: has bactericidal

of dead cells containing bacteria killing wax.
keratin protein that stops
-Tears: contains lysozyme
pathogens from getting into
enzyme that destroys
the body.
bacterial cell wall.
-Hairs: in your nostril traps -Saliva: contains enzymes
dust carrying pathogens.
that can kill bacteria.
-Scabs: form on the skin if -Acid in the stomach:
you get a cut stopping
kills most bacteria swallowed
pathogens from getting into
with food and drinks.
your body.
-Sticky mucus: in
the nose and lungs
traps microbes and
then cilia sweep it
The Immune System out of the lungs also
this mucus contains
enzymes that can kill
If a pathogen attacks the body penetrating the primary defense of the body and starts to
bacteria.
reproduce quickly, secondary defenses start to defend depending on the blood cells (WBCs)

Pathogens Have chemicals called antigen to identify the foreign particles.

Each pathogen has its specific antigen

Antigen is a substance surface protein that is foreign to the body and

detected by the blood cells stimulating immune response.

Immune response is produced by the lymphocytes responding to the

pathogen entering the body and the activity of phagocyte.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Antibody

Is a glycoprotein with a particular shape, made by lymophyctes secreted in

response to an antigen. Binds to it and destroys the pathogen.

Steps of immune response

o Lymphocytes are white blood cells that are found in the blood and in
lymph nodes
o They ate stimulated by the presence of pathogens to release special
proteins called specific antibodies.
o Antibodies are complementary with the antigen, fitting with it,
labelling it, preventing its division and stimulating phagocytosis.

Mechanisms of working of antibodies

• Causing bacteria to lysine

• Neutralizing of pathogens toxins.
• Stop bacteria from moving (immobilization)
• Aggregation of pathogens together so they can be ingested by phagocytes
which then digest them by enzymes.

Phagocytes are large white blood cells they are attracted to wounds or sites of
infection by chemical messages they leave the blood vessels and destroy any pathogen
they recognize by phagocytosis process

Digested by specific
enzymes

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Memory cells
-After the infection lymphocytes are stimulated to produce specific
antibodies where they’re complementary to the antigen of the
pathogen. Not all the lymphocytes produce antibodies, they
also adapt to produce memory cells remaining in blood living
for very long time
-Memory cells have learnt how to make the antibodies
against further attacks by the same antigens.
-They will be able to make the right ones much more quickly
in the future giving steep specific secondary immune response
-If a second attack comes by same antigens your body can destroy the
microbes before they have time to produce a large population and
make you ill.
-The body is now said to be immune to the disease.

Primary Infection Secondary Infection

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Types of immunity

Active Immunity Passive Immunity

-Immunity gained when an antigen enters the -Immunity gained without an immune response
body an immune response occurs producing and antibodies from another individual are
antibodies by lymphocytes against the pathogen. injected or pass from mother to child across
placenta or in breast feeding.

-It is a short term immunity.

-It gives long term immunity because there are
memory cells retaining the ability to produce -Because there are no memory cells produces
antibodies and antibodies will eventually break down.

Natural Artificial Natural Artificial

-Pathogens infects -Vaccinated with -Antibodies collected

-Mother's antibodies
individual and having the weakened pathogen from blood of
can cross the
disease laboratory animals
-Injection of vaccine weak placenta and are
-Individual infected by or dead form of pathogen delivered in breast -Adult is now immune
disease but survive makes which doesn't cause milk, where newborn to diseases which is:
antibodies and is now disease but lymphocytes child will be
do produce antibodies so temporary immune *Too fast acting for own
immune to further infection
individual now is immune to pathogens for immune system to deal
by the same pathogen
to this pathogen. which mother with E.G (injection of
Eg: immunity to different produced antibodies. anti-tetanus vaccine
strains of the common cold. Eg: vaccination against following a deep dirty
rubella virus cut or wound).

*This offers only a

temporary immunity
because memory cells
are not produced.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Best ways to avoid diseases
▪ Good balanced diet
▪ Not smoking
▪ Regular exercise
▪ Controlling intake of alcohol and other drugs
▪ Personal hygiene including sexual behavior

Vaccination
Vaccine -Weakened or dead pathogens injected into the body. These pathogens have the
same antigen of normal ones that probably causes disease, but they’re not able
to cause disease as they’re weakened or dead.

-Lymphocytes responds to these pathogens by making specific antibodies that

bind to the antigen of the pathogen as they’re complementary to each other’s.

-Lymphocytes will multiply increasing number of lymphocytes, so more

antibodies produced. They also make memory cells providing long term
immunity, so if the normal pathogen attacks the body one day, it will be
destroyed immediately

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Auto immune disease

Disease resulting from malfunction of the immune system where lymphocytes

recognize the self-cells as non-self-cells foreign and produce antibodies against
them.

Example:

Diabetes Type 1 in Children

The immune system attacks the beta cells in the pancreas which are
responsible for producing the insulin hormone and destroy them. So
insulin is no longer produces so blood glucose level is not controlled.
✓ So those having diabetes type 1 have to keep receiving regular shots
of insulin as well as taking care over what they eat to keep blood
Question glucose concentration within a normal level and they should take
care about their diet.

Insulin can't be taken by mouth because it’s a hormone made

from proteins so it will be digested stomach enzymes.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Hyperglycemia Hypoglycemia

• When the blood glucose level is above • When not eating carbohydrates for a
normal and stays up. long time the blood glucose level will
drop because no insulin has been
Symptoms secreted the liver hasn't built up stores
▪ Excessive thirst of glycogen that can now be broken to
▪ Sweet smelling breath down to produce glucose so the person
▪ High overflow of glucose in urine has hypoglycemia where cells don’t have
▪ Blurred vision enough glucose to respire and release
▪ Sometimes increase in heart and energy.
breathing rate Symptoms
▪ Very tired
▪ Shows confusion
▪ Irrational behavior

The Negative Feedback Mechanism

Having a blood glucose level that swings very high and very low can over long periods of time do
damage to numerous body organs.
So it is important that a person with type 1 diabetes tries to keep their blood concentration within
reasonably normal limits.

Treatment
➢ Those having diabetes type 1 have to keep receiving
regular shots of insulin as well as taking care over what
they eat to keep blood glucose concentration within a
normal level
➢ Regular checking of blood glucose level using a glucose
meter devise home.
➢ They can also test their urine for glucose using a simple
dipstick as urine should contain no glucose but if a person
blood glucose level rises very high then the kidneys are not
able to reabsorb from the filtrate in the nephron and some
remains in the urine that is excreted

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Smoking and Drugs

Chapter Eighteen
Drugs

Any chemical substances taken into the body that modifies or affects
chemical reactions in the body.

Drugs

Medical Drugs Social Drugs

Antibiotics
Stimulants Depressants
-Nicotine -Alcohol

-Heroin

1-Medical Drugs

Antibiotics

Chemical substance produced by microorganisms mostly fungi, used to kill or to

stop growth of bacteria without harming any other living cells.

How antibiotics kill bacteria?

Penicillin made by fungus penicllium that prevents the formation

of cell wall in bacteria. other antibiotics damage the cell walls of
bacteria.
Antibiotics have either bacteriostatic action by preventing
bacterial growth example: prevent formation of cell wall. Others
have bactericidal effect: they cause the bacteria to lysine or
burst by damaging its cell wall.

Antibiotics effective against bacteria only

Because antibiotics interfere with

the formation of the cell wall in
bacteria, while human cells and
viruses lack cell wall, so their cells
are not affected by the antibiotics.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Why antibiotics shouldn’t be over used

To avoid development of resistant mutant strains of bacteria which will

survive and be resistant to antibiotics so antibiotics become no longer
effective.

How population of antibiotic resistant bacteria can develop and increase in number?

 In normal bacterial population one resistant cell

may evolve by mutation DNA change.
 By antibiotic treatment all population is killed
except for the resistant cell.
 Then by natural selections survival of fittest only
this strain will reproduce.
 Whole new population will be resistant to
antibiotic treatment.
Safety precautions to prevent these consequences

 Don’t use antibiotics unless they are prescribed by doctors.

 Complete the antibiotic course.
 Don’t use only one type of antibiotic but use different
types as using same type upon each time of infection,
allows some of bacterial population to recover and
resistant strains.
 Don’t take antibiotics for viral infections

Antibiotic sensitivity test

Petri dish with agar on which certain type of bacteria are growing. The
four grey circles are little discs of filter paper soaked in different
antibiotics to check which antibiotic will be most effective against this
type of bacteria.
B C

A
Zone A (clear zone)

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Summary
 Inheritance and Variationation

Chapter Nineteen

Transmission of characteristics from generation

Inheritance
to another generation.

Chromosome Thread of DNA made up of string of genes

Gene of hair color

Centromere Join the two chromatids together

Pair of identical chromosomes having the same

Homologous
shape, length and carry the same genes one from the Black Brown
Chromosome father and the other from the mother

Specific length of DNA responsible for certain

Gene
characteristics by coding for specific protein

Alleles Alternative forms of genes that code for alternatives of

the same characteristics
Homozygous
Homozygous Two identical alleles of specific gene. BB- bb

Heterozygous Two different allele of a specific gene Bb

Heterozygous
Allele that is expressed when presents B
Dominant Allele
It can be found in homologous pair BB-Bb

Recessive Allele Allele whose phenotype is only expressed when there is no

dominant allele of the gene present b. It can only be found
on the homologous pair of chromosomes bb

Genotype The genetic makeup of living organism in the form of alleles

Eg. BB-Bb-bb

Phenotype Physical appearance of living organism as a result of the

genotype and the environment Eg. Black-White

184
 Haploid Cell Diploid Cell

Cell whose nucleus Cell whose nucleus

contain one set of contains two sets of
chromosomes chromosomes
23 chromosomes 23 pairs of chromosomes

Cell Division

Meiosis Mitosis

 Reduction division where the chromosome  Nuclear division giving rise to genetically
number is halved from diploid to haploid identical cells.
resulting on genetically different cells  Occurs in all body cells.
 Occurs in the reproductive organs forming  Produce 2 daughter cells identical to the
gametes parents showing no variation.
 Produce 4 daughter cells non identical  Each nucleus has diploid number of
showing variation chromosomes.
 Each nucleus has haploid number of Importance:
chromosomes 1- Growth of living organisms
Importance: Forming gametes for sexual 2- Asexual reproduction
reproduction where the number of chromosomes 3- Healing and replacement of damaged cells
halved so number of chromosomes does not double
each generation. It shows variation By producing diploid identical cells

Parent cell contains

4 chromosomes

Homologous chromosomes pair together

where crossing over takes place
Parent cell contains
4 chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes separate.
One from each pair goes into each During mitosis each chromosome splits.
During growth of the cell, an exact
daughter cell. One chromatid from each chromosomes
copy is made of each chromosome.
goes into daughter cell
Cells are now ready to divide again.

Each chromosome separates into 2

chromatids. One chromatid of each
kind goes into each daughter cell.

18
 Explain why the gametes formed are genetically different from their parents?

As they are produced by meiosis where the homologous pair of chromosomes in parent cells which came
from the person’s mother from and from their father, during meiosis, the new cells get a mixture of these.
So sperm cell could contain a chromosome from the man’s father and chromosome from his mother, and so
on. There are all sorts of different combinations.

Stem Cells
Stem Cell

After the zygote is formed it, begins to divide by mitosis till it

Intestinal Cell
becomes a ball of cells called embryo, where each cell is
Muscle Cell
genetically identical to the parent cell however, as the
embryo develops, the cell begins on differentiate and take
different roles, as some becomes skin cells, other goblet cells
Blood Cell
Liver Cell

How this development and differentiation happens?

All body cells have the same genes, but in each cell, only a particular set of these genes is
switched on or expressed so differentiation involves switching particular sets of genes on or off

Are unspecialized cells that divides by mitosis to provide

Stem Cells daughter cells that can become specialized for specific functions.

Embryonic Adult
Stem Cells Stem Cells

Cells in the very early embryo, Cells that are also able to
before they start to become produce different types of
different of cells and are able specialized cells but limited
to produce every kind of types of specialized cells
specialized cells in the body

Importance of stem cells?

Can be used to cure diseases that are caused by some of our cells failing to work
probably, Eg: Treatment of diabetes type 1 to produce cells that can secrete insulin

18
 Test Cross
Monohybrid
Cross

Parental Phenotype Male with black hair Female with blonde hair

Parental Genotype BB bb

Gametes B B b b

Offspring genotype Bb Bb Bb Bb

Offspring Phenotype Black Black Black Black

Ratio 100% Black

B B

Punnett Square b Bb Bb
s
b Bb Bb

18
 1:1
%50

Parental Phenotype Male with black hair Female with blonde hair

Bb bb
Parental Genotype

B b b b
Gametes

Offspring Genotype Bb Bb bb bb

Offspring Phenotype Black Black Blonde Blonde

Ratio 50% 1:1

Punnett Square

b b

B Bb Bb
b bb bb

188
 3:1
75%: 25%

Parental Phenotype Male with black hair Female with black hair

Parental Genotype Bb Bb

Gametes
B b B b

Offspring Genotype BB Bb Bb bb

Offspring Phenotype Black Black Black Blonde

Ratio 3:1
75%black : 25% blonde
Punnett Square

B b
B BB Bb

b Bb bb

18
 Human body cells has 46 chromosomes. The 46 chromosomes are
Sex Determination 22 pairs of chromosomes plus 2 chromosomes which may not look
alike. Those 2 chromosomes are the sex chromosomes. For females
those 2 chromosomes are (XX) and fore males are (XY).

Parental Phenotype Male Female

Parental Genotype XY XX

Gametes
X Y X X

Offspring Genotype XX XX XY XY

Offspring Phenotype Female Female Male Male

Ratio 50% 1:1

Punnett Square

X X
X XX XX

Y XY XY

1
 Sex Linkage

Characteristics in which the gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome, which

makes it more common in one sex than in the other. Eg. Color blindness, Hemophilia.

Male Female

The gene concerned with sex

are located on this part of the
sex chromosome.

This part of the sex chromosome can

carry genes not connected with sex.

Any allele dominant or

recessive located in this region
will show up in the phenotype Genes of this part
of the male from the Y
chromosome are not
found on the X
Sex-linked genes are chromosome
found in this part of
the X chromosome
Color Blindness

Parental Phenotype Male with normal vision Female Carrier

B b
B
Parental Genotype X X
X Y
B b
B
Gametes X X
X Y

B B b B b
Offspring Genotype B
X X X Y X Y
X X

Carrier Female Normal Male Color blind Male

Offspring Phenotype Normal Female

1 1
 Haemophilia

Neither pair of alleles are completely dominant over each other or completely
Co-dominance recessive showing intermediate heterozygous phenotype. Both alleles have effect
on the phenotype as both alleles are expressed. Eg. Blood Group

Blood Groups

A A A O A
I I OR I I
B B B O
I I OR I I B
A B
I I AB
O O
I I
O

Sex linkage
1
Sex linkage

Sickle Cell Anemia

A A Normal hemoglobin, not suffering

Hb Hb from S.C.A, but susceptible to malaria

A S This person will survive as the patient

Hb Hb is carrier to the S.C.A but, but resistant
to malaria. Survive in tropical parts.

S S
This person will die from S.C.A
Hb Hb

 Faulty hemoglobin produce fibers inside RBC when oxygen concentration

is low in tissue
 RBC becomes sickled shaped and get stuck into capillaries
S.C.A  Capillaries are blocked, stopping flow of blood to some parts of the body
causing pain
 Sickle cells crises needing oxygen where hemoglobin is less efficient in
transporting oxygen
 Less respiration and energy release feeling breathless
 More susceptible to infections reducing life span

A test made to find the genotype of individual with dominant phenotype of particular gene by
Test Cross
crossing it with known organism having homozygous recessive genotype for the same gene.

Some population of animals or plants always have offspring just like

Pure Breeding themselves. For example, Rabbit breeder might have a group of rabbits
with brown coats, if they are breed together all the offspring will be
brown. Pure breeding strains are always homozygous for the pure
breeding characteristics. The offspring of two different pure-breeding
strains are sometimes called the first filial generation (F1 generation),
and they are always heterozygous

1
 Variation
Causes of genetic
variation

Random arrangement of chromosomes during meiosis

Meiosis cell division, where the homologous chromosomes
exchange genes by crossing over, and separate from one
another, so gametes formed not identical.

Sexual reproduction and fertilization

Leads to combination of genes from both parents as each parent has his
own variations. Where any male gamete can combine with any female
gamete causing more variation between the offspring

Mutation

Sudden change of genes or base sequence of DNA causing production

of many different alleles so different phenotypes caused by: -
-Chemicals as tar, nitrous acid, mustard gas.
-Radiation as x-ray, ultra violet rays
Mutation causes cancer and deformation of babies.

Mutation

Gene Mutation S.C.A Chromosomal Mutation

Occur when part of the base sequence Occur when cell division fails to work with
of DNA on single chromosome is complete accuracy, for instance human
Down gametes are formed each gamete should
changed, as a result of defective protein
maybe produced or no protein at all. Syndrome receive 23 chromosomes. Suddenly error
occurs.

1 4
 46 46
Down Syndrome

Cells of mongolism baby contains 47 chromosomes

23 23 22 24
instead of 46 chromosomes as a result of the unequal
distribution of chromosomes during gamete formation.

Features of mongolism 45 47 47 45

Dies Mongolism Dies

 Mental Retardation Mongolism

 Physical Retardation
 May suffer from chest
problems and leukemia
 Reproductive organs
don’t develop properly

Very Important
Definitions

 Inherited feature that helps an organism to survive and reproduce in its

Adaptive Feature environment
 Inherited functional features of an organism that increase its fitness

 The probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the

Fitness environment in which it is found

 Process resulting from natural selection, by which population become

Process of Adaptation more suited to their environment over many generations

1
 Variation

It is the visible difference in the phenotype of individuals of same species

A Discontinuous Variation

 Limited number of phenotypes with no intermediates.

Eg. Gender
 These characteristics are usually qualitative, as they can’t be
measured.
 Caused by genes only, and not affected by environment.
Eg. Sex, Blood group, Eye color
People of population

Blood Group

B Continuous Variation

 Shows range of phenotypes between two extreme individuals

giving intermediate phenotype.
 These characteristics are usually quantitative, as they can be
measured.
 Caused by genes and the effects of environment.
Eg. Weight, Height, Foot length
Number of people in category

Height/cm

1
 Selection
Natural Selection

Adaptation caused by the variation between the different members of a

population. Charles Darwin studied many examples of these adaptations.

Causes of natural selection: -

Variation

Slight variation between members of a population, maybe better adapted to

their environment and more suited for this severe competition than others.

Over production of offsprings

Living organisms produce numerous offsprings, but most of them don’t

survive, so the population remains relatively stable.

Struggle for existence

The organisms experience environment resistance as they compete for

the limited resources within the environment. Plants compete for
nutrients in soil, water and sunlight. Animals also compete for food
and shelters to avoid being eaten.

Inheritance of useful characteristics

The well adapted living organisms are more likely to breed than
Natural Selection

those are less adapted, as they will pass their good characteristics
to the offspring producing advantageous characteristics to the Variation
next generation.

Survival of the fittest

More natural selection

The living organisms that are really well adapted to their

environment will survive. Adaptation

Gradual Changes

By this way, after a long period of time, the population will lose all the poorly
adapted individuals, so the population will become better adapted to its New
environment. Species

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Summary

Genetic variation, in a population of cacti, In the wet season they flower. Over-production. The cacti produce large
some have longer roots than others. number of offspring.

Struggle for existence. During dry season, Survival of the fittest. The cacti with the Advantageous characteristics passed to the off
there is no competition for water. longest roots are able to obtain water, spring. The long-rooted cacti reproduce, producing
while the others die of dehydration. offsprings more likely to be long-rooted themselves.

Evolution

The change in adaptive features of a population over time as a result of natural selection

Importance of variation

 Help in reducing competition. It increases

chance of survival of the fittest species and
reduces the chance of extinction by increasing in
gene biodiversity
 Allow adaptation to new changed environment,
bringing about evolution. Eg. Disease, predators

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Examples on natural selection

1 Antibiotic resistant bacteria

The antibiotic resistant bacteria can result from natural selection as we have discussed before. The more
the selection pressure we put on bacteria will give advantage to the resistant bacteria forms. Antibiotics
don’t create resistance, but selects it in a population.

a
&
2 Sickle Cell Anemia
Fatal Disease

Question: Why it is not removed from the human population by natural selection?

Because people who are susceptible to be infected with malaria are carriers for sickle cell anemia allele,
experience any immunity against malaria.

A Homozygous dominant. Normal hemoglobin is shown without suffering from

Hb A Hb sickle cell anemia, but susceptible to malaria.

Heterozygous carrier for the allele causing disease. Mix of normal and anemia.
A S
Hb Hb It usually doesn’t show any symptoms. They are resistant to malaria. The will
survive and have children so passing on the allele causing the disease (S).

S S Homozygous recessive. Sickle cell anemia present, so this patient will die from
Hb Hb sickle cell anemia.

S.C.A

Normal

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Artificial Selection

Cats and dogs show great variation, as each of them inherits unique combination of genes from its parents,
so they all look differently and also behave in different way. They’re produced by selective breeding.

Steps for selective breeding

1 2
Decide what the characteristics Select parents with some of these
you want the next generation to features and breed them together.
have.

4 Repeat the process over many

3 Choose the offspring with the
characteristics you prefer and generations.
breed them together

Selective breeding is very successful, but slow process and gives unpredictable results, while genetic
N.B engineering is much quicker and more reliable

Disadvantages of artificial selection

 The desirable characteristics would not often be an advantage to the plant or animals if it was living in the
wildlife, but the farmers are now start to think in different way. Rather than the massive yields as their first
priority, they now are looking for varieties which can grow well using less fertilizers or pesticides in case of food
plants, and less expensive housing and feeding in case of animals. Many of the old breeds which had these
characteristics have been conserved and can now be used to breed new varieties with the desired characteristics
 The process is slow and the results are unpredictable.

Artificial Selection Natural Selection

 Man-made selection  Nature-made selection

 Produces varieties of organisms with  Produces great biological diversity
variations than the native ones  Occurs in natural population
 Occurs in domestic population  Slow process compared with artificial
 Faster process than natural selection selection
 Results are expected (predetermined)  Results are unpredictable
 Species produced will be more useful to  Species will be better adapted to the
humans, but less adapted if kept in wildlife. environment
 No advantage to animals or plants in their  Offer higher chances to survive.
natural environment

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Food webs and Ecology
Energy flow
Chapter Twenty

Population: Group of living organisms of the same species

living at the same place at the same time

Community: All of population of living organisms of different species living in

one area at the same time.

Ecosystem: Living organisms and non-living factors interacting together in

particular part of the environment.

Habitat: Part of environment providing food, shelter and breeding area for living
organisms.

Adaptation: Way by which plants and animals develop special features to suit
the demand of their environment

Food Chain: Chart showing the flow of energy in the form of food where the
arrows show the direction of energy transfer beginning with a producer.

Any food chain should start with a producer passing through

consumer and ending by a decomposer which initiates the
process of decomposition.

Producer: Organism that makes its own food using light

energy from the sun (photosynthesis process)

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Consumer: Organism that gets their energy by feeding on other organisms, they
may be primary (herbivores), secondary or tertiary.

 Primary consumers are herbivores they feed

on plants (producers). They’re source of food
of secondary consumers. They prevent over
population and competition of producers
 Secondary consumers are carnivores as they
feed on other animals. Secondary consumers
are source of food for tertiary consumers.
They prevent over population of primary
consumers. They can be omnivores feeding on both
plants and meat.

Decomposers Fungi or bacteria break down large

complex organic wastes and dead plants and animals to
return nutrients back to the soil to be absorbed by the
plants to build new biomass.

N.B
Energy passing through food chains or webs is not
recycled as energy is not passed back to the sun.

Food Web

Food chains link to form food webs, where most animals have more than one
source of food. The more complex the food web, the more stable it is and less
likely to be affected by the loss of one type of organism (extinction) Sun is the
main source of energy in any food chain/web.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Tips
 Only 1% of light energy is trapped in
chlorophyll by producer and changed
into chemical energy
 Not all the light fall on the leaf
 Not all the light trapped by
chloroplast
 Green light is reflected from the
surface
 Shiny cuticle reflects some light
 Only 10% of energy in the producer will be transferred to the
primary consumer
 Energy lost as heat in respiration
 Undigested parts (cellulose)
 Uneaten parts (root)
 Only 10% of energy is transferred from primary consumer to secondary
consumer
 Energy lost in respiration and
energy release
 Muscle contraction
 Excretion and sweating
 Urination and Defecation
 Active transport and growth
requires energy
 Undigested food

Trophic level: Position of a living organism in a food

chain/web/pyramid.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Energy Efficiency

As energy pass from trophic level to another, energy lost in respiration and
energy release, urination, defecation, sweating and movement. The more the
energy level, the less the energy available for the living organism.

It would be more efficient to eat grass rather than eating cow, so there are
many advantages and disadvantages of being primary or secondary consumer

Advantages Disadvantages
Less energy loss Plant proteins doesn’t contain all
essential amino acids
Fibers and roughages stimulates Undigested parts of the plant egested
peristalsis with faeces
Less cholesterol intake reducing CHD

Food Pyramids

1-Pyramids of energy each box represents

the amount of energy present in each trophic
level where only 10% transferred from lower
trophic level to higher one as energy is lost from
level to another

2-Pyramid of numbers Size of the column

shows the number of living organisms in this
trophic level where the number of living organisms
at any trophic level is represented by the length of
the rectangle. By moving up the pyramid the
number of the organisms are decreasing, but the
size of each individual increases.

Problem of pyramids of number? Doesn’t take into account the

sizes of living organisms. How to solve it?

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 3-Pyramid of biomass always has normal pyramidal shape because they
show the dry mass of the living organisms in each trophic level not their
number. Only a fraction of the
biomass in each trophic level is
passed to the animals that consume
it. Most is used in respiration, so the
total biomass in a higher trophic level
is always less than a lower one

Carbon Cycle

Factors affecting carbon dioxide

concentration in air

 Deforestation: Decomposers
breakdown the roots and
branches left behind, so
increasing amount of Co2 in
atmosphere. Deforestation leads to less plants so less photosynthesis, so
more Co2 added to atmosphere
 Increase usage of fossil fuel: Because of the increase in vehicles and energy
demand
 Population size: The more the population, the more the respiration
producing more carbon dioxide.

The increase in carbon dioxide concentration may lead to: -

Global warming
 Melting of ice caps
 More water falls in oceans and rivers cause a rise
in the sea levels leading to Floods
 Destruction of areas of land and destruction of
habitats causing animal extinction

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Take notes:

Water Cycle

Factors affecting water vapor in air?

Deforestation as less leaves so less

↳ transpiration, less water vapor so less rain falls.

Nitrogen Cycle

Tips to understand nitrogen cycle: -

Nitrogen Fixation

Through nitrogen fixing bacteria growing in the root nodules of the

leguminous plants converting the nitrogen gas by combining with hydrogen
into ammonium then forming nitrates to be absorbed by the plant for
protein synthesis needed for growth and tissue repair, making enzymes,
hormones and DNA. Nitrogen fixation may be through lightening where
energy from it makes some of the nitrogen gas combine with oxygen forming
nitrogen oxides dissolving in rain and washed into soil forming nitrates.

Decomposition

Saprophytic bacteria decompose dead organisms and

waste organic products as they produce extracellular
enzymes that breakdown proteins in dead bodies into
amino acids which are turned by deamination into
ammonia.

Nitrification

Nitrifying bacteria converts ammonia into nitrates in

the soil to be absorbed by the plant needed for nucleic
acid synthesis, requiring well aeration conditions.

Denitrification

Denitrifying.bacteria converts nitrates into nitrogen

gas; this process requires anaerobic conditions
when water logs soil, decreasing soil fertility.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Farmers tend to: -

 Drain and plough the soil

 Add artificial fertilizers containing ammonium compounds and nitrates

Population
Size
Population is the number of living organisms of a particular species that are
living in the same place at the same time. Stationary phase

Death phase
Log Phase

Lag phase

The population curve is called sigmoid curve which is divided into 4 stages: -
 Lag phase: Population increases slowly as the birth rate is slightly more than the
death rate, this is because it takes time to adjust themselves to the new conditions
 Log (exponential) phase: Population increase rapidly where birth rate is much
higher than the death rate.
 Stationary phase: Stable population as birth rate= death rate
 Death phase: Population decrease as death rate is more than the birth rate

Factors affecting population size

Biotic Factors
Abiotic Factors

 Number of predators
 Temperature
 Food supply limitation
 Avilability of oxygen
 Disease
 Availability of light
 Competition
 Pollution

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Factors affecting human population?

1-Pollution 2-Food supply 3-Disease 4- Wars

Age Pyramid

Stable population: Sizes of younger age group are little larger than the older ones as birth
and death rate are probably the same. This population shouldn’t change much in size.

Increasing population: The bottom of the pyramid is heavy because there are far more
young individuals than old ones showing that birth rate is higher than death rate cause increase
in the population. If all the organisms in the younger age group grow up and reproduce, the
population will increase.

Abiotic factors

Human Population
A- Reducing diseases: -

 1-Vaccinations
 2-Food hygiene
 3-Seweage treatment
 4-Improving water supply

Increasing food supply: -

 More land areas for cultivation

 Using modern technology in agriculture

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 The growth in the human population and the increase in the standard living
are putting strains on the global environment. There are some reasons
contributing this: -

 More wastes are being produced

 More pollution caused by the high population
 Raw materials are used up
 Usage of the non-renewable energy resources
 High competition between the living organisms

Explain why we should stabilize the growth rate of human population and how
we could do this?

If we don’t control the human birth rate a famine, war, spread of disease may occur leading to
increase in the death rate. We could control the birth rate through increasing the death rate or
decreasing the birth rate. Developed countries decrease the birth rate through introducing
methods of contraception, while it’s difficult to maintain the birth rate in developing countries
due to religious issues or simply looking for larger family.

The Human Impact On The Ecosystem

 Using of modern machines as tractors and harvesting machines

Advantages: Easier cultivation and more lands can be used in agriculture

Disadvantages: Fossil fuels required causing more pollution. The soil is compacted so it becomes
more difficult for rainwater to penetrate

 Using artificial fertilizers

Advantages: Availability of minerals required for crop growth

Nitrate: protein synthesis for growth and tissue repair

Magnesium: for chlorophyll pigment synthesis

Phosphate: DNA synthesis (nucleic acid)

Disadvantages: Over using of fertilizers cause eutrophication

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

  Using Pesticides

Advantages: Less competition for light, nutrients and water

Disadvantages: Pesticides are non-biodegradable, so they accumulate in the food

chain reaching a toxic level where the top predators are highly affected as a result
of the bioaccumulation

 Monoculture growing a single crop in the same field year after year

Advantages: Nutrients and pests can be exactly matched to the crop. It also allows easier
mechanical harvesting

Disadvantages: 1-Easy spread of disease

2-More using up of minerals from the soil, so more fertilizers are required

3-Food chains are lost as only few species can grow so reducing the biodiversity

4-Increase in the population of pests of crop cause increase in the usage of insecticides which
may kill other harmless insects in addition to that, pests may be resistant to pesticides.

How to solve the problems of monoculture?

By allowing mixed crop rotation by growing different crops in same field for
successive years + Reducing pests by breaking their life cycles and improve the
mineral balance to enhance the soil fertility so less need of fertilizers

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

  Irrigation system

Advantages: Provide water for growing plants therefore removing limiting factors.

Disadvantages: Can lead to leaching of minerals leading to eutrophication

 Selective breeding using livestock

Advantages:

1- Used to produce new and enhanced varieties of plants and animals

2- Farmers use high energy food to feed livestock animals so increasing the production of
milk, meat, and wools of animal
3- Regular medications and vaccines are given to the animals to prevent spreading of
disease
4- Animals in the livestock are kept in optimum temperature to maximize their growth
rates.

Disadvantages:

1- Overcrowding in the place they’re kept in so disease can spread easily between them.
This is solved by giving doses of antibiotics, but this may develop other complication as
development of antibiotic resistant bacteria
2- Wastes produced from the intensive farming can pollute nearby lands and water ways
3- Spending too much money as it requires high input for buying food and medications for
animals
4- Decrease the biodiversity

 Genetic engineering

Advantages:

1-Production of crops rich in certain nutrients like golden rice rich in Vitamin A

2- Production of crops that is resistant to disease

3-Production of crops that are resistant to herbicides and insect pests

Disadvantages:

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 1- Plants engineered for pesticide resistance could cross pollinate with wild relatives
creating superweeds
 Deforestation

Advantages:

1- Provide more lands for crop cultivation

2- Remove habitat for pest herbivores

Disadvantages:

1- Rapid soil erosion

2- Removing forests is destruction of habitat of other species so cause a decrease in the
biodiversity
3- Affect the water cycle as change in the normal rate of transpiration

Excessive usage of antibiotics (Very important exam question)

 In the normal bacterial population, one resistant bacterial cell may evolve
as a result of mutation
 As a result of the over using of antibiotics, all population is killed
except for the resistant bacterial cells
 As a result of the natural selection, only the strains of the resistant
bacteria will survive as they’re the fittest
 A whole new population will be resistant to antibiotic treatment.

Causes of famine through the world

Increasing population

-The population is increasing because of the improved medical

services, so too many people are present for the available food.
Wars
-Too large population requires too many buildings so less lands are
available for cultivation so less food

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Wars

Working on the farms during wars is very dangerous. The farm workers
may be forced to join the army during this period. Crops may be
burned to deprive the people from food.

Cost of fuel and fertilizers

The crop yield may be low in developing countries as a result of poor

farmers is not able to afford fertilizers or fuel to run the machinery.

Weather

Drought: Less water available to grow crops, so the

animals will die.

Causes of drought:

 Deforestation (affect the water cycle

 Global warming (affect rate of rain fall)
 Diversion of water supply

Too much rain falls causes flooding:

Floods lead to soil erosion and loss of the soil fertility damaging the
plants as the maize.

The unequal distribution of food is because that some areas produce more food
than others due to more suitable environment or more advanced agriculture

Solution: Donating food for poor countries till they can plant their crops becoming self
sufficient

Self-sufficiency: - can be done by education and provision of water

supply (digging wells)

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Deforestation Definition: Cutting down of trees in tropical rain forests

Reasons for deforestation: -

 Getting wood to be used as fuel

 Clearing lands for crops
 Getting wood to be used as building
material
 Clearing lands for housing and
factories
 To extract natural resources

Impact of deforestation

Atmosphere

1- Decrease oxygen concentration as less oxygen gas produced by

photosynthesis
2- Increase in carbon dioxide as less Co2 removed by photosynthesis which
contributes global warming
3- Decrease the concentration of water vapor as less transpiration so less rain
leading to drought so difficult atmosphere for cultivation and to keep
livestock.

Soil

Decreasing the soil fertility leading to soil erosion: -

1-The roots of the trees help to hold soil in place mainly in

slopping land.

2- Without trees, rain can hit the top soil washing the soil down the slope as trees
were reducing the forces of water and wind on the soil

3-Cause hitting of the top soil (humus) leading to soil erosion.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Rivers Flooding is caused by the following:

Trees normally absorb water from the soil, so as a result of

deforestation no trees so less water absorbed by the roots
leading to run off over the surface of land into rivers leading
to flooding

Animals

Extinction of animals due to loss of habitat leading to a

decrease in the biodiversity

How to solve the problem of deforestation?

 Allow countries to sell “carbon credit” to

other richer ones. Rich countries pay more
money for those developing countries
having rainforests to conserve their forests
and those rich countries are then allowed
to produce more Co2 from their industrial
activities
 Raise the value of the forests through, pay people to plant trees on land
that is unsuitable for crops and through harvesting rainforest products
as fruits and nuts to export
 Reduce the energy needs through reuse and recycling of products and
limiting the growth of population

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Air Pollution

A-Greenhouse gases

They allow infra-red radiations to be kept in atmosphere making it

warmer. This is enhanced greenhouse effect

Sources of greenhouse gases: -

 Carbon dioxide: released from combustion of fossil fuel or from

deforestation
 Methane: Released from anaerobic bacteria living in organic
matter in mud in paddy OR as a waste gas by animals as cattle
which chew the cud OR Decaying rubbish in landfill OR from
sludge (sewage treatment)
 CFCs: Released from air conditioning and refrigerators

2-Effect of global warming

 Melting of ice caps, so more water flow in oceans causing a rise in sea level
with flooding of many low lying lands
 This causes a great climatic changes
 Evaporation of water from fertile areas to become a dry desert
 Destruction of wide areas of land including habitat of living organisms
leading to their extinction
N.B + Although the disadvantages of the consequences of global
warming, higher temperature and more carbon dioxide cause increase in
the rate of photosynthesis so more food is produced

Solution: -

 Replant new forests

 Use less fossil fuels and replace
with renewable energy
resources
 Stop deforestation

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Read only
C-Nuclear fall
out
Sources Consequences Effects

 Nuclear explosions Radiations may damage the DNA Gene mutation leading to
 Nuclear experiments molecules. Alpha radiations are Cancer or deformities in
 Leakage from a power the most ionizing so cause the baby.
station releasing most damage, but it only gets
radiations inside the body as it’s not able to
penetrate the skin. Gamma is the
least ionizing but the most
penetrating.

Water Pollution

Over-usage of organic fertilizers Throwing raw sewage in rivers

 Excessive usage of fertilizers flow into the If the raw sewage thrown into rivers they
nearby rivers or lakes provide a food source for many kinds of
 This causes over growth to the algae on bacteria to grow where they consume
oxygen to respire (eutrophication)
the lake surface forming algal bloom
Sewage contains pathogens causing
Blocking light from penetrating water surface: - harmful diseases

 No light reaching the aquatic plants below, Eg. Cholera, typhoid

so no photosynthesis and the aquatic
plants will die
 Aerobic bacteria decompose dead plants
using the oxygen dissolved in the water
 Anaerobic conditions in water cause death
of all aquatic life.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 How to solve water pollution problems: -
?
 Sewage treatment before it enters rivers
 Use organic fertilizers as manure as they contain less nitrates and they
release their nutrients gradually giving crop time to absorb them
efficiently
 Control the use of fertilizers through: -
1-Don’t place them when rain is forecast

2-Don’t spray fertilizers near streams and rivers

3-Never apply them to empty fields

Apply only when crops are growing

Pesticides
Herbicides

Used to stop growing of weeds and to kill them after they grow.

 When sprayed over crops, some herbicides may drift away into
surrounding and kill other plants (they are not specific in their function)
 They’re non-biodegradable so they will accumulate in the food chain
reaching toxic level (Bioaccumulation)

When any animal or plant disappear, this causes disturbance in one or more
food chains

Insecticides Fungicides

Kill insects to prevent Kill fungi spores in air

them from eating or on seeds or even
plants. soil.

How to solve the problem of pesticides side effect?

 Use genetically modified crops that are resistant to be attacked by insects

 Use biological pest control method
 Use biodegradable pesticides (biological pests) Eg. DDT.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Non-Biodegradable Materials

Source Effects Solution of the problem?

Plastics are mainly used as  Prevent passage of oxygen, so if Recycling Plastics

packaging and transporting they’re present in the landfills
materials. They can be easily they’ll inhibit natural
shaped to fit different products. decomposition of other wastes
Plastics are made from large  They block the passage of water
hydrocarbon molecules that can though the drainage channels,
be decomposed by normal leading to water logging of soil
microbial way. reducing oxygenation and
decreasing the soil fertility.

Female Contraceptive Hormones

Source Effects

 Reduce sperm count in

Female contraceptive hormones males.
are washed into water when  Feminization of
they’re excreted into urine. aquatic organisms

Conservation

It’s the process of caring about the natural environment to: -

 Maintains or increase the biodiversity of plants and animal’s species

 Maintain natural resources as water or fossil fuels

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 A-Protecting Endangered Species

Species whose population decreased, so it’s hard to

breed them leading to loss of the genetic variation and
many of those species may extinct.

Causes: -

 Habitat destruction and deforestation

 New species introduced to the ecosystem acting as a
predator where the native species are not able to adapt
 Disease
 Lack of food
 Pollution and climatic change

How to protect endangered species?

1-Captive Breeding Programmes

By keeping animals in a suitable area and allow them to

breed to get a large number of offspring, and then
introduce them back to the surrounding. This process is
organized to keep as much as genetic diversity as possible.

2-Conserving fish stocks

There is a great concern that if we don’t reduce the fish

catching, the population of fish will get too small that there
won’t be enough adult fish to breed and sustain the population.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 How to sustain fish stocks?

Education:-

 Understanding of fish migration pattern to advise the fishing

fleet about where and when they are able to obtain the best
catches of adult and mature fish
 Identification of valuable species
 Study the fish population and monitor the change in the population over
time

Restocking: -

By breeding large number of fish of certain

species in fish hatcheries and release the fish
back again.

Setting legal quotes: -

By allow catching certain quantities and certain species of fish. Rules should
be enforced by inspectors who visit boats and sea. Also check the catches
that are brought to land.

Controlling the size of mesh: -

Size and shape of the mesh are designed to allow

immature fish to escape and return back to water to
reproduce.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 3-Keeping natural resources as conserving forests

 Planting new trees to replace the cut ones, but this still can’t replace the primary
forest as primary ones must be conserved
 Coppicing: Cutting down trees down to about 1 meter or less and then left to
regrow
 Governments should refuse to give license to companies who want to cut down
valuable forests

 Education to help people to know the importance of conserving forests

 Rather than clearing the whole forests, just a small proportion of trees are cut
down, so the remaining trees will hold the soil in place and will be able to provide
habitats for animals

4-Seed Bank

Seeds are able to stay dormant for several years and then germinate when the
conditions are optimum. Seeds can be collected and stored of different plant
species that are threatened with extinction. We can grow them either in captivity
or reintroduce into their natural habitat.

5- Monitoring and protecting species in their natural habitat

6-Education about the importance of conservation

7-Restoring damaged habitats

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

B- By using sustainable resources

What are the sustainable resources?

Resources which can be removed from the environment without running out

Why to use sustainable resources of energy?

Fossil fuels are formed millions of years ago from dead plants, animals and bacteria as they
are partially decayed bodies were compresses and formed coal, oil and natural gas to be
extracted by fractional distillation process. They took very long time so they can’t be replaced.

1-Recycling Metals

To save energy that would be used in mining metal ores and extracting metals from them.

N.B Extracting metals from their ores as Iron from hematite or aluminum from bauxite are
totally expensive and energy consuming.

2-Recycling glass

Glass is made by heating sand to very high temperature which release large amount of
carbon dioxide.

Used glass can be crushed and melted at very high temperature to make a new one, so
less carbon dioxide produced and fewer raw materials also used (sand)

3-Recycling paper

Paper made from cellulose fibers collected from plants and mainly trees

How to recycle paper?

Waste paper is collected then pulped. The dyes are removed and then the pulp is rolled into
sheets. The sheets are dried and then converted into other paper products.

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 What are the advantages of paper recycling?

 Less water and land pollution than making new papers

and more fibers would be available for other usage
 Less energy is used for collection and transportation
 Reduction of the number of trees that has to be cut to
make new trees

4-Recycling Plastics

As plastics are made from fossil fuels, so reusing or recycling of plastic can reduce the amount
of fossil fuels we have to use to make new plastics.

Sustainable Development

Providing for the needs of an increasing human population without harming the environment

Why to conserve?

.
 Maintain the biodiversity
 Less pollution
 Preserve the natural resources
 Avoid climatic changes
 Avoid plant extinction as some of them contain chemicals than
can be used as dugs
 Maintain the balance of the ecosystem
 Avoid animal extinction as loss of single species have harmful
effect on other species as it causes disturbances of the food chain

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

 Planning and cooperation should be done with: -

1-International organization
C
2-Local people mainly as farmers

3-National governments who set regulations to make sure

those new developments are planned and constructed with
environment in mind

Method of
1-Requires sufficient land area to grow crops

2-Livestock must be protected from predators

3-Reduce risk of extinction by over hunting

4-Maintain the population size to maintain genetic

variation

Revision Diagrams on Ecology

Humans and their environment

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Dr. Ahmed Shafai
Summary

Dr. Ahmed Shafai

Dr. Ahmed Shafai