FX ANALYSIS

DiFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND Court

CONPLEX .
a + h be a
346 ANALYSIs 1.et point in the 47
neighbourhond of the a.
FORMULA by Cauchy s integral formula point
6.22. CAUCHY'S INTEGRAL
a closed curve C and if a is any Doins
Statement. is analytic within and on point within C,
If f(:)
then flo) 2
f(a)
Sla + h)
Proof. Consider the function fE)hich is analytic at all points within C, except 7a-h
z= a.
With the a as centre and radius r. draw a small circle C Iying entirely within C.
point Sla + h) - fla) =
Now f) is analytic in the region between C and C; hence
theorem for multipie connected region, we
by Cauchy's integral
have
-
.(-a h) (z- a)
-a
a+h)-fla)
h
f) d
..(i) - a - h)(z- a)
a
Take limit as h > 0
For any point on C
Fig. 6.28 lim lim f)&
lim fa+h)-fa)
Now h0, h a-h) ( - u)
de =
[[z-a re" =
fE)ja)dz =[a+rejdire and dz
ire de]
= -
= 0
fla+re) f(a)ji d8 [where r tends to Aliter (Alternate Proof): We know Cauchy's integral formula
0
fla):
0
u-jia-1o". Differentiating (i) w.r.t. 'a', we get
Putting the values of the
integrals we
of R.H.S. in (i),
have
dz = 0+ f(a) . 2mi f'la)
6.23. CAUCHY'S
fla)2-
INTEGRAL fa) =
ANALYTIC FUNCTION FORMULA FOR THE DERIVATIVE OF AN Similarly,
Statement. If a
of R is also function f(z) is analytic in a
analytic in R and is
given by region R, then its derivative at f d:
any pon
a) in
first order derivative f'(z)
here f() possesses
that if a tunction in that region. Therefore
e
C is any
closed contour in R above formulae establish derivatives of higher order
all ttie themselves all analytic.
the possesses are
=
surrounding point z a. Connected region, it derivatives of all orders and these
l ue tunction possesses
alytie
 OMPLEX ANALYSIS
DIFFERENTIAL QUATIONS AND
CoMPLEX ANALYSIS
350 351
+. where C is the circle of unit
Example 6.54. Find the value of radius with
dz
centre at z = 1. C2
Solution. The integrand has singularities given by
- 1 =0
By Cauchy's Integral Formula)
= 1.
point z
The given circle is C:lz- 1l= 1 which includes the 2i(1)+2ni(-1)=0
() The given curve C is a circle with centre at (1, 0) and
adius
Only the singularity z = 1 lie inside the given circle
C 12-11=1
-1= 1 z= 1
-1
.

(1,0)
0
Example 6.55. Evaluate, using Cauchy's integral formula Fig. 6.30 Fig 6.32
, wherec is Izl = 2. z+1 By Cauchy's Integral Formula]
(z-i)
Solution. Here a = i lies inside the circle l z l = 2 27Tt
f() = z - 2z + 1 is analytic within and on C. ii) The given curve C is a circle with centre at origin
By Cauchy's integral formula
(0,0) and radius
f(z) C=Izl= 1/2
= z -1 lie outside
Clearly both the singularities z 1 and z
"c(z-i
the given circle
= Izl=;
d z =2nif'() =2n -22+1D;-i 2ni [32- 2), =i
-

Hence, by Cauchy's integral theorem

21ti =
[3i 2] -10i
0 Fig. 6.33
Example 6.56. Evaluate where C is the circle,
d where C is the
i) lz-11=1 formula to evaluate
ci) lzl= ample 6.57. Use Cauchy's integral
Solution. The integrand has
singularities given by
-1 =0 cirele I z l = 1.
z
() The given curve C is C 1zl= 3/2
a circle with centre
at Solution. Let d =
(0,0) and radius origin
Ca C
Both the =
singularities z I and = = 2.
z =
a
circle lzl= -1 lie and n
inside the = z,
S) cos
Fig. 6.31
 cOMPLEX ANALYSIs
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND
352 CoMPLEX ANA 35
So f(z) is analytic within and on the simple NALYSIS
Now, f(:)is analytic everywhere. simple AB
closed curve
C and 3C CA
Along AB, y = 1, dy = 0 B(-1,1)
lies within C because Therefore, by Cauchy's integral
a point formula 7 A(1, 1)
f" (a) 2nie-a) e dzead
AB
We have 6cOS
-
)-={)
Now f') = -2 cos z sin z = - sin 2z
C-1, 1)
=
s") -2 cos
2z )--2cos- Fig. 6.35
cOS dz =-TU Je dz = -i(i-1--1)
Hence
AB
Along BC, = =
-1, dr 0
Example 6.58. Evaluate the
following integral
using Cauchy integral formula BC
dz fee)idy=ie" fe" dy 1
where C
Jz(a-1&-2)
is the circle I zl =
-ie (e -el)= -i(ei-ei-) .(ii)
Solution. Poles of the Along CA, y = x, dy = d
integrand are
=
=
z(z- 1) (z-2) 0 or z 0, 1, 2 y
Je d ) (dr +idr) = (l+i)je'l-i* d
Fig. 6.34 CA -1 -1
Given circle |zl= with centre at
origin (0, 0) and radius
encloses two poles z =0 and
4-3z 4-3z
=
-1(-2 d 4-32
f=Da-2. (iii)
From (i), (i) and (ii)
2T 43z e dz = -iei-l +ieil-ie"i*l +iei-l - ie'-' +iei*l = 0
a-DE-2 2 By Cauchy Integral Fommual
2Tu. 4 or
e dz=0
=
2ni Hence the Cauchy theorem is verified.
(2-1)
=21ti.
Example 6.59. Verify
-
=
triangle with the Cauchy where C is I z 1 l 3.
vertices at the Theorem Example 6.60. Evaluate ,
points 1 + i,by-1 integrating e the the +1) (-2) =
Solution. Je" dz + i along 0) and radius 3.
-

along the and -1 o Cutlon. I 1 I = 3 is a circle with centre

- i. z at z=l(r=1,y
=
of the
given boundary
at z=-l, z 2.
rangle
triangle (z-2) all points except
+
with vertices (1 The function+1? i s analytic
i), (-1+)*
 COMPLEX ANALYSIS
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATiONS AND
CoMPLEY Au 355
354 =
consider 8ti
f(c) 2ni (2.2-2 2)
inside C. Firstly
Both these points lie f3) =0: z=3 lies outside C.
e Example 6.62. Use Cauchy's integral formula to
f (+ 1 egktulate:
'a =2 Z=2 d , where c is 1zl=1.
and
formula (1,0) 14,0x Solution. The integral has singularities where
By Cauchy's integral
2nif a ) =
(22+ 1) 0 ie. at z = 0 and z = -
z- a
Fig. 6.36 Both these points lie within the circle lzl=41
f() = t +1 is an analytic function
dz = 2nti f (2) = 2ti lf2) L=2
Also
)
(z+1=2
...0)
= 'a' = -1 we have from the
Next considering f(z) and Cauchy's integral formula
f) By Cauchy's integral formula
s 2 g-aT
For n = 1
d =f0) and
21ti
f 2ni Jc (z+1
where f() =+ 1 S0)=1 and 1
2mi f(a) = 2mi f-1) =
2mr z=-1 these values in (i), we get
t-2)(+ +1 Putting
2mi 2 = * d : =2nif(0)- 2ni 1
z-1 22+1)
Hence from () and (i), we have
21-23
9e sin +US d z where C is
which is the 2
required result. formula to evaluate(1)(2-2)
integral C
Example 6.63. Use Cauchy
the circle lzl =3.
Applying this we get the same result as above. X
sin T2+COS -dz
and circle Solution. -Dc-2 denominator
=
Example 6.61. Evaluate f(2) { and C is the
f(3) where f a) -d the
Izl 2.5. are given by putting
oles of the integrand
Solution. () For a =2 z= 1, 2
to lie Cqual to zero. =
=
within the circle Iz l 2.5 - 1) (z -2) =0 Fig 6.37
noles = 2.
/ n at z 1,
 OMPLEX ANALYSIS
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND COMPLEX ANALYSi
358 =

35
16, =
If f) where C is the circle
(ii) The ellipse
Jz-E47
C
+ ý 9, ind the
of f(3). f'(1 -
i) and
+ il= 1 [Ans. (i) -6Ti (ii) -6Tti Ans. (7) 0, (ii) 2t (6 +
(ii) The circle I z (ii) 0j 13/), (ii) 12ti]
-
1l= 1.
dz, where C is the ellipse
az, circle I z 17. Evaluate 4x+9y =1.
3. Evaluate C is the [Ans. zero 32+2 [Ans. 0]
where C is the circle I = 2. 18. If f() = a+ bz + cz and dz = d={ - 2ti. hen fud e
4. Evaluate dz Iz [Ans. 10til f)
C
-1
= Evaluate using Cauchy's integral formula Ans.f2) =1+z+y]
5. Show that the vanishes if C is the unit circle I z I 1.
integral Jz
. -( 2 dz, where C: Izl=3. [Ans. 12ti]
dz, where C is the circle I z - 1 I = 1.
6. Evaluate (Ans. 47ti
I I = 3.
z
-1)E-2) 47, where C:
7. Compute where C is the square described in the positive sense with sides parallel to the axis 21. d z , where C: Izl =2. [Ans. 0
and of length 2a and having its centre at the origin.
[Ans. 21i)
where C: l z - 2 1 = As 4
22.
=
-
8. a where +7d,
If f) J- Cis+, find f(), fO. [Ans. 20ti, 21t(i 1)
dz where C: I z- 1l= 3.
9. Evaluate by Cauchy's integral formula
+ d ,Clz-1l=2. [Ans. 2nie
= 3.
dz, where C: Izl
10. (a) Evaluate Sn za around the circle I z l = 1. -)(e-2
Ans. 1t
Ans.
dz, where C: Iz l = 4.
25.
(b) Evaluate where C is I z I = 1. [Ans. zeroj
},-zk = 3.
26. dz, where C: Izl
11. If C be the closed curve [Ans-10il
containing the origin, show that
27. 2-22+1
-where C:Izl=2.
Ams.-i)
12. Evaluate z dz 28.
2 o8z
where d Iz-1l= [Ans. 4u
Cis the circle -1
29. Sin T t cOs E d where C: I:lz4.
() Izl=3 -1-2
)lzl= [Ans. (i) 2ni, (ii) -
13 Evaluate T 6.25. POWER SERIES
z I = Ans 4N
J(z-a-2d where C is the circle I 3. ..0)
A series of the form
14. 24,(-a) and a are
Evaluate *. variable a,,
using Cauchy's integral formula 32 (-a) is a complex
dz where C is the circle i zl=2. 4 t a (z-a) +a, where z
series.
power = +a
called a
2-1) (z+ 3) variable is z g
nose terms a r e 24,merely
by substitution
15. If =
f) (47 reduced to
Pdz where C is the form can be
elipse , find f(), F). r ) constants.
The given
CA
andf"e
-

-1414, 10
As. 20ni, 2n(i 1), by changing the origin.
 ANALYSISS
COMPLEX ANAL
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS
360 a + h' is also a
361
Sinila
point inside C,
6.26. CIRCLE AND RADIUS OF cONVERGENCE OF A PoWER SERIES
Definition: The circle I +h) 2--h
zl=R, which includes all the values of z for which the power series
is convergent is called the circle of convergence of the series. The radius R of f)d
2n=0 such
circle is called the radius of convergence of the series.
By Cauchy's theorem on limits, radius of convergence R is given by
Now the expression can be expanded by means of Binomial
(a)liml, l/n (b) theorem, because
6.27. INFINITE SERIES OF COMPLEX TERMS
From equation (0), we have
Consider the infinite series of terms + +
complex (a ib,) + (a2 iba) t ...+(a, +
ib,) + .()
.
are real numbers. If the series
where a. bi.
az, b2, 24, and 2b, are both convergent, then fa +h)
the series () is called 2 lez- -a
convergent. If the series 24, and 2b, converge to A and B
the series (7) is
respectively, then
convergent, then as in the case of series of real terms, we havem (a, + ib,)=0.
6.28. ABsoLUTE CONVERGENCE
The series (i) is said to
fla)+ hf @+la)+... a)
be absolutely convergent if the series
|a +ib |+|a +ib2 |+..+|a, +ib, |+.. a)= dby Cachy's integralformula
is convergent.
Since ia, Isla,
+ib, I and 1b, Isla, + it Hence fla + h) =fla) +hf'la)+7l+ f
ib, l, follows that an
series is as
convergent. The converse is not true. absolutely convergent -
write the Tayor's expansions
'h' z a. we can
Cor. 1. Replacing 'a + h' by z or by
6.29. UNIFORM CONVERGENCE
If the series of = fl)+(-)f ta)+ f"a)
function fE)
so that f() remains amalytic at all points
drawn around 'a' = a, and
=
circle C that can be series for f() about 2
)+s+...+ f. (2) +... ES,2) ote. 1. The convergence
of Taylor's
..i) d e the circle, is called the circle of
Converges to S(z) and r a d i u s of this circle is called the
radius of covergence.
S,(z) is its nth partial sum, then the
convergent in a region R, if series is said to be uniformaly 2 If a = 0, then we have
on E that not on z, any positive number E, there exists a (ii)
such that positive number N, ").
-

depending =
f0)+z.f0)+")+
S(z) S,(z) I < e S)
for all n > N.
So
which is Maclaurin's series. a, R,>0. we ger
6.30. TAYLOR'S SERIES terms and when n
we have a remainder R, after n
Statement. If f(2) is an a y l o r ' s series
of radius R and analytic n i t e terms in Taylor's series expansion.
centre at z= "a' and function at all points within a circle C
C. then 'a + h' is
another point inside the circle a+h T6.31. LAURENT'S SERIES bounded by
region D
+ in a
fla h) +
ring shaped and there is another
= 'a'
=fla) hfa)+ atement. If f() is analytic centre z
circles and c, with
Proof. Since f(z) is "la)+... a) t. centric c,
analytic within C and 'a' is n Di
"nta+ h' in the region D. then we have
any Fig. 6.40
point inside it, we have +.
fla + h) =24 +ah* + . +a
Fig. 6.39 +
+. . +ah
4+a,h +ah + a,h
 ANALYSIS 0
C o M P L
362 DIPFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND CoMPLEX ANALYSIS
where f) d (-a
and f3) dz for n = 0, 1, 2, ..
(-a)+1
T =haj + ha^ + *a t.. + h + a, + h 'a.
Proof. Let the ring shaped region D be bounded by two concentric circles C and C with Z-a
their common centre at z = 'a' and radii R, and R, respectively (R2 < R). 2
Let 'a +h' be any point in the region D.
As fa) is analytic in D, we have Cauchy's integral formula for doubly connected region
(iiñ) and (v) in (i), we have
Using equations
.
...i) + + . . + + + +
fla + h) ha, ha +h*a h"a
=a, + ha,
Now S ) dz
where
ii)
, 2T a**
and
On C. we have
which proves the result.
.
+ .
. .
+ + + h'az + +h'a, +h'a +ha +h"a, +
can be expanded by Binomial Theorem. Equation (ii) reduces to fla h) =a ha,
-
+ h' z ie. 'h' by z a, getting -
- -
Replace 'a by + + + (z
(: aj'a, a)a
h" f ) =4% +(z aa, +(-a)'a, t
f)& + + a,
a)a, ( -a)
(z-a)"
+ a - a ) +az -a)+ +a,z - a)+.
S(2) =4
the function
-
(S)4 a) to represent
-
= a + ha, + h'a, + ... +ha, +. .iii) powers of (z a) (positive
or obtained in positive integral powers of (z
Notes. 1. A series series obtained in integral
) iS laylor's series. On the other hand, a
or Laurent's
Laurent's series Taylor's
negative) represents the to obtain
Binomial theorem
by
a function f(z) is expanded is a
Sually integration tedious job.
1 0 obtain the s a m e by complex
On C2, we have SOLVED EXAMPLES
series
power
can be expanded by Binomial theorem. Equation (iv) reduces to convergence
of the following
radius of
ple 6.66. Find the
( ) 23+4/)" z"
-
1z-a) j{)dz - flz) dt.
C2
Solution. () Here
 PLEX ANALYSIS
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND CoMPL
COMPLEX ANALYSIS that by e 371
370 We know Taylor's series
Obviouslyltl<1|
-
flz) + (z
=fla) a) f'la) + "(a) + f"(a) +..
-1--2)-1+(a-2) = f0)+f0)+0)+0)*..
On expanding by Binomial theorem
Putting the values sin z 0+z(l)+
Irl =lz-21< 1, we get
-0+a-2)+(G-2 + (-2* + (a-2)* +.
-1) 2-3)
--(-2)+(a-2 -(a-2 +(z-2y-..
=-1 - (z -2 - ( - 2)" - (z - 2)°.. Example 6.77. Expand # in Taylor's series about
=-[1 +(z - 2) +(z - 2)" +(z - 2)°+ ...]
= 0 (i) about z = 1.
i) the point z
Alternately f) =fla) +(z -a) f(a) + a) + . Solution. (i) About the point z = 0
f) -)G-3 1
-42+3 -) + 1
=(- 1) [1 - z +#-? + +
a =
2, we have =
Expanding by Binomial theorem]
Taking f(a) Sa)=4-34+3
=(z-+?-:+i-)+-1+: -:+?-)
4-2 = -12: - + ? - : )
f) 2-42 +3* f l a ) =f(2) = 0
() About the point z = 1+i =l-+ De=)+2T
Similarly s (c) =
E-42+9.2-2022-4 (-42+32
-42+3
f"a) =f"(2) = -2 and so on.
Example 6.76. Expand the function
sin z in powers of z.
Solution. fa) = sin z,
f0) = 00
in the region
s') = Example 6.78. Expand
f'(0) = 1 1l<2
(i) 1 <1zl<2 (i) IzI>2 (iv)1 <Iz -
()Izl < 1
=
) =
f"0)=0 1
2/- ) Solution. Let -
f"(z) = By partial fractions, we havee
1-x (1-23/2J"(0)=1
S"(2) =
" (0) =0
ase ():When II < 1. then
=
)
-. s') = 3
301-xS2-3x.-x,"(-2x)
(1-x*
 COMPLEX ANALYSIS
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS
372
By Binomial theorem,
373
[Expand by binomial
theorem
Case (i) When 1 < Izl<2
which is the required Laurent's series
=
(i)
By Binomial theorem, we have
Izl>3
f)
S2)
Case (ii) When Iz I> 2:
Then and
-
f) =- which is the required Laurent's expansion.
(ii)
By Binomial theorem, we have
)-a-gr"
Expanding by Binomial Theorem, we get
-( = z+3z +...
Ans.
Case (iv): When 1
<lz - 1I<2, then
which is the required expansion.
(iv) Now 0 <lz + 1|<2
Put z + l=t
'. 0 <ltl< 2.
Exampie 6.79. Expand f(2) = Now
z in a (+12
)1<IzI<3 Laurent's series valid
i) IzI < 1 (i) Iz 1>3 10
Expanding by Binomial theorem as
iv)
Solution. (i) 0<z +11< 2.
f) 9-(9---4
B y partial fractions)
 CoMPLEX ANALYSIS
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND
374 NE COMPLEX ANALYSIs
Example 6.80. Find the Laurent's series which represent the function -4
when 1<lzl<4.
(z+1) (z+4)
Solution.
-4 =
Jt) (by partial
(+1)(t+4) z+1) (z+4) fractions)
When 1 <lzl<4, we can write
This is an expansion
of f(z) in Laurent:series.
f) = 1 Case (ii): z+1 >3: We can write
n=0 n=0
=1+-1*l
4 n=0
n=0 n=0
This is an
expansion of f(2) in Laurents series.
Example 6.81. Find the Laurene's series for 7-2
n the region given by
Sz)=3.2 EXERCISE 6.5
)0<lz +1l<1 (ti) 1<lz + 1l<3 1. Find the
(ii) Iz +11>3 radius of convergence of
the following power series:
Solution. Let 73-2 (i) 21 (
By partial friction, we have
(ii) Ans. ()(ü) 4, (i) 2|
Case i) When 0 <lz+1l< 1: 2. .bala+ ).D0,+ has unit
we can write Prove that the power seres I radius of convergence.
1.2.cfc+)
=
f)
-{[1-(t+ 1) - -
S.Expand in Taylor's series about
(0) the =
point z 0 Gn ~-)-- -
(i) the point z = 1 Ans (0)1--:+-
4.
n= Expand around z=i where
n=0
()0<lz -il<l Ans 0-+Xc-)+4ic-9*..
i) Iz -
il>T +1)(+ 4) e n
This is a series of
negative and lnd the Laurent's or
Laurent's series. positive power of (z + ff() in expansion 2+D+4)
1), hence it is an
Case (ii) : When 1 expansio (i)
1:l>2 Ans
<|z+l|<3 we can ()Izl< (i) 1 <lzl<2
write
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND COMPLEX ANALYSi COMPLEX ANALYSIs
37
the Tuncuon
-1 ne region I zl< 2.
to represent (:+2) (z +3) ZEROS OF AN
6. Obtain the Taylor's series 6:32.
A zero of an
ANALYTIC FUNCTION 377
analytic function f(2) is a value of
Hint. Ans. 1 f z such that
=
the function is analytic at a 0.
point a, then there exists a fz)
which the z =
=
1-cos In Laurent S series about the point z 0. hroughout function 5 point a, neighbourhood of the
7. Expand 3 represented by a Taylor series. f(z)=
(a) where z
a, (z-a)" where n=0
=a is a zero
n! =
8. Expand sin : as a Taylor's series aboutz = 7
of f(z) then fla) 0
L
afa) =0.
If, in addition to this,
|Hint. f:)= fla) +(z - a)f'(a) + f"(a)+.
2!
f'(a)=0= f"(a)=... =fn-" (a), but f"
have a zero of order m at z = a. (a) #0, then f(z) is said to
It may also be seen that since m f" (a)
Put a-f)= sin z a, = a . = 4m - 1 but am # 0. m
hence at a zero of order m, we have ag = 0=
fla)= sin etc.
2 Thus in the =
neighbourhood of the zero z a of order m the
the series function f(2) is as
9. as -

represented
Expand =
Laurent's series in powers of (z T) the function f(z)
=
**
fa) a,m (z- a) +am+1(-a)+
=
=
Ans-1--t-+ (z-a)" [4, +a-1 (z-a) +...)
10. =
Expand about z 1 in Laurent's series.
(t-a)2*n(t- a)"
or f() = (z-a)" o(:)
11. Find the Laurent's Series
expansion of the function
where oCz) = 24,m+n(z- a)" = 4, +4-i(-a) +..
2-62-1
(t-1)-3)+2 n the region 3 < Iz + 21< 5.
IS
analytic and non-zero in the of = a
neighbourhood z a. As matter of fact o(:) is equal to
am at z = a.
=
As a matter of fact is to atz a.
12. Obtain Laurent series
3,,u. f(z) equal a,
expansion for = i = a is a zero of the function if
function: Note: The zero is said to be simple if m 1, ie., simple
Ja) =
3-27 0 and
f'(a) + 0.
-32 valid in the interval 15.33. SINGULARITIES OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION
13. Expand e about the z = l in
singularity laurent's series. or singularity
Apoint a at which a function f(2) is not analytic is known as singular point
" ) . There are as
different types of singularities
= a a
Ans a-1 discussed below is
the
Expand +-1? +-1) singularity off() and
following functions in
-D+-} solated singularity and Non-isolated singularity: fz
Laurent's series: = = a is said
is no the point z a, then z
other singularity within a small circle surounding
14. J2) to otherwise it is called non-isolated.
(z-1)(2-3 10r 1 z - 1 l < 2
isolated singularity of the function f();
at z =l and z=2.
15. f ) For is analytic everywhere except
(2-1)(2+3 10r < lzl< 3. example, the function J\:)- 1)(:-2) in
function; there are no other singularities of f(:)
16. Thus 2 are
the only singularities of this
f(2)= for he l. 2 =
= are the isolated singularities of this
- =
1<lz+ l<2.
A =
17.
heighbourhood of z I and z 2; theretore
at the points where
Find Laurent's
4 (z+1
series 42 -1 (2* not analytic
expansion of unctie This tunction is
the On. Consider another function
about point z =0.
tan
= 1.2=i
= (n=1,2,3,.). Thus,
Ans. n t , ie., a
the points are
ee(2:)" at the the singularities
n=0
=0.e., points lie on real axis. All
all of which
dre the singu.arities
of the function