Elements of Image Interpretation for Landform Identification and Evaluation

Image interpretation for landform identification and evaluation is based on a systematic

observation and evaluation of key elements that are studied stereoscopically. These are
topography, drainage pattern and texture, erosion, image tone, and vegetation and land use.
Topography
Each landform and bedrock type described here has its own characteristic topographic form,
including a typical size and shape. In fact, there is often a distinct topographic change at the
boundary between two different landforms. With vertical photographs having a normal 60%
overlap, most individuals see the terrain exaggerated in height about four times. Consequently,
slopes appear steeper than they actually are. The specific amount of vertical exaggeration
observed in any given stereopair is a function of the geometric conditions under which the
photographs are viewed and taken.
Drainage Pattern and Texture
The drainage pattern and texture seen on aerial and space images are indicators of landform and
bedrock type and also suggest soil characteristics and site drainage conditions. Six of the most
common drainage patterns are illustrated in Figure 8.34.
Dendritic drainage pattern
This is the most common pattern. This type of drainage pattern is characterized by irregular
branching of tributary streams flowing in many directions (looks like the branching of a tree)
and at almost any angles, although usually at less than a right angle (less than 90 degrees). Such
a pattern develops upon homogeneous rocks of uniform resistance to weathering and
demonstrates lack of structural control. Dendritic drainage patterns are mostly found upon
nearly horizontal sedimentary rocks or in areas of massive igneous rocks.
Trellis drainage pattern
This patterns look similar to the common garden trellis. It consists of streams having one
dominant direction while the short subsequent streams meet the main stream at right angles.
This occurs in areas of tilted or folded sedimentary rocks. synclines form valleys in which resides
the main channel of the stream. Short tributary streams enter the main channel at sharp angles
as they run down sides of parallel ridges called anticlines.
Rectangular drainage pattern
The rectangular drainage pattern is formed basically when the main stream bends at right angles
and the tributaries join the main stream at right angles creating rectangular patterns. It occurs
where streams are guided by intersecting joints, usually in plutonic or metamorphic rocks. It is
characterized by right- angled bends and right-angled junctions between tributaries and the
principal stream.
It results from the structural control imposed by the jointing or fault pattern of the underlying
rocks. It differs from trellis pattern drainage, since it is more irregular and its tributary streams
are not as long or as parallel as in trellis drainage.
Radial drainage pattern
The radial drainage pattern is formed by streams that radiate outward from a central area as is
typical of volcanoes and domes.
centripetal drainage pattern
The centripetal drainage pattern is the reverse of the radial drainage pattern (drainage is directed
toward a central point). The streams converge from all sides in the low lying basins. Such patterns
are found on areas of limestone sinkholes, craters and other basin-like depressions.
Deranged drainage pattern
It represents a drainage pattern which has no clear geometry in the drainage and no true river
valley pattern. This uncoordinated pattern is characteristic of a region that has been recently
vacated by an ice-sheet. It is a disordered pattern of aimlessly directed short streams, ponds, and
wetland areas typical of ablation glacial till areas.
Drainage texture
Coupled with drainage pattern is drainage texture. Figure 8.35 shows coarse textured and fine-
textured drainage patterns. Coarse-textured patterns develop where the soils and rocks have
good internal drainage with little surface runoff. Fine-textured patterns develop where the soils
and rocks have poor internal drainage and high surface runoff. Also, fine-textured drainage
patterns develop on soft, easily eroded rocks, such as shale, whereas coarse-textured patterns
develop on hard, massive rocks, such as granite.
Erosion
Gullies are small drainage features that may be as small as a meter wide and a hundred meters
long. Gullies result from the erosion of unconsolidated material by runoff and develop where
rainfall cannot adequately percolate into the ground but instead collects and flows across the
surface in small rivulets. These initial rivulets enlarge and take on a particular shape characteristic
of the material in which they are formed. As illustrated in Figures 8.36 and 8.37, short gullies with
V-shaped cross sections tend to develop in sand and gravel; gullies with U-shaped cross sections
tend to develop in silty soils; and long gullies with gently rounded cross sections tend to develop
in silty clay and clay soils.
Image Tone
The term image tone refers to the “brightness” at any point on an aerial or space image. The
absolute value of the image tone depends not only on terrain characteristics but also on image
acquisition factors such as choice of spectral bands and filters, exposure, and image processing.
Image tone also depends on meteorological and climatological factors such as atmospheric haze,
sun angle, and cloud shadows. Because of the effect of these non-terrain-related factors, image
interpretation for terrain evaluation must rely on an analysis of relative tone values, rather than
absolute tone values. Relative tone values are important because they often form distinct image
patterns that may be of great significance in image interpretation. The effect of terrain conditions
on relative image tone can be seen in Figure 8.37c. In the case of bare soils (nonvegetated soils),
the lighter toned areas tend to have a topographically higher position, a coarser soil texture, a
lower soil moisture content, and a lower organic content. Figure 8.37c shows a striking tonal
pattern often seen on fine-textured glacial till soils. The tonal differences are caused by
differences in sunlight reflection due principally to the varying moisture content of the soil. The
lighter toned areas are somewhat poorly drained silt loam soils on rises to 1 m above the
surrounding darker toned areas of very poorly drained silty clay loam soils. The degree of contrast
between lighter and darker toned bare soils varies depending on the overall moisture conditions
of the soil, as illustrated in Plate 36. The sharpness of the boundary between lighter and darker
toned areas is often related to the soil texture. Coarser textured soils will generally have sharper
gradations between light and dark tones while finer textured soils will generally have more
gradual gradations. These variations in tonal gradients result from differences in capillary action
occurring in soils of different textures. Our discussion of image interpretation for terrain
evaluation relates primarily to the use of panchromatic imagery because this image type has
historically received the most use for this purpose. Subtle differences in soil and rock colors can
be detected using multiple bands in the visible part of the spectrum, and subtle differences in
soil moisture and vegetation vigor can be detected using at least one near-infrared band. Because
there is a wide variety of soil and vegetation colors possible on color and color infrared images,
it is not possible to consider them all here. Therefore, our discussion of image tone will describe
tone as the shades of gray seen on panchromatic images. Persons working with color or color
infrared photographs (or other sensors such as multispectral or hyperspectral scanners or side-
looking radar) of specific geographic regions at specific times of the year can work out their own
criteria for image tone evaluation following the principles outlined in this section.
Vegetation and Land Use
Differences in natural or cultivated vegetation often indicate differences in terrain conditions.
For example, orchards and vineyards are generally located on welldrained soils, whereas truck
farming activities often take place on highly organic soils such as muck and peat deposits. In many
cases, however, vegetation and land use obscure differences in terrain conditions and the
interpreter must be careful to draw inferences only from meaningful differences in vegetation
and land use. The Image Interpretation Process Through an analysis of the elements of image
interpretation (topography, drainage pattern and texture, erosion, image tone, vegetation, and
land use), the image interpreter can identify different terrain conditions and can determine the
boundaries between them. Initially, image interpreters will need to consider carefully each of the
above elements individually and in combination in order to estimate terrain conditions. After
some experience, these elements are often applied subconsciously as the interpreter develops
the facility to recognize certain recurring image patterns almost instantaneously. In complex
areas, the interpreter should not make snap decisions about terrain conditions but should
carefully consider the topography, drainage pattern and texture, erosion, image tone,
vegetation, and land use characteristics exhibited on the aerial and space images. In the
remainder of this section, we examine several of the principal bedrock types common on the
earth’s surface. For each of these, we consider geologic origin and formation, soil and/or bedrock
characteristics, implications for land use planning, and image identification using the elements of
image interpretation for terrain evaluation. Our illustrations are limited to occurrences in the
United States. We emphasize the recognition of clear-cut examples of various bedrock types. In
nature, there are many variations to each type. Interpreters working in specific localities can use
the principles set forth here to develop their own image interpretation keys. In cases where
distinctions in image appearance must be made for different climatic situations, we will speak of
“humid” and “arid” climates. We will consider humid climates to occur in areas that receive 50
cm or more rainfall per year and arid climates to occur in areas that receive less than 50 cm/year
rainfall. In the United States, farming without irrigation is generally feasible in areas with a rainfall
of about 50 cm/year or more. Areas receiving less than 50 cm/year rainfall typically require
irrigation for farming. Even the most searching and capable image analysis can benefit from field
verification because the image interpretation process is seldom expected to stand alone. The
image interpreter should consult existing topographic, geologic, and soil maps and should
conduct a selective field check. The principal benefits of image interpretation for terrain
evaluation should be a savings in time, money, and effort. The use of image interpretation
techniques can allow for terrain mapping during periods of unsuitable weather for field mapping
and can provide for more efficient field operations.
In order to illustrate the process of image interpretation for landform identification and
evaluation, we will consider the terrain characteristics and image identification of several
common bedrock types. Specifically, we treat the analysis of selected sedimentary and igneous
rocks. The first three editions of this book treated the subject of landform identification and
evaluation in greater detail by including discussions of aeolian landforms, glacial landforms,
fluvial landforms, and organic soils (the first and second editions contain the most detailed
coverage).