Bridge Course (After SEE)

UNIT - 2
HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS
2.1. Thermal Expansion
Concept of Heat
A body is made up of a large number of particles called molecules. The heat or thermal
energy of a body is due to the KE of its molecules: So, heat is the energy that is transferred
from one body to another due to temperature difference between the two bodies. Unit of heat
is Joule or calorie.

Concept of Temperature
Heat and temperature are closely related to each other but the two quantities are different.
The temperature of a body is its degree of hotness or coldness. Its SI unit is Kelvin. Flow of
heat depends on the temperature of two bodies. It flows from a body of higher temperature to
a body at lower temperature.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Its two systems are thermal equilibrium with the third one, and then both of them also have
the same temperature and thermal equilibrium with each other.

Thermal Expansion of Solid

Most solids expand when heated and contract when cooled. When the temperature of a solid
is increased, its atoms and molecules vibrate with greater amplitude; as a result, a solid
expands on heating. The expansion in length is called linear expansion. The expansion in
length and breadth, i.e. area is called superficial expansion while the expansion in three
dimensions, i.e. in length, breadth and thickness of an object is called cubical expansion.

Coefficient of Linear Expansion

Suppose the initial length of rod of some material is / at temperature T1. When temperature is
at T2 = T1 + ΔT, the length will increase to /1 + Δl = l2. Then, the increase in length is directly
proportional to the original length.
i.e. Δl 𝛼 l1……………….(i)
The increase in length is directly proportional to the rise in temperature.
i.e. Δl 𝛼 ΔT……………….(ii)

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From (i) and (i),

Δl 𝛼 l . ΔT
Δl = 𝛼 l. ΔT
Where 𝛼 is coe. of linear expansion and defined as the fractional change in length per degree
change in temperature.

Superficial Expansion
Suppose the surface area of a plate is A1 at some initial temperature T1. Then at temperature
T1 + ΔT, the surface area will increase to A1 +ΔA.
Here, increase in area is directly proportional to the original area and the rise in temperature.
i.e. ΔA 𝛼 ΔT………….(i)
ΔA 𝛼 A1………(ii)
ΔA = 𝛽A1ΔT
Where, 𝛽 is called the coefficient of superficial expansion.

Cubical Expansion
Suppose the volume of solid is V at some initial temperature T1. At temperature T1 + ΔT, the
volume will increase to V1 + ΔV. Experimentally, increase in volume is directly proportional
to the original volume and rise in temperature.
i.e. ΔV 𝛼 V1...... (i)
ΔV 𝛼 ΔT………... (ii)
Therefore, ΔV 𝛼 ΔT V1
ΔV = 𝛾 ΔT V1
Where, 𝛾 is a proportionality constant and is called the coefficient of cubical expansion.
Relation Between coe. of Expansion
Relation between 𝛼 and 𝛽
We have, for linear expansion;
ΔL = 𝛼 ΔT l1
or, l2 - l1 = 𝛼 ΔT l1
or, l2 = l1 + 𝛼 ΔT l1
l2 = l1 (1+ 𝛼 ΔT)
or, l22 = l1 2 (1+ 𝛼 ΔT)2
A2 = A1 (1+ 2 𝛼 ΔT + 𝛼 2ΔT2)

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Since, the value of 𝛼 is small. So, the term 𝛼 2ΔT2 may be neglected.
Therefore, A2 = A1 (1+ 2 𝛼 ΔT)...........(i)
For superficial expansion;
ΔA = 𝛽 ΔT A1
A2 - A1 = 𝛽 ΔT A1
A2 = A1 + 𝛽 ΔT A1
A2 = A1(1+ 𝛽 ΔT)...............(ii)
Hence, 𝛽 = 2𝛼
Relation between 𝛼 and 𝛾
We have, for linear expansion;
l2 = l1 (1+ 𝛼 ΔT)
l2 3 = l13(1+ 𝛼 ΔT)3
= l13(1+ 3𝛼 ΔT + 3𝛼 2ΔT2 + 𝛼 3ΔT3 )
or, V2 = V1 (1+ 3𝛼 ΔT + 3𝛼 2ΔT2 + 𝛼3ΔT3 )...........(iii)
Similarly, from cubical expansion;
V2 = V1(1+𝛾ΔT)
From (iii) and (iv)
1+ 3𝛼 ΔT + 3𝛼 2ΔT2 + 𝛼 3ΔT3 = 1+𝛾ΔT
Neglecting higher power of 𝛼 for its small value;
1 + 3𝛼 ΔT = 1+𝛾ΔT
or, 3𝛼 = 𝛾

Thermal expansion of liquid

Like solid, liquid also expands on heating, since the liquids do not have a fixed shape, hence,
we take only volume expansion in case of liquids.
Coefficient of real expansion
It is defined as the real increase in volume of the liquids per unit original volume per 0C rise
in temperature. It is denoted by 𝛾r.
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝛾r = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑥 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

Coefficient Apparent Expansion

It is defined as the apparent increase in volume of the liquid per unit original volume per °C
rise in temperature. It is denoted by for 𝛾a.

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𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝛾a =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑥 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

Latent Heat
The amount of heat required to change the unit mass of a substance completely from one state
to another at constant temperature is called latent heat of the substance. If mass m of a
substance requires heat Q to change completely from one state to another at constant
temperature, then;
𝑄
Latent heat (L) = 𝑚

2.2 Calorimetry
Calorimetry is an experimental technique for the quantitative measurement of heat exchange.
To make such measurements, a calorimeter is used. Figure shows a simple calorimeter.
One important use of the calorimeter is to determine the sp. heat of a substance. Specific heat
capacity (S) from using the calorimeter is given by;
(𝑚1𝑆1 +𝑚2𝑆2)(𝜃2 − 𝜃1)
S= 𝑀(𝜃3 − 𝜃2)

Where, m1 = mass of calorimeter and stirrer

m2 = mass of water
S2 = sp. heat capacity of calorimeter
S1 = sp. heat capacity of liquid
M = mass of solid (ice)
𝜃1 = initial temperature of water and calorimeter
𝜃2 = final temperature of mixture
𝜃3 = initial temperature of solid (ice)

2.3 Some Gasses and Thermodynamics Laws

Boyle's law
Boyle's law states that, at constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to its pressure.
1
i.e. V 𝛼 𝑃

or, pV = constant
Thus for a given mass of a gas, if pressure changes from P1 to P2 and the corresponding
volume changes from V1 toV2 at constant temperature, then according to Boyle's law;

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P1V1 = P2V2
Charle's law
Charle's law states that, at constant pressure, the volume of the given mass of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature.
i.e. V 𝛼 T at cost. p
𝑉
𝑇
= constant
𝑉1 𝑉2
or, =
𝑇1 𝑇2

2.4 Law of Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics
The branch of physics which deals with the relationship between heat and work is called
thermodynamics.
Hence, the study of heat and its transformation to mechanical energy is called
thermodynamics.
When the law of conservation of energy is applied to thermal systems, we call it the first law
of thermodynamics. First law of thermodynamics states that, "whenever heat is added to a
system, it transforms to an equal amount of some other forms of energy"
It means when a certain quantity of heat is supplied to a system, a part of the heat may be
used in doing external work on expansion and the rest of the heat is used in increasing the
internal energy of the system.
If dQ be the heat supplied to a system, the amount of external work done be d'W and the
increase in internal energy of the molecules be dU. Then from the first law of
thermodynamics;
dQ= dU + dw

Thermodynamic processes
The following are the important thermodynamic process:
i) Isothermal process:
If the temperature of a system does not change during a process, the process is called
isothermal. Hence, a thermodynamic process which takes place at constant temperature is
called an isothermal process. We know that pressure P and volume V of a mole of an ideal
gas are related by the equation;
Pv = RT………….(i)

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Where, T is the absolute temperature of the gas and R is the universal gas constant. In an
isothermal process, temperature (T) is constant. So, equation (i) becomes,
Pv = constant…………..(ii)
Equation (ii) is called the equation of the isothermal process for an ideal gas.

Work done during isothermal process

Suppose an ideal gas is allowed to expand very slowly from V1 to V2 at constant temperature,
then the work done by the gas in expanding from one state of volume V 1 to state of volume
V2 is given by;
𝑉2
W= ∫𝑉1 PdV…………(i)
For an ideal gas,
PV = nRT
𝑛𝑅𝑇
or, P = 𝑉
……………(ii)

Hence, from equation (i) and (ii);

𝑉2 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑉2 𝑑𝑉
W = ∫𝑉1 𝑉
dV = RT ∫𝑉1 𝑉

W = nRT.loge(V2/V1)..............(iii)
Equation (iii) gives the expression for work done during isothermal expansion for n moles of
an ideal gas.

ii) Adiabatic process

If no heat enters or leaves the system during the process, the process is called adiabatic i.e. P,
V and T change in the process. Adiabatic process for an ideal gas is not déscribed in terms of
PV = nRT alone because all three state variables (P, V and T) change during the process. The
equation for adiabatic process relating pressure and volume of the gas is;
PV𝛾= constant……….(i)
or, P1V1𝛾= P2V2𝛾…….(ii)
Work done during an adiabatic process
Suppose the gas expands adiabatically from the initial volume V1 to the final volume V2.
Then the work done by the gas is,
𝑉2
W= ∫𝑉1 PdV……….(i)
During an adiabatic process,
PV𝛾= k (constant)

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or, P = K/V𝛾
Hence, from (i),
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉 −𝛾+1
W = ∫𝑉1 KV-𝛾dV = K ∫𝑉1 V -𝛾dV = K [ ]
−𝛾+1
1
= [P1V1 - P2V2]................(ii)
𝛾−1

If the temperature of the initial state T1 and final state T2, then, P1V1 = nRT, and
P2V2 = nRT.
Hence, equation (ii) becomes;
1
W= [nRT1 - nRT2]
𝛾−1
𝑛𝑅
= 𝛾−1
[T1 - T2].........(iii)

Equation (ili) gives the expression for work done during adiabatic expansion.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

According to Kelvin, the second law of thermodynamics can be stated as follows;
"It is impossible to get a continuous supply of work from a body by cooling it to a
temperature lower than that of its surrounding0”.

Efficiency of heat engine

It is defined as the ratio of the external work obtained by the system to the energy absorbed.
It is denoted by 𝜂.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
i.e. 𝜂 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Entropy
Entropy is a measure of the disorder of a system. So, if the physical system is allowed to
distribute freely, it always does in a manner of disorder i.e., entropy increases.
Suppose if we have a box with partition dividing into two parts, fill with gas on one side of
partition and evacuated in other part as shown in figure (a). With all the molecules of gas in
one side are highly
ordered situation. However, if the partition is removed, the gas
molecules will distribute themselves throughout the box as shown in
figure (b). They move in random directions and being in less ordered
situation. Hence the entropy of two gases has increased because the

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amount of disorder has inversed

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