Geography 2.

Explain how water is stored in ice and the oceans, and how / why sea level are changing
• Fresh water stored – rivers, lakes ice/snow/glaciers
• Salt water – oceans/ sea

Why are sea levels changing?

• Melting of land ice – this is adding extra water to the oceans – coastal regions will
flood.
• Thermal expansion – due to an increase of heat – water expands and therefore rises –
at the equator or around the equator

Explain how carbon is stored in ice, oceans and the biosphere

Ice – carbon is trapped in ice (frozen in the arctic – when there is decomposition it releases
carbon dioxide – air or soil) when ice melts a lot of CO2 is released.
Oceans – carbon sink – plankton, algae collect the carbon from the atmosphere. Store in the
ocean – too much can make the ocean acidic and kill the algae and plankton
Biosphere – plants and trees are a carbon sink – but they also release CO2 when they are
burned.

How often does severe weather happen in certain parts of the world? Why does severe
weather happen?
 • Floods and drought are increasing over time due to an increase from temperature due
to global warming. Storms (Hurricanes) are not strongly increasing but do have some
periods where there is. A lot and when there is less (not stable)

Types of hazard Characteristics of the hazard Why might this increase in

strength or frequency
Floods Floods occur when : In a warmer world there is
• High amount of rain or surface run off – river more evaporation – so more
floods from a high amount of discharge clouds are formed and as a
(heave rain . snow melt) result there is more rain.
• High tides from an ocean hitting inland due to
storms Warmer temperatures will
• Water collecting in a depression cause more snow/ice to melt
Flooding is complex but happens in the following faster and this water will be
areas: added to the river system.
• Along the contline and river floodplains
• Areas with Monsoon climates (causes a lot of
heavy/Steady rain )
Cyclones Cyclones are low pressure systems with high winds, Cyclones gain their strength
heavy rain and flooding from water (sea water needs
Most cyclones are around or near the equator (5-20 to be 26 degrees warm to a
degrees) depth of 1 meter minimum)
Drought Drought is an extended period of time where you Climate change is causing
have low rainfall in comparison to the average of the more heat waves(2003 –
region France 35,000 deaths) – this
is happening more often

Many parts of the world are

experiencing and increase in
the frequency and severity of
drought
Landslides Occurs on slopes when there is stress that exceeds Many landslides are expected
resistance in some costal regions due to
• Along coasts during storms an combination of higher
• On slopes during heavy rain tides and stormier conditions
from global worming – so
this will increase costal
erosion.
How does climate change affect biomes, habitats and animal migrations?
Biomes
• Larger area – share the same temperature, soil type, light, water – so that certain
species can exist there
• Global arming is causing them to change – the tree line between the polar tundra and
the coniferous forest tis moving not 100/year.
Habitats/ animal migration
• Food is affect with temperature
o May land species will need to migrate north to be in the proper temperature
range
o Animal patterns changing – Canada geese will not need to fly too far south in
the winter form their breeding grounds in the arctic during summer
o Global warming will also increase the amount of forest fires – and cause a loss
of habitat for other insects and animals
o Malaria mosquito – due to warm weather ex[ending north – it is now found in
the southern Europe (in the past it was always an Africa disease)

How does climate change affect agriculture, crop yields, limits to cultivation and soil
erosion ?
• Agriculture – higher temperatures affect the crops, also rainfall patterns will change
(some places will be less while some will be more). Crop failure (drought, or floods
where top soil is washed away, saturated soils – roots rot). A rise of 3 degrees can let
to a drop of 35% in crop yields, a 2 degrees rise will mean 200 million people in
Africa will go hungry (Sahel). Changes in crop growing areas.
• Crop Yields – disrupt food availability – rain patterns can impact negatively on how
much food is grown. Reduction in water availability – less food to sell
• Limits to cultivation – climate change can be positive
• Increase in growing season in Greenland - to 4 months so they
can grow broccoli
• England in the south can now produce good grapes for wine
• Soil erosion – increase – desertification, floods wash away topsoil, degradation,
salinization. Precipitation can also remove soil on hills can increase the likelihood of
landslides

Health hazards
• Sea level rise
o Storm surges (temporary flooding)
▪ Stress, anxiety and trauma
▪ Food and water contamination and/or shortages
▪ Increased prevalence of water – borne pathogens and contaminants
▪ Interruption of health services
 ▪ Increased potential for mole growth
▪ Infrastructure property damage
o Flooding (long – term and permanent inundation)
▪ Stress, anxiety and trauma
▪ Food and water contamination and/or shortages
▪ Increased prevalence of water – borne pathogens and contaminants
▪ Population displacement
▪ Infrastructure/property damage.
• Rising temperature
o Mire frequent, severe and prolonged heat waves and urban heat island effects
▪ Decreased air quality due to heat (ground level ozone [smog])
▪ Heat-related deaths
▪ Heat related illnesses such as heat stroke and heat exhaustion
▪ Mental health impacts such as stress and anxiety
▪ Health care facility impacts such as power outages, rising temperatures
in facilities without air conditioning
o Changes in infectious agents, introduction of new pests, longer disease
transmission seasons in some areas.
▪ Possible increased incidence and . or prevalence of vector – borne
infectious disease
▪ Introduction of new pests affecting food/crop production
▪ Possible emergence of new diseases and/ or re- emergence of
previously eradicated diseases
o Increased production of pollens and spores
▪ Increases allergies, intensification of symptoms
▪ Increased exposure to allergens due to longer allergy seasons
• Extreme weather
o Increased frequency and intensity of storms
▪ Injury, death
▪ Stress, anxiety and trauma
▪ Food and water contamination and/or shortages
▪ Increased prevalence of water – borne pathogens and contaminants
▪ Interruption of health services
▪ Increased potential for mole growth
▪ Infrastructure property damage
o More frequent, severe and prolonged drought
▪ Food and water contamination and/or shortages
▪ Stress, anxiety and trauma
▪ Increased prevalence of water – borne pathogens and contaminants
o Wildfires
▪ Injury, death
▪ Stress, anxiety and trauma
 ▪ Exacerbation of respiratory condition such as asthma and emphysema
due to poor air quality
▪ Interruption of health services
▪ Infrastructure/ property damages

Climate change and the hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere, including

• Water stored in ice and oceans and changing sea levels
• Carbon stored in ice, oceans and biosphere
• Incidence and severity of extreme weather events, including drought
• Spatial changes in biomes, habitats and animal migration patterns
• Changes to agriculture, including crop yields, limits of cultivation, soil erosion

Trend Causes Consequences Case study

Rising Rising GHG emissions Melting ice imbalanced Average temperature up
atmospheric • More isolation ecosystems rising evaporation 0.8 degrees since 1880
temperature trapped -> precipitation, sea levels
agriculture.
Increases growing season for
crops
Can increase crop
productivity
Glaciers and ice Rising temps Erosion – bare rocks/soils Since 1850, glaciers in
caps are melting • Glaciers starved of exposed Europe lost 30-40% SA/V
moisture Economic decline – less of ice
tourist attractive
Rising sea level 1991-2010: 69% of glacier
Freshwater from glaciers will loss caused by
be made accessible anthropogenic CC
Better navigation
Rising sea levels Melting glaciers/ice caps Damage – more erosive In last century, risen by
• Thermal expansion energy in storms waves 19cm
of ocean water Flooding – submerge low-
lying areas/islands Kiribati: predicted to rise
by 16-58cm by 2090 70%
of households may leave
due to this
More Warmer temperature Water scarcity, drought Turkmenistan -48% in
evaporation agriculture, antiquated
irrigation tech from Soviet
1991, evaporation rates up
 48% 2100, river flow
down 30% 2050
Melting More CO2 Acidification – concentration Ocean pH to drop by 0.14-
permafrost • Dissolves in oceans of carbonate ions decreases – 0.35 units by 2100
affect marine life less CaCO3
produced by phytoplankton – Great barrier reef,
slowed formation of coral Australia: calcification rate
reefs. decreased by 14% from
1980 to 2005
Increased Unpredictable temperature
frequency and trends
intensity of • Climate deviates
extreme weather from long -term
events averages

Hurricanes Rising sea temp: Damage to building trees, Wind speed increase by up
• More energy in power lines, etc. to 25 knots
cyclones Debris blows about costal Hurricane Florence , 2018
flooding, storm surges in north Carolina –
uncontrollable fires – 150km/h winds, 1.7
destroying power lines million evacuation, 37
Contaminates drinking water deaths, 1 million
disrupts utility services households lost electricity
$38 billion in damages
Drought Changing circulation Agriculture – diminished crop Annual $9 billion losses in
patters yield, carrying capacity for Us
• Moist air redirected livestock
away from semi- Food and water scarcity South eastern Australia
arid compromised quality and heatwave in 2009 – 12%
Increased evaporation quantity increase in emergency
• Less surface Increased risk of wildfires, department admissions,
moisture dust storms 37% specifically of >75
Increased incidence of years
illness/disease (e.g. Temperature up to 48
cardiovascular respiratory) degrees led to 374 deaths,
2000 casualties.
Floods Rising temperatures more Damage – to infra $ 400 million in losses in
evaporation more Disrupts water supply, Australia per year
precipitation warmer Wastewater treatment,
atmosphere – more Electricity transport Flooding in Rio de Janeiro
moisture can be held economic vulnerability – 2011- floods and
 people displaced, property mudslides killed 900
lost, business interrupted. people and 3000 homes,
Ecosystems – impact water $1.3 billion in damages
quality, habitats destroyed,
weeds dispersed, pollutants
released.
Biomes made Depends on limiting factor Breakdown of ecosystems – Half of plant & animal
vulnerable – e.g. rising temperatures particular ecological niches species at risk of
in snow areas made vacant by disturbance, extinction by 2100
reducing flow of energy ad Canada lynx – live in
causing stress Canada, north-west
Loss of biodiversity US/Alaska, feed
exclusively on snowshoe
hare, habitat in US could
shrink by 66% due to
lowered snowfall +
increased snow melt
Changing Changing temp in habitats: Extinction – animal forced US – early onset of spring
patterns of • Animal migrate into hostile habitats caused 28 species of bird
migration – CO2/rainfall changes Changes in ecosystems have to begin nesting earlier,
animals have to • Affect plant compound effect as plants – birds in north-east US
move further to migration via seed animal are interdependent return north from south (in
find suitable dispersal winter) 13 days earlier
seasonal habitats than a century ago
US – plants & animals
moving to higher
elevations at 11m and
higher latitudes at 16.9 km
per decade
Increased or Increased CO2 Photosynthesis affected US Corn Belt, 2012 –
decreased crop concentrations Supply of pasture feed and unexpectedly warm winter
yield • Higher crop yield stress level of livestock caused premature budding
• Lower nutrition affected -> $220 million loss of
Rising temps In general : Michigan cherries
• Increased crop Crop productivity lowered in inefficient pollination
yields equatorial regions due to +reduced productivity of
• (up to 35 degrees) extreme warm temperatures core: 82% to 73% of
Increased rainfall Increases in excellent condition corn
• Increased crop temperature/polar regions during summer
yield
Increased soil
 Loss erosion
• Lowered crop yield
increased pests,
disease
• Lowered
crop/livestock
productivity

Direct health
consequence Cause Case study
Cardiovascular, respiratory, Warmer temperatures Erythromelalgias – causes pain, swelling,
kidney diseases numbness instability to walk/work
Weakened immune system – Colder temperature Raynaud’s syndrome – reduced blood flow,
colds, flu, heart problems, numbness, pain, discoloration of finger/toes
hypothermia etc.
Mental health issues – Extreme weather event -> Research – suicide rates increase after
anxiety depression, PTSD, death, destroyed homes, extreme weather events – e.g. farmers after
insomnia possessions lost, injury severe droughts cause recurring crop failure
Thousands of people still have PTSD/anxiety
from Hurricane
Katrina in New Orleans 2005

Indirect heath
Mental health Media reports that Health care professional – climate change
sensationalize about activists more likely suffer from metal heath
disastrous future scenarios issues than normal people
Malnutrition due to crop Changes to ecosystems
productivity Hazardous
pests due to humidity
dishing due to ocean
acidification
Infectious diseases spread Resistance reduced in cold Mosquitos thrive in arms, wet conditions
easier temperatures under stress facilitating breeding, feeding, and growing –
Vectors transmitting habitats expending to higher warmoing
infections have longer altitude. Number of people exposed to malaria
breeding times and bigger - $9.1 billion by 2080
habitats
• Due to armer
temps and more
rainfall
Cholera – bearing Due to rising ocean
zooplankton brought closer temperature and changes
to share – could outbreak if in onshore currents
coastal water contaminated
More algal blooms -> infect Rising sea temperature e.g. paralytic shellfish poisoning if infected
marine organisms cause lead to rise in number of shellfish are eaten by humans
disease if eaten toxic algal blooms (red
tides)

Water related health

Surface water pone to Due to prolonged and Sub -Sharan Africa, Middle east
drying out, underground intense drought
wells contaminated by
silk/runoff/ faces
Diseases like diarrhea Water – shortage – humans
pulmonary disease caused may be forced to share
by non-tuberculosis water shores with
mycobacteria (NTM) livestock
Consume dirty water
Water can be polluted and Drought makes water
made toxic for humans or stores more susceptible to
increase turbidity algal blooms
(shadowing of water).
Suffocating plants and
killing fish

Economic impacts
Food becomes more Crop productivity is
expensive can lead to lowered and food supply
malnutrition/ Starvation for can be lowered (e.g. due to
the poor pest/ disease expansion)
Loss of production in El Nino events can make
fishing farming and dishing
around Pacific Ocean less
predictable, more prone to
unexpected crops in
production
Oil and gas industries suffer Degames to costal seas by Hurricane Katrina, 2005 destroyed 126 oil
hurricanes, storms floods, and gas platform and damaged an additional
rising sea levels, etc. 183
 makes explorational
extraction more difficult
Government enforce
stringent anti-GHG
emission measure, adding
to costs of carbon – based
energy
Electricity and fuel costs are Emissions trading
increased schemes/carbon taxes are
imposed to add economic
value on externalities,
adding financial impost to
use of carbon-based
energy sources.
Higher insurance premiums All of the economic costs
to cover costs of increased of global warming
risks – may be unaffordable indirectly affects insurance
to low/middle – income industry
households
Donor fatigue towards aid Climate change continues
organization may occur to intensify and higher
health care may erode
public finances regarding
ageing donors

Ocean transport routes

Costal and river navigation Rising sea temperatures Arctic Ocean links northern areas of North
expanded, benefiting water cause sea – ice in Arctic to America, Europe, Russia
transport, fishing, tourism, melt Arctic sea – ice expanse has reduced in
trade Opens new possibilities summertime volume by 75% since 1979
for trade route
Arctic Sea could become Enough ice can melt such Northern Sea Route hugging north
major trade route, cutting that ice- free shipping Russia – enable shipping for 90% of year
shipping costs, distance and routes were possible compared to current 40%
time required. e.g. cutting through Up to40% quicker to ship goods along this
currently – inaccessible new route
and frozen areas of Arctic
ice shelf
There can be new hazard to Ice masses met and are
circumvent such as icebergs broken up into smaller
floating in shipping pieces due to warmer
channels temperature
Fragile Arctic ecosystems As more parts of Ocean is Arctic Sea already supplies 10% of world’s
may experience destructive opened, might be difficult fishing catch – potentially move overfishing
impacts to prevent exploitation of occurring with more waters made accessible
resources (e.g. fishing,
oil/gas, copper/Iron) in
international waters
Breeding productivity of Removal of sea ice
fish could be increased and releases nutrients and
migration from further south exposes water to sunlight.
fish could be encouraged. • Warmer temps,
Aquatic life could diversify nutrients levels
and expand change
Facilitates phytoplankton
growth (the primary
producer of ecosystem),
depending on how ocean
currengts adapt
Large ships may face weight Higher sea levels
restrictions or be banned, as
clearance under waterway
bridges is reduced in costal
ports

Migrations
People migrate due to e.g. extreme weather Karibati:2/3m elevation, predicted 16-58 cm
various effects of climate events rising sea levels, rise in sea level, 70% household might leave
change more evaporation if worsen by 2020 as climate migrant (Anote
precipitation, temperature Tong)
People in low – lying areas Increase frequency&
migrate to escape severity of hurricanes
devastation/farmland
loss/water contamination
Hostility and conflict can be Largescale migration
provided means people try to across
borders, settle on land
claimed by other
Case study
Title: Coping with Climate Change: Environmental Migration in Kiribati
Introduction: Kiribati, an island nation in the Pacific Ocean, faces a severe threat from
climate change, leading to rising sea levels and increased frequency of extreme weather
events. This case study examines the environmental migration challenges faced by the people
of Kiribati and explores the vulnerabilities associated with this phenomenon.

Background: Kiribati is a low-lying island nation consisting of 33 atolls and reef islands,
dispersed over a vast area of the Pacific. The country's average elevation is just two meters
above sea level, making it highly susceptible to the impacts of climate change, particularly
rising sea levels and more intense storms.

Environmental Migration Dynamics: As the effects of climate change intensify, Kiribati

experiences a range of environmental issues, including coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion,
and the submersion of low-lying areas during high tides. These factors contribute to the
displacement of communities, forcing them to migrate to other parts of the country or seek
refuge in neighboring nations.

Vulnerabilities:

Limited Land Resources: Kiribati's land area is limited, and the majority of the population
resides in coastal areas. With the encroaching sea, the available habitable land is shrinking,
placing immense pressure on the limited resources and leading to overcrowding in safer
zones.
Economic Challenges: The nation's economy heavily relies on subsistence agriculture and
fishing. The impacts of climate change, such as saltwater intrusion affecting freshwater
sources and the degradation of coral reefs, directly threaten the livelihoods of the people,
pushing them towards economic vulnerability.
Health Risks: Increased salinity in freshwater sources poses health risks, leading to
waterborne diseases. Displacement and overcrowding can also contribute to the spread of
diseases, putting the population at higher health vulnerabilities.
Social Disruption: Environmental migration disrupts social structures and cultural practices.
As communities relocate, they face challenges in preserving their traditional way of life,
leading to potential social tensions and loss of cultural identity.
Limited Access to Education: Displaced communities often struggle to maintain access to
education. The need for relocation, coupled with economic challenges, can hinder educational
opportunities, especially for children and youth.
Dependency on International Aid: Kiribati relies heavily on international aid to cope with the
impacts of climate change. The continuous need for assistance creates a vulnerability, as the
nation may become dependent on external support for its survival.
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies:
Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Investing in infrastructure that can withstand the impacts of
climate change, such as elevated housing and seawalls, can help mitigate vulnerabilities
associated with rising sea levels.
Diversification of Livelihoods: Promoting alternative livelihoods that are less dependent on
climate-sensitive sectors, such as promoting sustainable tourism and eco-friendly industries,
can enhance economic resilience.
Community-Based Adaptation: Engaging local communities in the development and
implementation of adaptation strategies can enhance their resilience and help preserve
cultural practices and social cohesion.
International Cooperation: Collaborating with neighboring countries and the international
community to address the root causes of climate change and provide support for adaptation
and migration efforts.
Conclusion: Kiribati's experience with environmental migration highlights the multifaceted
vulnerabilities faced by its population. As the global community grapples with the
consequences of climate change, it is imperative to address the unique challenges of
vulnerable nations like Kiribati and work towards sustainable solutions that safeguard both
the environment and the livelihoods of the affected populations.