Data Mining

UNIT-III

1
 Association
◼ Suppose we want to know which items are frequently purchased together; let
consider an example:

where X is a variable representing a customer.

◼ A confidence, or certainty, of 50% means that if a customer buys a computer, there is
a 50% chance that she will buy software as well.
◼ A 1% support means that 1% of all the transactions under analysis show that
computer and software are purchased together.
◼ This association rule involves a single attribute or predicate (i.e., buys) that repeats.
Association rules that contain a single predicate are referred to as single-dimensional
association rules.
◼ A multidimensional association rule is a rule that considers more than one attribute/
predicate.
 Association Pattern Mining
◼ Basic patterns
◼ Frequent pattern: a pattern (or itemset) that satisfies a minimum support
threshold.
◼ closed pattern: if there is no super pattern p’ with the same support as p
◼ max-pattern: if there exists no frequent super pattern of p
◼ Frequent patterns can also be mapped into association rules
◼ Sometimes, we may also be interested in
◼ infrequent or rare patterns: patterns that occur rarely but are of critical
importance.
◼ negative patterns: patterns that reveal a negative correlation between items
◼ Based on the abstraction levels involved in a pattern: Patterns or association rules
may have items or concepts residing at high, low, or multiple abstraction levels.

◼ We refer to the rule set mined as consisting of multilevel association rules.

 Association Pattern Mining
◼ Based on the number of dimensions involved in the rule or pattern:
◼ If the items or attributes in an association rule or pattern reference only one
dimension, it is a single-dimensional association rule/pattern.

◼ If a rule/pattern references two or more dimensions, such as age, income, and

buys, then it is a multidimensional association rule/pattern.

◼ Based on the types of values handled in the rule or pattern:

◼ If a rule involves associations between the presence or absence of items, it is a
Boolean association rule.
 Association Pattern Mining
◼ Based on the types of values handled in the rule or pattern:
◼ If a rule describes associations between quantitative items or attributes, then it
is a quantitative association rule.
 UNIT-IV
Classification

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 Classification: Basic Concepts

◼ Classification: Basic Concepts

◼ Decision Tree Induction
◼ Bayes Classification Methods
◼ A multilayer feed-forward Neural Network
◼ Classification by Backpropagation
◼ Model Evaluation and Selection
◼ Summary

7
 Supervised vs. Unsupervised Learning

◼ Supervised learning (classification)

◼ Supervision: The training data (observations,
measurements, etc.) are accompanied by labels indicating
the class of the observations
◼ New data is classified based on the training set
◼ Unsupervised learning (clustering)
◼ The class labels of training data is unknown
◼ Given a set of measurements, observations, etc. with the
aim of establishing the existence of classes or clusters in
the data
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 Prediction Problems: Classification vs.
Numeric Prediction
◼ Classification
◼ predicts categorical class labels (discrete or nominal)

◼ classifies data (constructs a model) based on the training

set and the values (class labels) in a classifying attribute
and uses it in classifying new data
◼ Numeric Prediction
◼ models continuous-valued functions, i.e., predicts
unknown or missing values
◼ Typical applications
◼ Credit/loan approval:

◼ Medical diagnosis: if a tumor is cancerous or benign

◼ Fraud detection: if a transaction is fraudulent

◼ Web page categorization: which category it is

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 Classification—A Two-Step Process
◼ Model construction: describing a set of predetermined classes
◼ Each tuple/sample is assumed to belong to a predefined class, as

determined by the class label attribute

◼ The set of tuples used for model construction is training set

◼ The model is represented as classification rules, decision trees, or

mathematical formulae
◼ Model usage: for classifying future or unknown objects
◼ Estimate accuracy of the model

◼ The known label of test sample is compared with the classified

result from the model

◼ Accuracy rate is the percentage of test set samples that are

correctly classified by the model

◼ Test set is independent of training set (otherwise overfitting)

◼ If the accuracy is acceptable, use the model to classify new data

◼ Note: If the test set is used to select models, it is called validation (test) set
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 Process (1): Model Construction

Classification
Algorithms
Training
Data

NAME RANK YEARS TENURED Classifier

M ike A ssistan t P ro f 3 no (Model)
M ary A ssistan t P ro f 7 yes
B ill P ro fesso r 2 yes
Jim A sso ciate P ro f 7 yes
IF rank = ‘professor’
D ave A ssistan t P ro f 6 no
OR years > 6
Anne A sso ciate P ro f 3 no
THEN tenured = ‘yes’
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Process (2): Using the Model in Prediction

Classifier

Testing
Data Unseen Data

(Jeff, Professor, 4)
NAME RANK YEARS TENURED
Tom A ssistan t P ro f 2 no Tenured?
M erlisa A sso ciate P ro f 7 no
G eo rg e P ro fesso r 5 yes
Jo sep h A ssistan t P ro f 7 yes
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 Classification: Basic Concepts

◼ Classification: Basic Concepts

◼ Decision Tree Induction
◼ Bayes Classification Methods
◼ A multilayer feed-forward Neural Network
◼ Classification by Backpropagation
◼ Model Evaluation and Selection
◼ Summary

13
 Decision Tree Induction: An Example
age income student credit_rating buys_computer
<=30 high no fair no
❑ Training data set: Buys_computer <=30 high no excellent no
❑ The data set follows an example of 31…40 high no fair yes
>40 medium no fair yes
Quinlan’s ID3 (Playing Tennis) >40 low yes fair yes
>40 low yes excellent no
❑ Resulting tree:
31…40 low yes excellent yes
age? <=30 medium no fair no
<=30 low yes fair yes
>40 medium yes fair yes
<=30 medium yes excellent yes
<=30 overcast
31..40 >40 31…40 medium no excellent yes
31…40 high yes fair yes
>40 medium no excellent no

student? yes credit rating?

no yes excellent fair

no yes yes
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 Algorithm for Decision Tree Induction
◼ Basic algorithm (a greedy algorithm)
◼ Tree is constructed in a top-down recursive divide-and-

conquer manner
◼ At start, all the training examples are at the root

◼ Attributes are categorical (if continuous-valued, they are

discretized in advance)
◼ Examples are partitioned recursively based on selected

attributes
◼ Test attributes are selected on the basis of a heuristic or

statistical measure (e.g., information gain)

◼ Conditions for stopping partitioning
◼ All samples for a given node belong to the same class

◼ There are no remaining attributes for further partitioning –

majority voting is employed for classifying the leaf

◼ There are no samples left
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 Brief Review of Entropy
◼

m=2

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 Attribute Selection Measure:
Information Gain (ID3/C4.5)
◼ Select the attribute with the highest information gain
◼ Let pi be the probability that an arbitrary tuple in D belongs to
class Ci, estimated by |Ci, D|/|D|
◼ Expected information (entropy) needed to classify a tuple in D:
m
Info( D ) = − pi log 2 ( pi )
i =1
◼ Information needed (after using A to split D into v partitions) to
classify D: v | D |
Info A ( D) =   Info( D j )
j

j =1 | D |
◼ Information gained by branching on attribute A

Gain(A) = Info(D) − Info A(D)

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 Attribute Selection: Information Gain
 Class P: buys_computer = “yes” 5 4
Infoage ( D) = I (2,3) + I (4,0)
 Class N: buys_computer = “no” 14 14
9 9 5 5 5
Info( D) = I (9,5) = − log 2 ( ) − log 2 ( ) =0.940 + I (3,2) = 0.694
14 14 14 14 14
age pi ni I(pi, ni) 5
<=30 2 3 0.971 I (2,3)means “age <=30” has 5 out of
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14 samples, with 2 yes’es and 3
31…40 4 0 0
>40 3 2 0.971 no’s. Hence
age
<=30
income student credit_rating
high no fair
buys_computer
no
Gain(age) = Info( D) − Infoage ( D) = 0.246
<=30 high no excellent no
31…40 high no fair yes
>40 medium no fair yes Similarly,
>40 low yes fair yes

Gain(income) = 0.029
>40 low yes excellent no
31…40 low yes excellent yes
<=30 medium no fair no
<=30
>40
low
medium
yes fair
yes fair
yes
yes
Gain( student) = 0.151
<=30
31…40
medium
medium
yes excellent
no excellent
yes
yes Gain(credit _ rating ) = 0.048
31…40 high yes fair yes
>40 medium no excellent no 18
 Computing Information-Gain for
Continuous-Valued Attributes
◼ Let attribute A be a continuous-valued attribute
◼ Must determine the best split point for A
◼ Sort the value A in increasing order
◼ Typically, the midpoint between each pair of adjacent values
is considered as a possible split point
◼ (ai+ai+1)/2 is the midpoint between the values of ai and ai+1
◼ The point with the minimum expected information
requirement for A is selected as the split-point for A
◼ Split:
◼ D1 is the set of tuples in D satisfying A ≤ split-point, and D2 is
the set of tuples in D satisfying A > split-point
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Gain Ratio for Attribute Selection (C4.5)
◼ Information gain measure is biased towards attributes with a
large number of values
◼ C4.5 (a successor of ID3) uses gain ratio to overcome the
problem (normalization to information gain)
v | Dj | | Dj |
SplitInfoA ( D) = −  log 2 ( )
j =1 |D| |D|
◼ GainRatio(A) = Gain(A)/SplitInfo(A)
◼ Ex.

◼ gain_ratio(income) = 0.029/1.557 = 0.019

◼ The attribute with the maximum gain ratio is selected as the
splitting attribute
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Gini Index (CART, IBM IntelligentMiner)
◼ If a data set D contains examples from n classes, gini index,
gini(D) is defined as n 2
gini( D) = 1−  p j
j =1
where pj is the relative frequency of class j in D
◼ If a data set D is split on A into two subsets D1 and D2, the gini
index gini(D) is defined as
|D1| |D |
gini A ( D) = gini( D1) + 2 gini( D 2)
|D| |D|
◼ Reduction in Impurity:
gini( A) = gini(D) − giniA(D)
◼ The attribute provides the smallest ginisplit(D) (or the largest
reduction in impurity) is chosen to split the node (need to
enumerate all the possible splitting points for each attribute)
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 Computation of Gini Index
◼ Ex. D has 9 tuples in buys_computer = “yes”
2
and
2
5 in “no”
9 5
gini( D) = 1 −   −   = 0.459
 14   14 
◼ Suppose the attribute income partitions D into 10 in D1: {low,
medium} and 4 in D2 giniincome{low,medium} ( D) =  10 Gini( D1 ) +  4 Gini( D2 )
 14   14 

Gini{low,high} is 0.458; Gini{medium,high} is 0.450. Thus, split on the

{low,medium} (and {high}) since it has the lowest Gini index
◼ All attributes are assumed continuous-valued
◼ May need other tools, e.g., clustering, to get the possible split
values
◼ Can be modified for categorical attributes 22
 Comparing Attribute Selection Measures

◼ The three measures, in general, return good results but

◼ Information gain:
◼ biased towards multivalued attributes
◼ Gain ratio:
◼ tends to prefer unbalanced splits in which one partition is
much smaller than the others
◼ Gini index:
◼ biased to multivalued attributes
◼ has difficulty when # of classes is large
◼ tends to favor tests that result in equal-sized partitions
and purity in both partitions
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 Other Attribute Selection Measures
◼ CHAID: a popular decision tree algorithm, measure based on χ2 test for
independence
◼ C-SEP: performs better than info. gain and gini index in certain cases
◼ G-statistic: has a close approximation to χ2 distribution
◼ MDL (Minimal Description Length) principle (i.e., the simplest solution is
preferred):
◼ The best tree as the one that requires the fewest # of bits to both (1)
encode the tree, and (2) encode the exceptions to the tree
◼ Multivariate splits (partition based on multiple variable combinations)
◼ CART: finds multivariate splits based on a linear comb. of attrs.
◼ Which attribute selection measure is the best?
◼ Most give good results, none is significantly superior than others
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 Overfitting and Tree Pruning
◼ Overfitting: An induced tree may overfit the training data
◼ Too many branches, some may reflect anomalies due to

noise or outliers
◼ Poor accuracy for unseen samples

◼ Two approaches to avoid overfitting

◼ Prepruning: Halt tree construction early ̵ do not split a node

if this would result in the goodness measure falling below a

threshold
◼ Difficult to choose an appropriate threshold

◼ Postpruning: Remove branches from a “fully grown” tree—

get a sequence of progressively pruned trees

◼ Use a set of data different from the training data to

decide which is the “best pruned tree”

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 Classification in Large Databases
◼ Classification—a classical problem extensively studied by
statisticians and machine learning researchers
◼ Scalability: Classifying data sets with millions of examples and
hundreds of attributes with reasonable speed
◼ Why is decision tree induction popular?
◼ relatively faster learning speed (than other classification
methods)
◼ convertible to simple and easy to understand classification
rules
◼ can use SQL queries for accessing databases

◼ comparable classification accuracy with other methods

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 Classification: Basic Concepts

◼ Classification: Basic Concepts

◼ Decision Tree Induction
◼ Bayes Classification Methods
◼ A multilayer feed-forward Neural Network
◼ Classification by Backpropagation
◼ Model Evaluation and Selection
◼ Summary

27
 Bayesian Classification: Why?
◼ A statistical classifier: performs probabilistic prediction, i.e.,
predicts class membership probabilities
◼ Foundation: Based on Bayes’ Theorem.
◼ Performance: A simple Bayesian classifier, naïve Bayesian
classifier, has comparable performance with decision tree and
selected neural network classifiers

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 Bayes’ Theorem: Basics
M
◼ Total probability Theorem: P(B) =  P(B | A )P( A )
i i
i =1

◼ Bayes’ Theorem: P( H | X) = P(X | H ) P( H ) = P(X | H ) P( H ) / P(X)

P(X)
◼ Let X be a data sample (“evidence”): class label is unknown
◼ Let H be a hypothesis that X belongs to class C
◼ Classification is to determine P(H|X), (i.e., posteriori probability): the
probability that the hypothesis holds given the observed data sample X
◼ P(H) (prior probability): the initial probability
◼ E.g., X will buy computer, regardless of age, income, …

◼ P(X): probability that sample data is observed

◼ P(X|H) (likelihood): the probability of observing the sample X, given that
the hypothesis holds
◼ E.g., Given that X will buy computer, the prob. that X is 31..40,

medium income
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 Prediction Based on Bayes’ Theorem
◼ Given training data X, posteriori probability of a hypothesis H,
P(H|X), follows the Bayes’ theorem

P( H | X) = P(X | H ) P( H ) = P(X | H ) P( H ) / P(X)

P(X)
◼ Informally, this can be viewed as
posteriori = likelihood x prior/evidence
◼ Predicts X belongs to Ci iff the probability P(Ci|X) is the highest
among all the P(Ck|X) for all the k classes
◼ Practical difficulty: It requires initial knowledge of many
probabilities, involving significant computational cost

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Classification Is to Derive the Maximum Posteriori
◼ Let D be a training set of tuples and their associated class
labels, and each tuple is represented by an n-D attribute vector
X = (x1, x2, …, xn)
◼ Suppose there are m classes C1, C2, …, Cm.
◼ Classification is to derive the maximum posteriori, i.e., the
maximal P(Ci|X)
◼ This can be derived from Bayes’ theorem
P(X | C )P(C )
P(C | X) = i i
i P(X)
◼ Since P(X) is constant for all classes, only
P(C | X) = P(X | C )P(C )
i i i
needs to be maximized

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 Naïve Bayes Classifier
◼ A simplified assumption: attributes are conditionally
independent (i.e., no dependence relation between
attributes): n
P( X | C i) =  P( x | C i) = P( x | C i)  P( x | C i)  ... P( x | C i)
k 1 2 n
k =1
◼ This greatly reduces the computation cost: Only counts the
class distribution
◼ If Ak is categorical, P(xk|Ci) is the # of tuples in Ci having value xk
for Ak divided by |Ci, D| (# of tuples of Ci in D)
◼ If Ak is continous-valued, P(xk|Ci) is usually computed based on
Gaussian distribution with a mean μ and standard deviation σ
( x− )2
1 −
g ( x,  ,  ) = e 2 2
and P(xk|Ci) is 2 

P(X | C i) = g ( xk , Ci , Ci )
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 Naïve Bayes Classifier: Training Dataset
age income studentcredit_rating
buys_compu
<=30 high no fair no
Class: <=30 high no excellent no
C1:buys_computer = ‘yes’ 31…40 high no fair yes
C2:buys_computer = ‘no’ >40 medium no fair yes
>40 low yes fair yes
Data to be classified: >40 low yes excellent no
31…40 low yes excellent yes
X = (age <=30,
<=30 medium no fair no
Income = medium, <=30 low yes fair yes
Student = yes >40 medium yes fair yes
Credit_rating = Fair) <=30 medium yes excellent yes
31…40 medium no excellent yes
31…40 high yes fair yes
>40 medium no excellent no
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 Naïve Bayes Classifier: An Example age income studentcredit_rating
buys_comp
<=30 high no fair no
<=30 high no excellent no
31…40 high no fair yes

◼ P(Ci): P(buys_computer = “yes”) = 9/14 = 0.643 >40

>40
medium
low
no fair
yes fair
yes
yes
>40 low yes excellent no

P(buys_computer = “no”) = 5/14= 0.357 31…40

<=30
low
medium
yes excellent
no fair
yes
no
<=30 low yes fair yes
◼ Compute P(X|Ci) for each class >40
<=30
medium yes fair
medium yes excellent
yes
yes
31…40 medium no excellent yes
P(age = “<=30” | buys_computer = “yes”) = 2/9 = 0.222 31…40
>40
high
medium
yes fair
no excellent
yes
no

P(age = “<= 30” | buys_computer = “no”) = 3/5 = 0.6

P(income = “medium” | buys_computer = “yes”) = 4/9 = 0.444
P(income = “medium” | buys_computer = “no”) = 2/5 = 0.4
P(student = “yes” | buys_computer = “yes) = 6/9 = 0.667
P(student = “yes” | buys_computer = “no”) = 1/5 = 0.2
P(credit_rating = “fair” | buys_computer = “yes”) = 6/9 = 0.667
P(credit_rating = “fair” | buys_computer = “no”) = 2/5 = 0.4
◼ X = (age <= 30 , income = medium, student = yes, credit_rating = fair)
P(X|Ci) : P(X|buys_computer = “yes”) = 0.222 x 0.444 x 0.667 x 0.667 = 0.044
P(X|buys_computer = “no”) = 0.6 x 0.4 x 0.2 x 0.4 = 0.019
P(X|Ci)*P(Ci) : P(X|buys_computer = “yes”) * P(buys_computer = “yes”) = 0.028
P(X|buys_computer = “no”) * P(buys_computer = “no”) = 0.007
Therefore, X belongs to class (“buys_computer = yes”) 34
 Avoiding the Zero-Probability Problem
◼ Naïve Bayesian prediction requires each conditional prob. be
non-zero. Otherwise, the predicted prob. will be zero
n
P( X | C i ) =  P( x k | C i )
k =1
◼ Ex. Suppose a dataset with 1000 tuples, income=low (0),
income= medium (990), and income = high (10)
◼ Use Laplacian correction (or Laplacian estimator)
◼ Adding 1 to each case

Prob(income = low) = 1/1003

Prob(income = medium) = 991/1003
Prob(income = high) = 11/1003
◼ The “corrected” prob. estimates are close to their

“uncorrected” counterparts
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 Naïve Bayes Classifier: Comments
◼ Advantages
◼ Easy to implement

◼ Good results obtained in most of the cases

◼ Disadvantages
◼ Assumption: class conditional independence, therefore loss
of accuracy
◼ Practically, dependencies exist among variables

◼ E.g., hospitals: patients: Profile: age, family history, etc.

Symptoms: fever, cough etc., Disease: lung cancer,

diabetes, etc.
◼ Dependencies among these cannot be modeled by, Naïve

Bayes Classifier

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 Classification: Basic Concepts

◼ Classification: Basic Concepts

◼ Decision Tree Induction
◼ Bayes Classification Methods
◼ A multilayer feed-forward Neural Network
◼ Model Evaluation and Selection
◼ Additional Topics Regarding Classification
◼ Summary

37
A Multi-Layer Feed-Forward Neural Network

Output vector
w(jk +1) = w(jk ) +  ( yi − yˆ i( k ) ) xij
Output layer

Hidden layer

wij

Input layer

Input vector: X
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 How A Multi-Layer Neural Network Works
◼ The inputs to the network correspond to the attributes measured for each
training tuple
◼ Inputs are fed simultaneously into the units making up the input layer
◼ They are then weighted and fed simultaneously to a hidden layer
◼ The number of hidden layers is arbitrary, although usually only one
◼ The weighted outputs of the last hidden layer are input to units making up
the output layer, which emits the network's prediction
◼ The network is feed-forward: None of the weights cycles back to an input
unit or to an output unit of a previous layer
◼ From a statistical point of view, networks perform nonlinear regression:
Given enough hidden units and enough training samples, they can closely
approximate any function

39
 Defining a Network Topology
◼ Decide the network topology: Specify # of units in the input
layer, # of hidden layers (if > 1), # of units in each hidden layer,
and # of units in the output layer
◼ Normalize the input values for each attribute measured in the
training tuples to [0.0—1.0]
◼ One input unit per domain value, each initialized to 0
◼ Output, if for classification and more than two classes, one
output unit per class is used
◼ Once a network has been trained and its accuracy is
unacceptable, repeat the training process with a different
network topology or a different set of initial weights

40
 Backpropagation
◼ Iteratively process a set of training tuples & compare the network's prediction
with the actual known target value
◼ For each training tuple, the weights are modified to minimize the mean
squared error between the network's prediction and the actual target value
◼ Modifications are made in the “backwards” direction: from the output layer,
through each hidden layer down to the first hidden layer, hence
“backpropagation.”
◼ Steps
◼ Initialize weights to small random numbers associated with biases
◼ Propagate the inputs forward (by applying the activation function)
◼ Backpropagate the error (by updating weights and biases)
◼ Terminating condition (when the error is very small, etc.)

41
 Neuron: A Hidden/Output Layer Unit

x0 w0
k bias
x1

w1
f output y
xn wn For Example
n
y = sign(  wi xi −  k )
Input weight weighted Activation i =0

vector x vector w sum function

◼ An n-dimensional input vector x is mapped into variable y by means of the
scalar product and a nonlinear function mapping
◼ The inputs to unit are outputs from the previous layer. They are multiplied by
their corresponding weights to form a weighted sum, which is added to the
bias associated with unit. Then a nonlinear activation function is applied to it.
42