The Chair in China

1. Which of the sentence below best expresses the Paragraph 1

essential information in the highlighted sentence in
the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning East Asian societies share many cultural traits, but
in important ways or leave out essential only China adopted the chair before modern times.
information. Until about one thousand years ago, most Chinese
A. Chinese painters and writers were among those sat on mats or used a kind of folding chair without a
who helped popularize the modern chair, then back, known as a hu-chuang, which probably
known as the yi, during the Tang dynasty. originated in Central Asia. Around the fourth and
B. There is evidence from various sources that the fifth centuries A.D., when the hu-chuang became
modern chair, known as the yi, first appeared, but popular, the word hu was used to refer to imports
was not common, in China during the Tang from the west via trade routes. Paintings, literary
dynasty. references, and other types of documentation offer
C. Various documents produced during the Tang evidence that the chair as we know it--with a back
dynasty show that an early Chinese chair, called the and sometimes arms, and known as a yi in
yi, often had not back or arms. Chinese--appeared in China during the Tang
D. It is well documented that the chair as we know dynasty (618-906 A. D.), although it did not
it quickly became widespread during the Tang become widespread immediately.
dynasty in China, when it was known as the yi.
2. Why does the author provide the information that Paragraph 2
“The diary of Ennin, a famous ninth century
Japanese traveler, distinctly mentions that he sat on There are many reasons to believe that the adoption
a chair while in China ”? of the yi by Chinese society was a gradual one.
A. To help support the claim that the chair was not Because Tang-dynasty burial graves were often
in use in Japan during the Tang dynasty. furnished with clay figures of the deceased as well
B. To show how strongly Japan was influenced by as with representations of objects believed to be
certain aspects of Tang culture. necessary in the afterlife, such as horses, camels,
C. To suggest that the chair had been adpoted into furniture, and sometimes even houses, they are a
common use by the ninth century in China. good indication about what was considered
D. To disagree with the claim that the Japanese had essential to daily living. But no clay models of
never seen a chair as late as the ninth century. chairs have been found in the extensive modern
collections of these grave objects. Since Japan was
3. The word “exclusively” in the passage is closest strongly influenced by aspects of the Chinese Tang
in meaning to culture, it is also significant that the Japanese never
A. decoratively adopted the chair during the Tang dynasty. The
B. only diary of Ennin, a famous ninth century Japanese
C. especially traveler, distinctly mentions that he sat on a chair
D. often while in China, which suggests that he found the
experience unusual and noteworthy. For many years,
4. The discussion in paragraph 2 about the lack of the yi was used exclusively by people such as the
models of chairs found at Tang dynasty graves emperor, ladies of the court and high ranking
supports which of the following statements? officials, and it was adopted into common use only
A. Chairs were important to the afterlife in China. during the Song dynasty (960-1279 A.D.). A
B. Household items were almost never buried in twelfth-century painting, possibly of the Qingming
Tang-dynasty graves. Festival in Kaifeng, shows chairs and tables in the
C. Most clay objects at Tang-dynasty graves have city’s restaurants, tea houses, and wine shops.
not survived.
D. Chairs were not an important feature of daily life
duirng the Tang dynasty.

5. In paragraph 2, the author mentions which of the

following as evidence that the chair was widely
used during the Song dynasty?
A. Accounts by travelers to China during the Song
dynasty make references to the chair.
B. A Song-dynasty painting displays chairs in
various stores and restaurants.
C. In their diaries, ladies of the court and
high-ranking officials of the Song dynasty
mentioned the popularity of the chair.
D. Small clay representations of chairs have been
found at Song-dynasty grave sites.
6. The word “retained” in the passage is closest in Paragraph 3
meaning to
A. followed If the chair came from outside China, a likely
B. spread source is the Byzantine Empire, which occupied the
C. learned eastern mediterranean region at the time of the
D. kept Tang dynasty. Chairs were known in parts of the
Mediterranean world from the third millennium B.C.
7. According to paragraph 3, why do some people and were in common use in the Roman and
believe that the Nestorians introduced the chair to Byzantine Empire. The Chinese and Byzantine
China? Empire traded with each other, and one Chinese
A. The Nestorians migrated to China from an area description of court life in the Byzantine capital,
where chairs were popular. Constantinople, describes the Byzantine emperor
B. Written and pictorial sources represent the sitting on what was probably a throne. It has also
Nestorians seated on chairs. been suggested that the chair was introduced by the
C. The chair was used in the Nestorians’ religious Nestorians, foreign residents of China who
ceremonies in China. belonged to a Christian sect that flourished there in
D. The Nestorians remained in frequent contact the seventh to tenth centuries. The Nestorians’
with the Byzantine Empire after moving to China. origins were in the Byzantine Empire, and it is
likely that, when in China, they retained the
Mediterranean custom of sitting on chairs. Still, the
extensive Chinese written and pictorial sources
provide no clear evidence of this or any other
foreign origin of the chair in China.
8. According to paragraph 4, chairs influenced the Paragraph 4
design of Chinese homes in all of the following
ways EXCEPT: Whatever its origins, the chair had a profound
A. Tables became taller. influence on the design of Chinese homes. Where
B. Screens used to divide rooms became larger low tables once accompanied mats on the floor,
C. Stands for vases and art objects were introduced. tables now had to be higher, and new types of
D. Mats were placed underneath the furniture. furniture appeared, such as tall, narrow tables
placed against walls to serve as stands of vases or
other art objects. In fact, Chinese chairs usually
stood higher than mediterranean chairs in order to
keep a person’s feet above cold floors. Sitters rested
their feet on a front rung of the chair, or sometimes
on a footstool, which was often a mark of status;
paintings often showed a single footstool in front of
the senior person at a gathering. One
twelfth-century painting in the Beijing Palace
Museum, a copy of one painted two centuries
earlier shows people sitting on chairs in an
aristocratic household. The tables are still relatively
low, as if people had not yet adjusted to the new
style of furniture. But the folding screens (partitions
used to divide a room into separate sections) shown
in the painting are larger than those of earlier times,
evidently in response to the higher line of vision of
people sitting in chairs. In later ccenturies, as the
height and quantity of furniture increased, space in
Chinese buildings came to be divided by walls
instead of screens.
9. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where Paragraph 3
the following sentence can be added to the passage.
■ If the chair came from outside China, a likely
Although tr ade with other empir es is a likely source is the Byzantine Empire, which occupied the
explanation for how chair s came to be adopted eastern mediterranean region at the time of the
in China, another is equally intr iguing. Tang dynasty. ■ Chairs were known in parts of the
Mediterranean world from the third millennium B.C.
Where would the sentence best fit? and were in common use in the Roman and
Byzantine Empire. ■ The Chinese and Byzantine
Empire traded with each other, and one Chinese
description of court life in the Byzantine capital,
Constantinople, describes the Byzantine emperor
sitting on what was probably a throne. ■ It has also
been suggested that the chair was introduced by the
Nestorians, foreign residents of China who
belonged to a Christian sect that flourished there in
the seventh to tenth centuries. The Nestorians’
origins were in the Byzantine Empire, and it is
likely that, when in China, they retained the
Mediterranean custom of sitting on chairs. Still, the
extensive Chinese written and pictorial sources
provide no clear evidence of this or any other
foreign origin of the chair in China.
10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete
the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage.
Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the
passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

China is the only East Asian society to have adopted the chair before modern times.

Answer Choices

A. Folding chairs without backs called hu-chuang spread to China from Japan, and the Chinese later added
backs and armrests to these chairs during the Song dynasty.

B. During the Tang dynasty chairs were uncommon except for a small group of wealthy or important people,
but this changed as chairs became widespread during the Song dynasty.

C. The chair most likely entered China through the Mediterranean world, either as a result of trade or
through the immigration of foreigners from that region into China.

D. Nestorians living in China depicted chairs in the paintings they created from the seventh to tenth
centuries, which suggests that chairs were becoming more widespread.

E. With the introduction of the new chairs inside homes, the design and arrangement of furniture changed to
reflect that people were no longer resting on floor mats.

F. In addition to chairs, the Chinese also acquired side tables, footstools, and room dividers through trade
with the Byzantine Empire.
 Pterosaurs

1. According to paragraph 1, pterosaurs were like Paragraph 1

modern-day reptiles in all of the following ways
EXCEPT: Pterosaurs are a well-studied group of ancient
A. Their eggs had soft, thin shells that did not dinosaur species believed to have had the ability to
crack. fly. Although pterosaurs were once thought to be
B. The adults buried their eggs underground. very birdlike, increasing evidence indicates that
C. They spent relatively little time in their eggs pterosaurs were more like modern-day reptiles.
before hatching Pterosaur eggs, like reptile eggs today, had very
D. They were very well developed before hatching thin, paper-like shells. Scientists know this because
the pterosaur egg fossils they've found do not have
cracks. Because the eggs are soft-shelled, scientists
believe pterosaurs buried their eggs underground in
order to protect them. Modern-day reptiles like
lizards and crocodiles also bury their eggs. The
embryos (unhatched or unborn offspring) of all egg
buriers share a further trait: they are all very
precocial, or well developed before hatching
(leaving the egg), and are independent of their
parents (to greater and lesser extents) from the
moment they leave the egg.
2. Which of the sentences below best expresses the Paragraph 2
essential information in the highlighted sentence in
the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning There is some evidence that pterosaur hatchlings
in important ways or leave out essential information were similarly precocial. Pterosaur embryos have
A. Megapodes, like pterosaurs and most modern well-developed bones (even their toe bones are
reptiles, were ready to fly away and live completely completely formed at birth), bear similar
independently from their parents upon hatching proportions to their parents, and possess fully
B. Most flying vertebrates were super precocial and formed wings. Indeed, the proportions of
could develop and hatch independently, but they embryonic pterosaurs are so similar to those of
did not have the same flight abilities as pterosaurs adults that we can assign all of their currently
and megapodes known embryos to specific pterosaur groups and, in
C. The ability of pterosaurs to develop and hatch one case, even to a particular species. Such
with complete independence of their parents sets advanced development indicates that hatchling
them apart from all other vertebrates except (newly hatched) pterosaurs may have been capable
megapodes of looking after themselves----maybe even
D. Pterosaurs' advanced development and ability to flying----very soon after hatching. This sets
fly upon hatching is highly unusual among flying pterosaurs apart from virtually all other flying
vertebrates and suggests that like reptiles, they were vertebrates (animals with backbones)----only
never dependent on their parents. megapodes can also boast similar flight-ready,
super precocial offspring----and creates the
3. What is the author's purpose in stating,"All possibility that the embryos could develop and
modern birds and crocodiles generally guard and hatch with complete independence of their parents,
maintain their nests, even if the latter do exhibit in the manner of most reptiles. Others argue that the
only limited parental care once their hatchlings association of one pterosaur egg with a large
have emerged."? number of adult pterosaur remains indicates the
A. To suggest that pterosaurs may have protected opposite: that pterosaur chicks were looked after by
their eggs even if they did not provide care for their their parents. It is hard to know either way with the
hatched chicks limited data currently available, but a compromise
B. To identify a major difference between the between these ideas is most likely. All modern birds
nesting and guarding habits of pterosaurs and those and crocodiles generally guard and maintain their
of certain modern species nests, even if the latter do exhibit only limited
C. To support the idea that pterosaur chicks were parental care once their hatchlings have emerged.
cared for by their parents after hatching Nest guarding may, therefore, be deeply ingrained
D. To cast doubt on the idea that one pterosaur egg by these animals' evolutionary history. If so,
was looked after by a large number of adult pterosaurs could have demonstrated the same
pterosaurs behavior, even if they did not worry too much about
their offspring once they hatched.
4. According to paragraph 3. which of the following Paragraph 3
is true of precocial animals with regard to energy?
A. They use a lot of energy trying to survive and The first stages of bird and mammal lives revolve
thus have less energy to support growth. around two activities: eating and growing. We
B. They are more easily caught by predators spend large amounts of time eating high-quality,
because they lack the energy needed to escape nutritious food that is rapidly transformed into the
quickly. tissues we need to become self-sufficient. Often,
C. They have higher metabolisms than most other our parents go to great lengths to ensure that we are
animals and therefore produce more energy from also suitably warm so that we do not waste potential
food. growing energy to maintain our body temperature.
D. They often lack the energy needed to regulate This is not the case for precocial offspring. Along
their own body temperature. with growing, they have to invest considerable
energy into ensuring their own survival, including
5. Paragraph 3 suggests that which of the following regulating their body temperatures, finding their
characteristics is most important for fast growth in own food, avoiding predation, and so forth. As such,
young animals? even precocial animals with high metabolisms
A. Being precocial (rates of turning food into energy)--and therefore
B. Regulating body temperature independently potentially fast growth rates--cannot grow as
C. Receiving parental care quickly as animals dependent on parental care at
D. Having a high metabolism birth.
6. The word “arduous” in the passage is closest in Paragraph 4
meaning to
A. difficult There is good evidence that pterosaurs faced these
B. lengthy arduous childhoods. Although their bones possess
C. unusual structures that provide evidence of rapid bone
D. independent growth, the lines of arrested growth (LAGs), or
growth rings that show how much a given organism
7. The phrase “correspond to” in the passage is has grown in a year, suggest that pterosaurs may
closest in meaning to have taken quite a few years to hit their maximum
A. prove adult size. Counting bone LAGs allows us to
B. involve accurately determine the age of their owners in
C. match much the same way that tree rings can be used to
D. reveal determine the age of tree trunks. Analysis of LAGs
in Pterodaustro, a Cretaceous pterosaur with a 3
8. According to paragraph 4, a high number of meter wingspan, suggests it took seven years to
different size classes in a single species indicates reach full size. Further evidence for slow growth
which of the following? rates comes from the preservation of distinct size
A. That the sizes of full-grown adults of the species classes in fossils of several pterosaur species that
often varied widely correspond to different stages of growth. This
B. That the typical wingspan for adults of the is thought to represent regular annual mortalities
species was relatively large of immature individuals. The number of size classes
C. That members of the species likely experienced in a single pterosaur species is high (up to five in
rapid bone growth the case of the 2-meter wingspan from
D. That young members of the species took a Rhamphorhynchus), which corroborates the idea
relatively long time to reach their adult size that pterosaurs did not grow to their adult
proportions quickly.
9. Look at the four squares ■ that indicate where the Paragraph 3
following sentence could be added to the passage.
The first stages of bird and mammal lives revolve
Our parents typically find this food for us so around two activities: eating and growing. ■ We
that we do not waste energy or endanger spend large amounts of time eating high-quality,
ourselves while searching for it nutritious food that is rapidly transformed into the
tissues we need to become self-sufficient. ■ Often
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a our parents go to great lengths to ensure that we are
square ■ to add the sentence to the passage. also suitably warm so that we do not waste potential
growing energy to maintain our body temperature.
■ This is not the case for precocial offspring. ■
Along with growing, they have to invest
considerable energy into ensuring their own
survival, including regulating their body
temperatures, finding their own food, avoiding
predation, and so forth. As such, even precocial
animals with high metabolisms (rates of turning
food into energy)-and therefore potentially fast
growth rates-cannot grow as quickly as animals
dependent on parental care at birth.
10. Directions : An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete
the summary by selecting the 3 answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some
sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or
are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Pterosaurs are a group of dinosaur species believed to have had the ability to fly.

Answer Choices

A. Pterosaurs display features of both modern-day birds and reptiles which has resulted in considerable
disagreement among experts about how to classify pterosaurs

B. Though limited evidence indicates that pterosaur parents cared for their chicks, pterosaurs are now
believed to have been generally more like reptiles than birds in their parental care

C. While features of pterosaur bones indicate that rapid growth occurred, they also reveal that growth
periodically stopped suggesting that immature pterosaurs managed their own survival

D. Pterosaur embryos had fully formed wings and skeletons that reveal pterosaur group and even species
characteristics, and hatchlings may have been able to fly

E. If pterosaurs were not cared for by their parents, they likely lived in large social groups due to the
challenges of avoiding predators and producing enough heat to maintain body temperature

F. Analysis of fossilized pterosaur remains suggests that immature pterosaurs may have been particularly
vulnerable to predation, with relatively few living long enough to reach their full size
 Darwin and Evolution Theory

1. Which of the sentences below best expresses the Paragraph 1

essential information in the highlighted sentence in
the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning In 1831 the English naturalist and geologist Charles
in important ways or leave out essential Darwin boarded HMS Beagle as it set sail on a
information. five-year voyage of exploration, the purpose of
A. Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands to learn which was (in part) to survey the South American
about different species of tortoise. coastline. During the voyage, Darwin used his time,
B. Darwin learned that different species of tortoises resources, and inclination to indulge his curiosity in
live on different, but neighboring, islands off the natural science by traveling ashore frequently,
coast of Ecuador. where he made extensive collections of fossils and
C. The Galapagos Islands are a chain of islands off modern life-forms. Significantly, Darwin brought
the coast of Ecuador that have many species of with him a copy of Charles Lyell's Principles of
tortoise. Geology, which vigorously promoted the concept of
D. Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands and uniformitarianism--the idea that the same natural
identified the different species of tortoise that live processes observable today operated in the past and
on each island. caused the same types of gradual geologic changes
over long periods of time. Exploring the coastal
2. According to paragraph 1, Darwin noticed which regions and islands the ship visited, Darwin
of the following patterns in the distribution of observed that different types of organisms lived in
organisms during his voyage aboard the HMS geographically separated areas. On the Atlantic and
Beagle? Pacific coasts of Panama, for example, completely
A. Different species of the same organism different species of marine organisms occupy the
sometimes lived in areas that are near each other ocean waters, even though the oceans are separated
but geographically separate. by only a few miles of land. Darwin visited the
B. Coastal regions and islands tended to have a Galapagos Islands, a chain of volcanic islands off
wider variety of species than other areas had. the coast of Ecuador, where he learned that
C. Volcanic islands tended to have more species of different species of tortoise live ondifferent islands,
organisms than other types of islands had. although the islands are not widely separated.
D. Certain species of marine life lived in coastal During the voyage, he collected many specimens of
areas of both the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. plants and animals. as well as fossils of extinct
life-forms, which he continued to study after his
3. Paragraph 1 suggests which of the following return to England. Gradually, Darwin realized that
about the development of Darwin's idea that species many of the observations and collections he made
change over time? during the vovage could be explained only if
A. By the time he returned to England, Darwin had species changed over time.
already formulated his theory that species gradually
change.
B. Darwin based his idea on his observation that
when similar environments are widely separated,
they support similar species.
C. Darwin developed his idea to show that Lyell's
uniformitarianism did not apply to the biological
world of evolving species.
D. At the time Darwin made his collections and
observations, he was not intending to develop
evidence for a theory of species evolution.
4. Which TWO of the following conclusions did Paragraph 2
Darwin draw from the fact that "The arrangement
of bones in the forelimbs of birds, bats and whales Darwin found support for his view of evolving
is similar'? To receive credit, you must select TWO species not just from the fossils he collected but
answers. also from several different types of anatomical
A. The forelimbs of these animals acquired their relationships among living animals. The
current functions through the process of evolution. arrangement of bones in the forelimbs of birds, bats,
B. The forelimbs of the ancestors of these animals and whales is similar. Darwin concluded that
were vestigial structures. evolution has caused the same limb, inherited from
C. These animals had a common ancestor. a common ancestor, to adapt to quite different
D. Ancestors of these animals were two-legged. functions. We call such similarity of structure
homology, and its presence in a group of organisms
suggests a common ancestry. Additional support for
evolutionary changes in organisms is found in the
presence of vestigial structures. These are
structures or organs that are useless in the modern
organism but were inherited from ancestors in
which such structures were useful. The presence of
a vestigial pelvic bone in snakes and whales is an
example, demonstrating four-legged ancestors for
both groups.
5. The word "enhancing" in the passage is closest in Paragraph 3
meaning to
A. reproducing Evidence for evolutionary change does not explain
B. increasing why changes occur, however. Darwin observed that
C. distributing there was a certain amount of variation between
D. mixing individuals in any population. He also studied how
animal breeders could change domestic livestock by
selecting individuals with certain desirable traits
6. According to paragraph 3, which of the following and enhancing those traits in the population through
is true of both artificial and natural selection? breeding, a process of artificial selection. But why
A. Desirable traits are passed on to the next do some species go extinct and new ones arise to
generation take their place in nature? Dawin’s idea on this
B. Animal breeders determine which characteristics question were influenced by an essay on population
favor survival written by the economist Thomas Malthus in 1798.
C. Desirable traits are selected for when food Malthus, writing about human societies, stated that
production is greater than population growth. populations grow at a rate faster than that of food
D. Species with desirable traits need fewer production. As a result, more individuals are born
resources to survive than can survive to maturity when resources
become scarce. Darwin realized that this concept
7. According to paragraph 3, which of the following also could be applied to animal populations in
ideas in Malthus writings was Darwin able to apply nature: competition for food and mates would select
to his own theory? individuals with certain favorable traits for survival.
A. Human populations have similarities to animal These individuals would pass those traits on to
populations subsequent generations, a process of natural
B. When resources are scarce, only some selection.
individuals survive
C. Which species survive depends on which
resources are available. Paragraph 4
D. Individuals that survive pass on their traits to
subsequent generations. Darwin became convinced that natural selection
was indeed the driving force for the evolution of
species, but he was hesitant to publish his theory
without an overwhelming body of data to support it.
Although he had discussed his ideas with several
8. In saying that Darwin's geologic work "had naturalists, his geologic work had priority.
priority," the author means that Darwin thought the Meanwhile, Alfred Wallace, a young naturalist who
geologic work had worked in South America and Southeast Asia
A. was more interesting developed a similar theory of natural selection as
B. had more data to support it the basis for evolution. As Wallace prepared to
C. was more likely to be accepted by the public present his theory in public, Darwin's friends finally
D. merited his attention first convinced Darwin to present his findings. Darwin's
and Wallace's papers were presented jointly at a
meeting of the Linnean Society of London in 1858.
Because of his greater accumulation of data over
many years, Darwin is given the majority of the
credit for developing the theory, the significance of
which became apparent with the publication of his
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection in 1859.
9. Look at the four squares that indicate where the Paragraph 4
following sentence could be added to the passage.
Darwin became convinced that natural selection
As indicated by the judgment of the president of was indeed the driving force for the evolution of
the Linnean Society that there had been no species, but he was hesitant to publish his theory
striking discoveries that year, neither the views without an overwhelming body of data to support it.
of Wallace nor those of Darwin caused much of a Although he had discussed his ideas with several
reaction at their initial presentation. naturalists, his geologic work had priority. 
Meanwhile, Alfred Wallace, a young naturalist who
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a had worked in South America and Southeast Asia
square [] to add thesentence to the passage. developed a similar theory of natural selection as
the basis for evolution.  As Wallace prepared to
present his theory in public, Darwin's friends finally
convinced Darwin to present his findings. Darwin's
and Wallace's papers were presented jointly at a
meeting of the Linnean Society of London in 1858.
 Because of his greater accumulation of data over
many years, Darwin is given the majority of the
credit for developing the theory, the significance of
which became apparent with the publication of his
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection in 1859. 
10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete
the summary by selecting the THREE ansiwer choices that express the most important ideas in the passace.
Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the
passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Darwin joined the HMS Beagle voyage of exploration in 1831.

Answer Choices

A. Based on his observations and on his thinking about the plant and animal specimens and fossils he
collected on the voyage, Darwin concluded that species must gradually change over time.

B. The existence of similar anatomical structures and organs that are no longer useful in different species
supported the idea of a common ancestor whose descendants changed over time.

C. Darwin's theory of evolution explained changes to organisms over time as the result of a competition for
food and mates that selected for individuals with characteristics favorable for survival.

D. Although Wallace's alternative theory of natural selection was presented to the Linnean Society before
Darwin published his own work, it was eventually discredited in favor of Darwin's theory.

E. Darwin and Wallace presented competing views of evolution, but Wallace was unable to provide
evidence in support of his theory.

F. Although Darwin's theory presents evidence for evolutionary changes in species, it does not explain why
such changes occur.