CHAPTER 3 : UNIFORM FLOW IN OPEN

CHANNEL
2.1 Resistance of Flow Formula
2.2 Determination of Normal depths by Various Methods
2.3 Design of Open Channels
2.4 Effectives Cross-Sections (Circular, Rectangular,
Trapezoidal)
 2.0 Uniform flow in open
channel
Definition

 The depth, flow area and velocity at every cross section are constant.
 The energy grade line, water surface and channel bottom are all parallel;
that is,
Sf = Sw = So
where;
Sf = slope energy grade line
Sw = slope of the water surface
So = slope of the channel bed

 In general, uniform flow can occur only in very long, straight and prismatic
channel.
 2.0 Uniform flow in open
channel
Energy grade line for open channel
General Flow Equation

Where;
Q = discharge
A = cross section area
V = velocity
 2.0 Uniform flow in open
channel
Continuity equations

3a
Inflow 3 A
Change in Storage
3b
Outflow
1 A 2
Section AA

Inflow – Outflow = Change in Storage

 2.1 Resistance of flow
2.1 The Formula

 For computational purposes, the average velocity of a uniform flow can be

computed approximately by any one of a number of semiempirical uniform
flow equations.
 All these equations have the form

v = CRxSy
Where;
v = average velocity
C= resistance coefficient
S = channel longitudinal slope
R = hydraulic radius
x and y = coefficients
2.2.1 : Chezy equation

This equation was developed by a French engineer, Antoine Chezy around

the year 1768.
The fundamental basis
Force producing motion = friction force resisting motion

where;
V = average velocity
C = coefficient
R = hydraulic radius, (A/P)
S = slope of the energy grade line (dimensionless)
 2.1 Resistance of flow

The formula was derived based on two assumptions:

 1. The force resisting the flow per unit area of the stream bed is
proportional to the square of the velocity (KV2), with K being a
proportionality constant.

 2. The difficulty with this formula is determining the value of C, which is the
Chezy resistance factor. There are three different formulas for
determining C, the G.K. Formula, the Bazin Formula, and the Powell
Formula.
 2.1 Resistance of flow
a. Ganguillet Kutter Formula

Imperial Unit

SI Unit
b. Bazin Formula

Imperial Unit

SI Unit
 2.1 Resistance of flow
c. Powell

Imperial Unit

n & m are roughness factors determine by experiment.

Later on, when Manning's equation was developed in 1889, a relationship between Manning’s “n” and
Chezy’s “C” was established.

Imperial Unit SI Unit

Finally in 1933, the Manning equation was suggested for international use rather than Chezy’s
Equation.
Description of channel Bazin's m

Very smooth cement of planed wood 0.11

Unplaned wood, concrete or brick 0.21

Ashlar, rubble masonry or poor brickwork 0.83

Earth channels in perfect condition 1.54

Earth channels in ordinary condition 2.36

Earth channels in rough condition 3.17

Description of channel Powell's,Є

New Old

Neat cement surface 0.0002 0.0004

Unplaned-plank flumes 0.001 0.0017

Concrete lined channels 0.004 0.006

Earth, straight and uniform 0.04

Dredhged earth channels 0.1

2.1.2 : Manning’s Equation

 This formula was later adapted to obtain a flow measurement. This is done
by multiplying both sides by the area.

Imperial Unit

SI Unit

 Manning’s equation is the most widely used of all uniform-flow formulas for
open channel flow, because of its simplicity and satisfactory results it
produces in real-world applications.
Manning’s Roughness coefficient, n

Material Manning n Material Manning n

Natural Streams Excavated Earth Channels
Clean and Straight 0.030 Clean 0.022
Major Rivers 0.035 Gravelly 0.025

Sluggish with Deep Pools 0.040 Weedy 0.030

Stony, Cobbles 0.035

Floodplains 0.035 Non-Metals

Pasture, Farmland 0.050 Finished Concrete 0.012

Light Brush 0.075 Unfinished Concrete 0.014

Heavy Brush 0.15 Gravel 0.029

Trees Earth 0.025

 2.1 Resistance of flow
Factors Affecting Manning’s Coefficient

 Surface Roughness
 Vegetation
 Channel Irregular
 Channel Alignment
 Silting and Scouring
 Obstruction
 Size and Shape of Channel
 Stage and Discharge
 Seasonal Change
 Suspended Material and Bed Load
2.1.4 : Friction loss in uniform open channel flow

19
 Cont’ : Friction loss in uniform open channel flow

In practise, flow in open channel is usually in the rough turbulent zone

For a uniform flow, the gravity Force must be exactly balance the frictional
resistance force (which apply as shear force along the bed and walls)
20
Cont’ : Friction loss in uniform open channel flow

The gravity force is resolved in the direction

of flow is :

The boundary shear stress:

Considering the small bed slope (gradually

uniform)

Assuming flow is in a rough turbulent state, shear force is proportional to the velocity
squared;

Thus;

By grouping constant as C, substitue C and lamdar, DW for OC

can be written as,

21
To widely adapted C to be used by engineers is;

velocity

In terms of discharge,

Now, due to its long practical used, few typical manning’s n given as:

22
Channel conveyance:

 Channel conveyance K is a measure of carrying apacity of channel. K is

actually given by:

 For any given water depth, its value may be found by equating the above
formula:

 Used of conveyance may be made when calculating discharge and stage in

compound channels.

 A typical compound channel for irregular section:

23
 2.1 Resistance of flow
Example 1

 Water flows in a rectangular concrete open channel (n = 0.012) that is

12.0m wide at a depth of 2.5 m. The channel slope is 0.0028. Find the
water velocity and flow rate using Manning’s equation.
 2.1 Resistance of flow
Example 2

If the flow rate in open channel is 50 m3/s with the velocity of 6 m/s,
determine the cross-section of these channel:
i. ½ circle
ii. Rectangular if b=2y
iii. Trapezoidal if b=y and z=3
 2.1 Resistance of flow
Example 3

A trapezoidal channel with 3 m width and bed slope 1 in 5000 is proposed to

be built. The depth of flow is approximately 1.2m and the side slope is 1:2.
Calculate the flow rate with these formulas:
i. Manning (n=0.025)
ii. Ganguilet-Kutter (n=0.025)
iii. Bazin (m=1.3)
 2.1 Resistance of flow
Example 4

A triangular channel (V shape) has a side slope at 45°, 0.25 m of water depth
and bed slope 1 in 500. Use Chezy coefficient C=56. Determine the flow rate
of this channel.
Example 5

Measurements carried out on the uniform flow of water in a long rectangular

channel 3.5 m wide and a bed slope 0.0012, revealed that at a depth of flow
of 0.8 m the discharge of water was 3.6 m3/s. Estimate the discharge of water
when the depth is 1.5 m using
Manning Equation
Chezy Equation

Note:
2.2 Determination of Normal depths by Various
Methods

 Manning’s equation

 In Manning’s equation, the parameter AR 2/3 is termed the section factor

is by definition the conveyance of the channel.

 For a given channel; where AR 2/3 always increases with increasing depth,
each discharge has corresponding unique depth at which uniform flow
occurs.
 Normal depth - function of Q, slope, channel cross section
 Depth that would occur if channel was long enough for uniform flow to
develop
 2.2 Calculation of Normal
Depth and Velocity
Example 1

Given a trapezoidal channel with bottom width of 3 m, side slope of 1:1.5, a

longitudinal slope of 0.0016 and a resistance coefficient of n=0.013,
determine the normal discharge if the normal depth of flow is 2.6m.

In general, the most difficult and tedious normal flow calculation occurs when
Q, , S and n are known and yN must be estimated. In such a case, an explicit
solution Q=VA is not possible and the problem must be solved by trial and
error, design chart or numerical methods.
 2.2 Calculation of Normal

2.2.1 Trial and Error and Graphical Solution

For graphical solution, plot a graph the depth of flow (normal depth) versus
section factor (AR2/3) and try to get a straight line.

Example 2: Using the example 1 to determine normal depth if the discharge

is 71 m3/s
Trial and error solution

AR2/3 = 23.075
Trial y A=(3+1.5y)y P=3+3.6y R=A/P AR2/3
2.000 12.000 10.200 1.176 13.373
2.500 16.875 12.000 1.406 21.181
2.600 17.940 12.360 1.451 22.998
2.605 17.994 12.378 1.454 23.091
2.604 17.983 12.374 1.453 23.073
Graphical Solution

AR2/3 = 23.075
Trial y A=(3+1.5y)y P=3+3.6y R=A/P AR2/3
0.500 1.875 4.800 0.391 1.002
1.000 4.500 6.600 0.682 3.486
1.500 7.875 8.400 0.938 7.543
2.000 12.000 10.200 1.176 13.373
2.500 16.875 12.000 1.406 21.181
3.000 22.500 13.800 1.630 31.169
2.2 Calculation of Normal
Depth and Velocity
 2.2 Calculation of Normal
Depth and Velocity
2.2.2 General Design Chart

 In order to simplify the computation of the normal depth for common

channel shapes, dimensionless curves for the section factor as a function of
the depth have been prepared for rectangular, circular and trapezoidal.
 Although these curves provide solutions to the problem of normal depth
computation for these channel shapes in a manner similar to that used in
problem that they do not provide a general method of solution.
 2.2 Calculation of Normal
Depth and Velocity
Example 3 (Design Chart)

 Given a circular culvert 0.91 m in diameter with S=0.0016 and n=0.015,

find the normal depth of flow for a discharge of 0.42 m3/s. (Use Design
Chart)
2.2 Calculation of Normal
Depth and Velocity
 2.2 Calculation of Normal
Depth and Velocity
2.2.3 Numerical Methods

 If a computer is available and a large number of normal depth estimation

problems must be solved, then a numerical trial and error produced may be
the best approach.
 A logical diagram for a numerical solution in the case of rectangular,
trapezoidal, triangular, circular and natural channels is given.
 2.2 Calculation of Normal
Depth and Velocity
Exercise

1. A rectangular channel with 6 m width and bed slope, 0.0016 flow

through the channel with 10 m3/s, n=0.017. Calculate the value of normal
depth with
i. Trial and error
ii. Graph
iii. Design Chart

2. How deep will water flow at the rate of 6.80 m3/s in a rectangular
channel 6.10 m wide laid on a slope of 0.00010? Use n=0.0149.
 2.2 Calculation of Normal
Depth and Velocity
Excercise

3. A concrete lined trapezoidal channel has a bed width of 3.5m, side

slope at 45° to the horizontal, a bed slope 1:1000 and Manning Roughness
coefficient of 0.015. Calculate the normal depth of uniform flow when
the discharge is 20 m3/s. (Using Trial & Error Method).

4. Design a rectangular channel to be made of formed unfinished

concrete with Manning’s coefficient, 0.017 to carry 12 m3/s of water when
laid on a 1.2 percent slope. In the final design, the width was made 2 m.
Determine the normal depth for this discharge.
 2.3 Design of channel
2.3 Design of Channel

 A critical topic in the area of open channel hydraulics in the design of

channels capable of transporting water between two points in a safe, cost
effective manner.
 Although economics, safety and esthetics must always be considered, only
the hydraulic aspects of channel design will be examined.
 The design channels for uniform flow divides by three types of channels:
Lined or nonerodible
Unlined, earthen or erodible
Grass lined
2.4 The Most Effective Cross Sections

 From the Manning and Chezy equation, it is clear that the conveyance of a
channel increases as the hydraulic radius increases or as the wetted
perimeter decreases.
 Thus, from the viewpoint of hydraulics, there is among all channel cross
sections of a specified geometric shape and area an optimum set of
dimensions for that shape.
 The one that will have the greatest capacity for a given slope, area and
roughness.
 If these parameter constant, velocity will be greatest when the wetted
perimeter is smallest.
 The most efficient (effective) is the most economical.
 Semicircular – smallest wetted perimeter
 2.4 Best Hydraulic Section

 The most efficient cross section happened when:

Flow rate (Q) is maximum
Slope (S) constant so hydraulics radius (R) is maximum and wetted
perimeter (P) is minimum
dP /dy = 0
 2.4 Best Hydraulic Section
Notes:

 For all trapezoidal channels, the best hydraulic section is obtained when
R=y/2. the symmetrical section will be a half-hexagon.
 For a rectangular channel (when θ=0°), A=y/2. Thus the best hydraulic
radius half the depth.
 The circle has the least perimeter for a given area. A semicircular open
channel will discharge more water than any other shape (for the same
area, slope and factor, n).
 2.4 Best Hydraulic Section
2.4.1 Rectangular channel
2.4.2 Most efficient trapezoidal section for
Rectangular channel
2.4 Best Hydraulic Section
Most efficient triangular section for Rectangular
channel
Most efficient triangular section for Rectangular
channel
 2.4 Best Hydraulic Section
Example 1

An open channel with n=0.011 is to be designed to carry 1.0 m3/s at slope of

0.0065. Find the most efficient cross section for;
a. A rectangular
b. A semicircular
c. A triangular
d. A trapezoidal
 2.4 Best Hydraulic Section
Example 2

An open channel is designed to carry 15m3/s at a channel slope of 0.0009. If

Chezy’s coefficient is 66, determine the most efficient cross section for these
channel:
i. a rectangular
ii. a trapezoidal
If the excavation cost is RM5 per m3, determine the most efficient cross section
(economically) between (i) and (ii) for the 50m channel’s length
 2.4 Best Hydraulic Section
Exercise

1. Water flows in a rectangular concrete open channel with flow rate

13.1 m3/s at a velocity 1.8m/s. Calculate the channel slope needed if:
i. Flow rate is maximum
ii. Width equal 3 time normal depth (C=66m1/2/s)

2. A trapezoidal channel will be design. The required flow rate will be

12.2 m3/s of flow rate along 6 km length and 2 m/s of velocity. The side slope
of the channel is 45°. Determine the channel slope, normal depth and width of
an effective cross section. Given the Manning’s roughness coefficient is 0.015. If
this channel will be lined with bricks, determine the total bricks (pieces)
required if 1 m2 contain of 100 pieces of bricks.
 2.4 Best Hydraulic Section

3. A triangular channel will be design with 14 m3/s of flow rate along

5.5 km length and 2 m/s of velocity. The side slope of the channel is 45°.
Determine the bed slope and normal depth for an effective cross section where
the Manning’s roughness coefficient is 0.013. If this channel will be lined with
bricks, determine the total bricks (pieces) required if 1 m2 contain of 100
pieces of bricks.

4. A rectangular channel will be design with 14.2 m3/s of flow rate

along 6.5km length and 2.25 m/s of velocity.
i. Determine the channel slope, normal depth and width of an effective
cross section.
ii. If this channel will be lined with bricks which are 1m2 area contain of
100 pieces of bricks. Determine the total bricks (pieces) are required in this
channel. (n = 0.016)