Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.

Carmelite St., Escalante City, Negros Occidental

COLLEGE DEPARTMENT
Second Semester
Academic Year 2023-2024

M104 - Logic and Set Theory

Set theory is a mathematical theory, developed to explain collections of objects. Basically, the definition states
that “it is a collection of elements”. These elements could be numbers, alphabets, variables, etc.

A set is a collection of different types of objects, and collectively it is called an object. For example, numbers 8,
10, 15 and 24 are 4 distinct numbers, but when we put them together, they form a set of 4 elements, such that {8,
10, 15, 24}.
In the same way, sets are defined in Maths for a different pattern of numbers or elements. Such as, sets could be a
collection of odd numbers, even numbers, natural numbers, whole numbers, real or complex numbers and all the
set of numbers which lies on the number line.

History:
A famous mathematician, Georg Cantor, generated a theory of abstract sets of entities and formed it into a
mathematical discipline between the years 1874 and 1897. This theory in maths is built out of his research of
some definite problems about specific types of infinite sets of numbers which are real. According to Cantor, the
set is a collection of definite, distinct objects or items of observation as a whole. These items are called elements
or members of the set.

Mathematics Set Theory Symbols

Let us see the different types of symbols used in Mathematics set theory with their meanings and
examples. Consider a Universal set (U) = {1, 2, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, 23, 28, 30}

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning Example

{} set a collection of elements A = {1, 7, 9, 13, 15, 23},

B = {7, 13, 15, 21}

A∪B union Elements that belong to set A or set B A ∪ B = {1, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, 23}

A∩B intersection Elements that belong to both the sets, A and A ∩ B = {7, 13, 15 }
B

A⊆B subset subset has few or all elements equal to the {7, 15} ⊆ {7, 13, 15, 21}
set

A⊄ B not subset left set is not a subset of right set {1, 23} ⊄ B

A⊂B proper subset / subset has fewer elements than the set {7, 13, 15} ⊂ {1, 7, 9, 13, 15,
strict subset 23}

A⊃B proper superset / set A has more elements than set B {1, 7, 9, 13, 15, 23} ⊃ {7, 13,
strict superset 15, }

A⊇B superset set A has more elements or equal to the set {1, 7, 9, 13, 15, 23} ⊇ {7, 13, 15,
B 23}

Ø empty set Ø={} C = {Ø}

Prepared by: Melchorie S. Buenavista, LPT 1

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 Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
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P (C) power set all subsets of C C = {4,7},

P(C) = {{}, {4}, {7}, {4,7}}
Given by 2s, s is number of
elements in set C

A⊅ B not superset set X is not a superset of set Y {1, 2, 5} ⊅ {1, 6}

A=B equality both sets have the same members {7, 13,15} = {7, 13, 15}

A \ B or relative objects that belong to A and not to B {1, 9, 23}

A-B complement

Ac complement all the objects that do not belong to set A We know, U = {1, 2, 7, 9, 13, 15,
21, 23, 28, 30}
Ac = {2, 21, 28, 30}

A∆B symmetric objects that belong to A or B but not to their A ∆ B = {1, 9, 21, 23}
difference intersection

a∈B element of set membership B = {7, 13, 15, 21},

13 ∈ B

(a, b) ordered pair collection of 2 elements (1, 2)

x∉ A not element of no set membership A = {1, 7, 8, 13, 15, 23}, 5 ∉ A

|B| cardinality the number of elements of set B B = {7, 13, 15, 21}, |B|= 4

A×B Cartesian product set of all ordered pairs from A and B {3,5} × {7,8} = {(3,7), (3,8),
(5,7), (5, 8)}

N1 natural numbers / N1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…} 6 ∈ N1

whole
numbers set
(without zero)

N0 natural numbers / N0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…} 0 ∈ N0

whole
numbers set
(with zero)

Q rational numbers Q= {x | x=a/b, a, b ∈ Z} 2/6 ∈ Q

set

Z integer numbers Z= {…-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…} -6 ∈ Z

set

C complex numbers C= {z | z = a + bi, -∞<a<∞, - 6 + 2i ∈ C

set ∞<b<∞}

R real numbers set R= {x | -∞ < x <∞} 6.343434 ∈ R

What does ∈ mean?

∈ is a symbol which means ‘belongs to’. If b ∈ B, it shows that b is the element of B.

Prepared by: Melchorie S. Buenavista, LPT 2

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 Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
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Sets
In mathematics, are an organized collection of objects and can be represented in set-builder form or roster form.
Usually, sets are represented in curly braces {}, for example, A = {1,2,3,4} is a set.

Definition of Sets
Sets are represented as a collection of well-defined objects or elements and it does not change from person to
person. A set is represented by a capital letter. The number of elements in the finite set is known as the cardinal
number of a set.

What are the Elements of a Set

Let us take an example:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
Since a set is usually represented by the capital letter. Thus, A is the set and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are the elements of the
set or members of the set. The elements that are written in the set can be in any order but cannot be repeated. All
the set elements are represented in small letter in case of alphabets. Also, we can write it as 1 ∈ A, 2 ∈ A etc.
The cardinal number of the set is 5. Some commonly used sets are as follows:

 N: Set of all natural numbers

 Z: Set of all integers
 Q: Set of all rational numbers
 R: Set of all real numbers
 Z+: Set of all positive integers

Order of Sets
The order of a set defines the number of elements a set is having. It describes the size of a set. The order of set is
also known as the Cardinality.
The size of set whether it is is a finite set or an infinite set, said to be set of finite order or infinite order,
respectively.

Representation of Sets
The sets are represented in curly braces, {}. For example, {2,3,4} or {a,b,c} or {Bat, Ball, Wickets}. The
elements in the sets are depicted in either the Statement form, Roster Form or Set Builder Form.

1. Statement Form/ Semantic Form

In statement form, the well-defined descriptions of a member of a set are written and enclosed in the curly
brackets.
For example, the set of even numbers less than 15.
In statement form, it can be written as {even numbers less than 15}.

2. Roster Form
In Roster form, all the elements of a set are listed.
For example, the set of natural numbers less than 5.
Natural Number = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,……….
Natural Number less than 5 = 1, 2, 3, 4
Therefore, the set is N = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }

Prepared by: Melchorie S. Buenavista, LPT 3

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3. Set Builder Form
The general form is, A = { x : property }
Example: Write the following sets in set builder form: A={2, 4, 6, 8}
Solution:
2=2x1
4=2x2
6=2x3
8=2x4
So, the set builder form is A = {x: x=2n, n ∈ N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4}

Types of Sets
We have several types of sets in Maths. They are empty set, finite and infinite sets, proper set, equal sets, etc. Let
us go through the classification of sets here.

a) Empty Set
A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set or void set or null set. It is denoted by { } or Ø.
A set of apples in the basket of grapes is an example of an empty set because in a grapes basket there are no
apples present.

b) Singleton Set
A set which contains a single element is called a singleton set.
Example: There is only one apple in a basket of grapes.

c) Finite set
A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called a finite set.
Example: A set of natural numbers up to 10.
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

d) Infinite set
A set which is not finite is called an infinite set.
Example: A set of all natural numbers.
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9……}

e) Equivalent set
If the number of elements is the same for two different sets, then they are called equivalent sets. The order of sets
does not matter here. It is represented as:
n(A) = n(B)
where A and B are two different sets with the same number of elements.
Example: If A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {Red, Blue, Green, Black}
In set A, there are four elements and in set B also there are four elements. Therefore, set A and set B are
equivalent.

f) Equal sets
The two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements, the order of elements do not
matter.
Example: A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {4,3,2,1} (A = B)

Prepared by: Melchorie S. Buenavista, LPT 4

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g) Disjoint Sets
The two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if the set does not contain any common element.
Example: Set A = {1,2,3,4} and set B = {5,6,7,8} are disjoint sets, because there is no common element between
them.

h) Subsets
A set ‘A’ is said to be a subset of B if every element of A is also an element of B, denoted as A ⊆ B. Even the
null set is considered to be the subset of another set. In general, a subset is a part of another set.
Example: A = {1,2,3}
Then {1,2} ⊆ A.
Similarly, other subsets of set A are: {1},{2},{3},{1,2},{2,3},{1,3},{1,2,3},{}.
Note: The set is also a subset of itself.
If A is not a subset of B, then it is denoted as A⊄ B.

i) Universal Set
A set which contains all the sets relevant to a certain condition is called the universal set. It is the set of all
possible values.
Example: If A = {1,2,3} and B {2,3,4,5}, then universal set here will be:
U = {1,2,3,4,5}

Operations on Sets

In set theory, the operations of the sets are carried when two or more sets combine to form a single set under some
of the given conditions. The basic operations on sets are:

 Union of sets
 Intersection of sets
 A complement of a set
 Cartesian product of sets.
 Set difference

1. Union of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then A union B is the set that contains all the elements of set A and set B. It is
denoted as A ∪ B.
Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A union B is:
A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,6}

2. Intersection of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then A intersection B is the set that contains only the common elements between
set A and set B. It is denoted as A ∩ B.
Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A intersection B is:
A ∩ B = { } or Ø
Since A and B do not have any elements in common, so their intersection will give null set.

Prepared by: Melchorie S. Buenavista, LPT 5

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3. Complement of Sets
The complement of any set, say P, is the set of all elements in the universal set that are not in set P. It is denoted
by P’.
Properties of Complement sets

1. P ∪ P′ = U
2. P ∩ P′ = Φ
3. Law of double complement : (P′ )′ = P
4. Laws of empty/null set(Φ) and universal set(U), Φ′ = U and U′ = Φ.

4. Cartesian Product of sets

If set A and set B are two sets then the Cartesian product of set A and set B is a set of all ordered pairs (a,b), such
that a is an element of A and b is an element of B. It is denoted by A × B.
We can represent it in set-builder form, such as:
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
Example: set A = {1,2,3} and set B = {Bat, Ball}, then;
A × B = {(1,Bat),(1,Ball),(2,Bat),(2,Ball),(3,Bat),(3,Ball)}

5. Difference of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then set A difference set B is a set which has elements of A but no elements of B.
It is denoted as A – B.
Example: A = {1,2,3} and B = {2,3,4}
A – B = {1}

Properties of Sets

Similar to numbers, sets also have properties like associative property, commutative property, and so on. There
are six important properties of sets. Given, three sets A, B, and C, the properties for these sets are as follows.

Property of Set Example

AUB=BUA
Commutative Property
A∩B=B∩A

(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
Associative Property
(A U B) U C = A U (B U C)

A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)
Distributive Property
A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C)

AU∅ =A
Identity Property
A∩U=A

Complement Property A U A' = U

A∩A=A
Idempotent Property
AUA=A

Prepared by: Melchorie S. Buenavista, LPT 6

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Why do we use sets in Maths?

The purpose of using sets is to represent the collection of relevant objects in a group. In maths, we usually
represent a group of numbers like a group of natural numbers, collection of rational numbers, etc.

What are the elements of sets?

The elements of sets are the numbers, objects, symbols, etc contained in a set. For example, in A={12,33.56,}; 12,
33 and 56 are the elements of sets.

References:
Sets - Definition, Symbols, Examples | Set Theory (cuemath.com)
Set Theory Symbols (Sets Symbols and Examples) (byjus.com)
Sets (Maths) - Notation, Types, Symbols & Examples (byjus.com)

Prepared by: Melchorie S. Buenavista, LPT 7

Email: [email protected]