Non-Destructive Evaluation

 Non-destructive inspections from the name itself you can understand that basically we are not
destroying the materials,

 That means

 we are not hampering the materials,

 we are not giving any load, pressure, or anything or any touch to that
particular materials.

 Just from the outside we are getting the information about that particular materials.

Non-destructive inspections is the process of:

 Inspecting, testing or evaluating materials, components or assemblies for discontinuities or

differences in characteristic without destroying the serviceability of the part or system.

 The terms commonly used to describe this particular technology.

 Non-destructive examinations (NDE),

 Non-destructive inspection (NDI) and

 Non-destructive evaluation (NDE)

  It is highly valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation,
troubleshooting, and research.

 sometime it may happen, that we are using particular material,:::

 At the mid-point of that particular materials, we can take it out and we can check
it,::::

 whether any cracks or anything has been occurred to that particular

material or not …..

 and then again, we can put that particular materials for

reusing it.

 It allows inspection without interfering with a products final use, NDT provides an excellent
balance between quality control and the cost-effectiveness.

 Sometimes, the user or operator sometimes can thinking that a material can fail after
certain time or really it has got some kind of damage.

 So, at the middle of the operation just we can take that particular sample /equipment
/materials /parts and we can check it and then if we do not find anything over there or any
severe damage over there, we can put that particular materials and we can use it for certain
time.

 So, by this way we can save the money and time.

Because, if the machine fails after certain time either replace or purchase is needed..

 Non-destructive tests are used in

 Manufacturing,

 Fabrication and

 In-service inspections

 This to ensure product integrity and reliability, to control manufacturing processes, lower
production costs and to maintain a uniform quality level.

 not only that when you are using that particular materials, we are doing this kind of
testing. No. at the time of preparing that particular materials also when we are
doing some batch production in between that productions also we can test this
particular testing.
  During construction, NDT is used to ensure the quality of materials and joining processes during
the fabrication and erection phases, and in-service NDT inspections are used to ensure that the
products in use continue to have the integrity necessary to ensure their usefulness and the safety of
the public.

 some times it may happen that if the material will fail in between maybe it can damage the
other parts or maybe it can damage the operator. So, it is better means or rather I can say it
is quite advisable that in between this operation we should do this kind of testing
frequently, so that we can minimize the cost, we can increase the productivity time as well
as the we can sometimes save the human life.


Selection of an NDT Method:

 Each NDT methods has its own set of advantages and disadvantages and therefore some are better
suited than other for a particular application.

 The NDT technicians or engineer must select the method that will detect the defect or make the
measurement with the highest sensitivity and reliability.

 Say suppose for testing a particular material or measuring the shape and size, there may be
2 or 3 different types of methods. But as an engineer or expertise -we are the best judge
that which method we have to follow so that it can get the 100% error free result.

 The cost effectiveness of the technique must also be taken into consideration.

Selection of an NDT Method:

  When planning for the NDT testing one should take into account a number of factors.:

 These are all the main criteria by which we can judge that which method is the best for my
application.


When we are using NDE method :

 There are NDE application at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of a component.

 To assist a product development,

 To screen or sort incoming materials,

 To monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes,

 To verify proper processing such as heat treating, and

 To verify proper assembly to inspect for in-service damage.

 these are all the main criteria by which we can judge that which method is the best for my
application.

When we are using NDE method :

Design and Processing:

 First we have done the drawing, that what materials we are going to prepare.

 In processing to screen or sort incoming materials :Say suppose...

  In composite materials, we are taking 3 or 4 different components and mixing them
properly: So, We screen

 Whether the mixing is proper or not and

 Adhesion is proper or not

 There is any pores and crack or not,.

Manufacturig:

 Say suppose,

 Doing the casting or welding or some other operation

 Make some kind of films - assembly over it

 Make some kind of products

 So to verify the proper assembly of that particular parts.

In-Service Monitoring::: using particular parts into some applications.

 Either automotive parts or some other parts - checking that whether that material is working
properly or not.

 In service Monitoring follows:

 It is creating or it is getting some kind of problems

 Maybe creating some kind of errors or

 Maybe the noise or vibrations.

Benefits of Using NDT in Manufacturing:

 Use of NDT during all stages of manufacturing results in the following benefits:

 It increases the safety and reliability of the products during operation.

 It decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap and conserving

materials, labor and energy.

 It enhances the reputation of the manufacturer as producer of quality goods.

 It enables design of new products.

Benefits of Using NDT in Manufacturing:

  NDT testing does not mean that material will never fail in future.

 No, but,

 It is a one kind of a precaution technique,

 It can maximize the service life of that particular products.

 So, all of the above factor brings profitability to the

manufacturer.

 It is the ultimate goal.


• Welding inspector should have a working knowledge of NDT methods and their applications,
advantages and disadvantages.

• Four basic NDT methods

1. Visual Inspection (VT)

2. Radiographic inspection (RT)

3. Ultrasonic inspection (UT)

4. Magnetic particle inspection (MT)

5. Dye penetrant inspection (PT)

Visual Inspection:
 The name itself understand that it is depending on our eyes.

 So, we are seeing the particular material and taking the decisions: of
  Whether that material can workable or

 Maybe it can get some kind of failure or

 Maybe it can get some kind of damage or

 Maybe can get some kind of error.

Visual Inspection:

 It is a nondestructive testing technique that provides a means of detecting

and examining a variety of surface flaws, such as

 corrosion,

 contamination,

 surface finish,

 surface discontinuities

 on joints like

 welds,

 seals,

 solder connections,

 adhesive bonds.

 It is the most cost-effective method of detecting common defects in welding and castings.

Visual Inspection:

 As it can be implemented easily throughout the progression of a job,

 it is easy to eliminate simple errors preventing the follow-on effect.

  E.g., In a continuous batch processing

 we can take the samples randomly and we can check

by our eye and

 if we see any kind of discontinuities.

 certainly, we can stop the productions,

so it can save the money and wastage
too.

Visual Inspection:

 It is also the most widely used method for detecting and examining the
surface cracks, which are particularly important because of their
relationship to structural failure mechanism.

 surface cracks mean - crack are generated on the

surface not inside the materials.

 If it is inside the materials, we cannot do it by the

visual inspection.

 Even when other nondestructive techniques are used to detect surface

cracks, visual inspection often provides a useful supplement.

Visual Angle and Distance:

 General recommendation for operator to be placed at:

 A distance for his eye to be within 600 mm of the test surface at an angle not less than 30°.
E.g.,

 in this particular sample you can see up to the maximum 300 mm or 12 inches clearly and the
angle should be away of 30° from those sides, so total 120° You can see properly.

 If the viewing angle is below 30°, you cannot see the surface properly.

 The criterion set above is based on the eye’s resolving power.

Visual Angle and Distance:

 Natural or artificial lighting of sufficient intensity and placement is needed to illuminate the test
areas and to allow proper reading of weld gauges and other equipment.

 Visual test resolution is considered adequate -When the examiner :

By combination of

 Lenses,

 Access,

 Lighting and

 Angle of vision,

 Operater can resolve a 0.8 mm wide black line or an artificial flaw located on the
surface that examined.

 So, this is the standard procedure.

Direct visual testing : the nature of the image is not modified

 Direct visual examination is the type of examination made in situations where there is an access to
the area of interest without any possibility of injury to the inspector. we can directly see that
particular zone.

 There is no interruption between the eye and the object.

 Defects can be detected are cracks, corrosion layer, physical damage, surface porosity,
misalignment of mated parts etc.

 Direct visual testing in between eyes and the objects there is no barrier.

Direct aided visual testing : the nature of the image is not modified

 Aided part has been added; that means with the help of something.

So,.

 Modifications of the image is only allowed by magnification with for example a mirror, a lens, or
an endoscope; spectral or density filtering by a filter lens.

 E.g., where we cannot detect this kind of cracks or pores by directly our eyes. So, taking the help
of some kind of lens or the mirror.
Remote visual testing : The nature of the image is modified.

 Suppose in our surface a very tiny crack is there, but we cannot see it by our naked eyes, at that
time we are using some kind of techniques which is zooming that particular zone and getting some
kind of information about that particular materials.

 Very complex shapes where we cannot see that particular problem directly, -- we are taking some
kind of camera or video photography by which we are getting the image to understand what is the
problem has been happened.

 So, equipment used, generally,

  Camera,

 Robotic devices,

 Fiber optics,

 Portable video probes.

Procedure for Visual Inspection :

Generally, it comprises of three steps.

1) Clean the inspection surface properly.

2) Adequately illuminate the specimen with light.

3) Examination of specimen with eyes or take the assistance of light sensitive devices
such as photocells.

Procedure for Visual Inspection :

1) Clean the inspection surface properly.

 Contaminants such as

 Oil,

 Grease,
  Scale,

 Sand (casting surfaces) etc.

This may interfere with interpretation of the results.

 New materials-directly coming from machines will not require cleaning

 But, In service materials, most of the time requires inspection, such scenario needs surface
cleaning- because maybe presence of some oil or grease or paints on the top of the surface.

Procedure for Visual Inspection :

2) Adequately illuminate the specimen with light.

 Give the proper lighting on that particular surface so that we can get the
best visual view.

 Human eye is most sensitive to yellow green light, with a wave length of
5560 Å.

 Examination of specimen with eyes or take the assistance of light sensitive

devices such as photocells.
 Radiography Test (RT)
Surface Crack Detection

1. Visual Inspection (VT)

2. Liquid Penetrant Test (PT)

3. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT)

4. Eddy Current Inspection (ET)

Volumetric & Planar Inspection

1. Ultrasonic Test (UT)

2. Radiography Test (RT)

Each technique has advantages & disadvantages with respect to: Technical Capability and Cost

Note:

The choice of NDT techniques is based on consideration of these advantages and disadvantages.
Radiography Testing :

 It is widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate Sub surface defects in
all materials like

 Metals,

 Plastics and

 Ceramics.

 This technique is normally used to detect sub surface defects :

 Casting,

 Forging and

 Welding.

Radiography Testing :

 The term radiology usually implies the radiographic process that produces a permanent
image on film or paper.

 we are passing those rays through the samples and then the picture is coming as a
film and then after that just we are recognizing that what kind of defects are present
inside the materials.

 So, generally the radiography is a non-destructive testing because we are not going to harm
the materials.

 Simply we are going to pass those rays through the materials and then from that we
are going to predict the results or get the whole information.

 It is a one kind of inspection techniques where many types of manufactured components

can be examined to verify the internal structure as well as the integrity of the specimen.

 Radiography has been expanded usage in industry to inspect it not only the welds and the
castings but items such as airbags and the canned food products. (inside information).

 The objects which can be examined can range in sizes and shapes from micro miniature
electronic parts to mammoth missiles or the power plant structures.

 So, there is no particular size specific testing so for a small component to a big
large component also we can do this kind of testing.
Radiography Testing : History:

 Radiography started with the discovery of the X-rays by W.C. Roentgen in 1895 and
radioactivity by Becquerel in the year of 1896.

 By using radioactive source such as radium for higher photon energy could be obtained
than those from normal X-ray generators.

 Soon X-rays and gamma-rays found various applications.

 These rays were put to use very early before the dangerous of ionization radiation were
discovered.

 After World War II, new isotopes such as Cesium-137, Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60 became
available for industrial radiography and the use of radium and the radon has been
decreased.

Principles of Radiography
 X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object

 Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees dependant upon the density of the material through
which it is travelling

 Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as darker areas on the radiograph

 Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show as lighter areas on a radiograph

 Applicable to metals, non-metals and composites

Radiography Testing : :

 The unabsorbed radiation exposes the film emulsion similarly to the way light exposes the
film in the photography.

 Now development of the film produces an image that is a two dimensional shadow picture
of the object.

 Variations in the density, thickness or compositions of the object being inspected causes
variations in the development of the film.

Evolution of the radiograph:

 It is based on a comparison of the differences in the photographic density with known

characteristics of the object itself or defects present in the test object.
Radiation: :

The electromagnetic spectrum, (known as spectrum), Shows

 Wavelength,

 Frequency of different types of radiations, like visible light and x-rays.

 Energy of one Photons

Radiation and its nature of x-ray & gamma ray: :

 Wavelength range of 10-8 to 10-9 m, = soft x-rays

 Wavelength range of 10-9 to 10-10 m, = hard x-rays, (energy of the x-rays much higher)

 Wavelength range less than 10-10 m, = γ-rays. (further decrease the wavelength )

Radiation: :

Radiation and its nature of x-ray & gama ray: :

  Here you can see the wavelength decreases going towards right and increases towards left.

Where,

h: Planck’s constant,

ν: frequency,

λ: wavelength

c: speed of light.

Increase the frequency or decrease the wavelength, the energy increases.

 x-rays towards extreme end, in the range of 10-8 to 10-10 m.

 wavelengths for the x-ray radiation, which is much lower compared to visible light, which
is in the range of 10-7 m

 x-ray radiation is much more powerful compared to the visible light and that is why, x-rays
can penetrate through materials
RT: Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays:

 They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard, felt)etc

 They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.

 Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.(No charge)

 They can be diffracted, refracted to a small degree at interfaces between two different
materials, and in some cases be reflected.

 They pass through matter until they have a chance to encounter with an atomic particle.

 Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the material they are traveling
through.

 They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living cells.

Penetrating Radiation:

 The radiation used in radiography testing are X-rays and gamma-rays,

 They are a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to the visible light.

 Unlike light however they have

 Higher energy,

 Shorter wavelength

 Ability to penetrate,

 So, that it can go inside through various materials….…

 When the components are subjected to radiography, these radiations travel and are
transmitted through them in:----

 ---Different amounts by different materials depending upon their radiological

densities. (contu…

 Radiological density is determined by both as the density and the atomic number.

-----

 Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom's nucleus of the material

being imaged .
RT: Generation of X-rays:

x-rays are generated by acceleration and then, deceleration of electrons.

 Tungsten : Source of Electron (Emitter)

 Molybdenum:Target (High Melting Point, So, called Refractery metals, )

 Electron Impinges and converted to X-rays

 99% Heat . Done at vacuum to travel of electron

 1% X-ray
“x-rays are generated by acceleration and then, deceleration of electrons”

 First you provide high velocity to electrons and then, when you decelerate them, this
kinetic energy which was provided to the electrons will be converted to x-ray radiation,
that is the basic principle behind this.

You need

 Source of electrons

 You need to accelerate them to very high velocities

 When you stop them on the other end, then, this kinetic energy which is provided
to the electrons will be converted to x-rays

 So, you need 2 things: + 1 thing (acceleration)

1) one is to generate the electrons

2) other is to stop the electrons.

“x-rays are generated by acceleration and then, deceleration of electrons”

1) one is to generate the electrons

 you need a material which can easily emit electrons when you provide a bias (thermoionic
emission).
  Tungsten (W) is one material which can be used for that purpose.

 Tungsten filament is used as the electron emitter or electron source.

“x-rays are generated by acceleration and then, deceleration of electrons”

2) other is to stop the electrons.

 on the other side of this tube instrument, another material (Mo) which stops the electron. It
is called the target.

 On the target, the electrons will come and impact at high velocities and due to that lot of
heat will be generated.

 And that is why the target should be made of a material which has very high melting point.
(Good refractory metals because of their high melting points.)

 Molybdenum is one of them, which has very high melting point.

 So, molybdenum is used as a target on the other side of the tube, on which these electrons
will impinge at high velocities and their kinetic energy will now be converted into x-rays.

“x-rays are generated by acceleration and then, deceleration of electrons”

3) other is to accelerate the electrons.

 In order to provide the kinetic energy to the electrons, you need to maintain a very high
voltage between:

 Tungsten filament (cathode) & Target - molybdenum (anode).

 For the electrons to move from the cathode to the anode, you need to create a vacuum
between the anode and the cathode.

 (So, this whole thing has to be done inside a tube and this tube has to be
maintained under vacuum. )

 In one side, you have the tungsten filament and on the other side, you have
the target and you keep them inside a tube.

 If you maintain a voltage difference to the range of 30 to 50 kilo volt between the anode
and the cathode :……

 Electrons are accelerated at high velocities through a potential difference

and directed towards a target material (anode).

 By generating a thermionic emissions, electrons released in cathode point.

  As electron density in the cathode side is more.

 By huge potential difference in between the cathode & anode, the electron will
move from one cathode to anode (hotter to the colder one.)

 So, automatically that electron will move from the cathode to the anode side and it
will hit the specimen

 when they stop at the anode, they will be decelerated.

 So, this kinetic energy, which was there in the electrons will now be converted into some
other three form of energy:

 Around 97 - 99% of energy of electrons is converted into heat by increasing the thermal
vibrations of the atoms of the target.

 that is why this anode, being a high melting material, it has to be water cooled too,

 Around 2% of electrons have sufficient energy to :….

 “eject orbital electrons” from the atoms of the target materials which are ionized.

 Around 1 % a small fraction of it will be converted into x-rays.

 So, this is how x-rays are generated.

x-rays are generated by acceleration and then, deceleration of electrons.

 An x-ray tube, which is maintained in vacuum and

 The main components of this tube are two electrodes,

1. Tungsten filament cathode

2. Molybdenum anode

Summary:

 They are form of electromagnetic radiations having wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10
nanometer

Definition to X-ray:

 “Generally x-rays are produced when fast moving electrons emitting from heated filament by
thermoionic emission are suddenly brought to rest by colliding with the matter”.

 First a very small fraction that is less than 1% is converted into x-radiation.
RT: Film Radiography:

 It is most widely used and oldest imaging mediums in industrial radiography is the
radiographic film…

 In this method a two dimensional latent image from the projected radiation is
produced on a sheet of film that has been exposed to the unabsorbed radiation
passing through the test piece.

 Film must be protected from visible light, , X-rays and gamma-rays which can
expose films hence it is loaded in a light proof cassette in a darkroom.

 (If normal light fall onto this film prior to the testing - this film will be
damaged. So, generally using a very dark room for inspection. )

 This cassette is then placed on the specimen opposite the source of the radiations.

In order for the image to be viewed :

 The film must be developed in a darkroom - the process is very similar to

photographic film development. (film role into camera)

 Film processing can either be performed manually in open tanks or in an automatic

processor.

 Once developed the film – It is typically referred to as a radiograph.

RT: Film radiography:

 In Composition of radiographic film is similar to that of a photographic film and contains several
layers:

1. Topcoat layer

2. Emulsion layer

3. Adhesive Layer

4. Film Base

5. Backing Layer

 In Composition of radiographic film contains several layers:

1. Topcoat layer:

To prevent emulsion from

 Scratches,

 Pressure or

 Contaminations during use.

E.g.,

After taking the image, the film is subjected in front of some visible lights for seeing how
the image came.

Film is covered by some envelopes so it should be scratch proof or some kind of

contamination free.
 2. Emulsion Layer:

Radiation sensitive emulsion layer is coated on transparent film base.

The emulsion consists of the gelatin containing light-sensitive silver halide crystals such as
Silver Bromide (AgBr) & AgCl.

The light-sensitive crystals : change shape when exposed to light which are then converted
to a dark metallic silver that giving the image generally that we see.

i.e., (At the time of developing, a kind of chemical reaction is going on & material is
changing and late getting the exact image on the film).

3. Adhesive Layer:

 To achieve firm attachment of the emulsion and backing layer with

film base.

4. Film Base:

 Film base to provide support for emulsion layer and to transmit light
to view the image itself.

 Film Material (Plastic) : like ..Gelatin Matrix

 Thickness of film base : 0.2mm

 Coating thickness : 0.02mm (AgBr, AgCl)

5. Backing Layer:

 To prevent film curling due to swelling of emulsion during

processing to prevent reflection of stray light from the film support
materials back into the light-sensitive area.

 Film before EXPOSURE.: Film is a light blue color

 Film after EXPOSURE.: Film is a BLACK color

RT: Film radiography: Color Contrasting method:

 Film before EXPOSURE.: Film is a light blue color

 Film after EXPOSURE.: Film is a BLACK color

When the film is exposed to x-ray radiation,

  Silver bromide particles are going to interact with the x-rays

 The x-ray energy will be absorbed by these particles and it will

release the silver ions

 The silver ions will form the latent image which is

further processed and developed

 That is how the contrast is created by releasing of the silver ions when they interact
with x-rays.

RT: Film radiography: Color Contrasting method:

 Silver halides are most sensitive to energy in the range of around 45 kilo electron volt and
the efficiency of the image formation can be improved by using, what is called as
intensifying screens.

 Darkening will depend on the amount of energy which is falling on it and since the bones
will absorb the maximum amount of energy. The x-ray intensity coming out from the
bones will be much lower compared to the rest of the portion of the body part.

 As a result these bones will appear white, because the extent of darkening from the
intensity coming out from the bones will be lower

Important properties of x-ray films is, what is known as photographic density

RT: Interaction of X-ray and matter:

 Interaction with atoms

 Can be absorbed or scattered

 Part of it can be transmitted

RT: Absorption:: Photoelectric Scattering

 When X-rays or gamma rays are directed into an object, some of the photons interact with
the particles of the matter and their energy can be absorbed or scattered. --- This absorption
and scattering is called “Attenuation”.

 Other photons travel completely through the object without interacting with any of the
material's particles.

 The number of photons transmitted through a material depends on

 Thickness of the material,

  Density of the material

 Atomic number of the material,

 Energy of the individual photons.

RT: Absorption:: Photoelectric Scattering

Even when X-ray photons have the same energy, photons travel different distances within a
material simply based on :

1. Probability of their encounter with one or more of the particles of the matter
and

2. Type of encounter that occurs.

 Since the probability of an encounter increases with the distance traveled,

 (Therefore, number of photons reaching a specific point within the

matter decreases exponentially with distance traveled.)
As shown in the graphic,

 If 1000 photons are aimed at ten 1 cm layers of a material:

 There is a 10% chance of a photon being attenuated in first (1/10) layer,

 SO, there will 100 photons attenuated in 1/10 layers

 This leaves 900 photos to travel into the next layer

 In this 900 photons, where 10% of these photons will be attenuated in the next layer.

 By continuing this progression, the exponential shape of the curve becomes apparent.

Incident Intensity (I)

Where;

I0: initial (un attenuated) intensity

µ: linear attenuation coefficient per unit distance

x : distance traveled through the matter

  Radiation intensity is the amount of energy passing through a given area that is perpendicular
to the direction of radiation travel in a given unit of time.

 One way to measure the intensity of X-rays or gamma rays is to measure the amount of ionization
they cause in air.

 The amount of ionization in air produced by the radiation is called the exposure.

 Exposure is expressed in terms of a scientific unit called a Roentgen (R).

 The unit roentgen is equal to the amount of radiation that ionizes 1 cm3 of dry air (at 0°C
and standard atmospheric pressure) to one electrostatic unit of charge, of either sign.

 Most portable radiation detection safety devices used by radiographers measure exposure
and present the reading in terms of Roentgens or Roentgens/hour, which is known as the
“dose rate”.

RT: Absorption::

1. Photoelectric Scattering

2. Compton Scattering

3. Pair Production Scattering

RT: Absorption:: Photoelectric Scattering …Occurs

 When the x-ray photon is absorbed, resulting in ejection of electrons from the outer shell
of the atom & hence ionization of the atom occurs.

 Subsequently, the ionized atom returns to the neutral state with the emission of an x ray
characteristic of the atom.

 This subsequent emission of lower energy photons is generally absorbed and does not
contribute to the image making process.

 Photoelectron absorption is the dominant process for x-ray absorption up to energies of

about 500 kev.
RT: Absorption:: Compton Scattering… Occurs

 Occurs when the incident x-ray photon is deflected from its original path by an interaction
with an electron.

 So, The electron gains energy and is ejected from its orbital position.

 The x-ray photon loses energy due to the interaction but continues to travel through the
material along an altered path.

 Since the scattered x-ray photon has less energy, therefore, has a longer wavelength than
the incident photon.

RT: Absorption:: ….Pair Production Scattering… Occurs

 occur when the X-ray photon energy is greater than 1.02 MeV, but really only becomes
significant at energies around 10 MeV.

 Pair production occurs when an electron and positron are created with the annihilation of
the X-ray photon.

 Positrons are very short lived and disappear (positron annihilation) with the formation of
two photons of 0.51 MeV energy.

 Pair production is of particular importance when high-energy photons pass through

materials of a high atomic number.
Mechanism of X-ray Generation:

 Two different atomic processes that can produce the x-ray photons.

1. Bremsstrahlung Radiation (German word )

2. K-shell Emission Radiation

1. Bremsstrahlung
i. Bremsstrahlung is a German term meaning the breaking
radiation.

ii. In this process a high-speed electron traveling in a material is

slowed or completely stopped by the force of any atom it
encounters.

iii. In this, pictorial image - we are having the K orbital, L

orbital, M orbital.

2. K-shell Emission Radiation

 When the incoming electron give enough energy to knock K-shell electron out of its energy state
then electron of higher energy can fall into the K shell.
 The energy lost by the falling electrons shows up in an emitted X-ray photon.
 Here simply, electron will change its position. Electron will come out from the K-shell to the
outermost shell & radiated.
 Meanwhile higher energy electrons fall into the vacated energy state in the outer cell and so on.
So, that it is a continuous process

 First the inside electron will come to the K-shell and then after that it will be radiated
 The inside electron again it will come to the K-shell and it will be radiated.
So, it is a continuous process.

K-shell emission produces higher intensity X-rays than the Bremsstrahlung and the X-ray photon comes
out at a single wavelength.

Both atomic processes can occur in the heavy atoms of tungsten which is often the material chosen
for the target or anode of the x-ray tube.

High-Energy X-radiation: :

 Examination of thicker sections is carried out using high-energy X-rays whose energy value is 1
MeV or more.

 Using high-energy X-rays possibility of :

 Large distance to thickness ratios with correspondingly low geometrically

distortion,

 Short exposure times and

 High production rate can be achieved.

 Small focal spot size (how much area going to cover onto the surface)

 Small focal spot size & Reduced amount of high angle scattered x-rays reaching the film result in
radiographs with

 Good contrast,

 Excellent penetrameter sensitivity

 Good resolution.

High-energy X-radiation: :

 Eg: High-energy X-ray radiography : Scan

 Intermodal freight cargo containers.

 Airport : scanning luggages.

Gamma Rays : :

 They are the electromagnetic radiations of the shortest wavelength and the highest energy.

 They are identical to X-rays except that X-rays are artificially produced and gamma rays are
naturally occurring.

 Gamma rays are emitted from an unstable nucleus.

 Each isotope with unstable nucleus will have characteristic nuclear energy levels and intensities
for the emitted radiation.

 In contradistinction to X-ray machines which emit a broad band of wavelengths, gamma ray
source emit one or few discrete wavelengths.

 The gamma ray energy level remain constant for a particular isotope but the intensity decays with
time as indicated by the half time because its life is going to be reduced.

 When the binding energy is not strong enough to hold the nucleus of an atom together, the atom is
said to be unstable.

Latent Image:

 A latent image is an image that has been created on the film due to the interaction of radiation with
the material making up the film. This latent image is not visible to the naked eye until further
processing has taken place. To make the latent image visible the film is processed by exposure to
chemicals similar to that of photographic film.

Gamma rays : :

 The heavy unstable nucleus after the spontaneous decay (life is decreasing) - it is dividing into
three parts

 Alpha particle (helium nuclei)(large particles (2 neutrons, 2 protons); +2 charge)

  beta particle (smaller (electron); -1 charge) (remaining)

 Gamma rays (a wave (photon); no mass, no charge )

 The remaining : composed : neutron, proton & beta particle.

So, this way we are generating the gamma rays.

 uranium-235 ===> thorium-231 + alpha particle + γ

 Uranium-235 is converted to thorium-90 with alpha particle and gamma photon emission.

 In alpha decay, a helium nucleus (the alpha particle) of 2 protons and 2 neutrons is emitted at
high speed/kinetic energy from the nucleus.

How to balance the mass and charge for alpha decay equations:

 alpha emission balancing for “U” total mass:235 = 231 + 4 and protons:92 = 90 + 2

 Note the protons are positive so, the 92 = 90 + 2 = conservation of electric charge.
 carbon-14 ====> nitrogen-14 + beta minus particle

 Carbon-14 is converted to nitrogen-14 with beta particle emission.

 The neutron/proton ratio changes from 8/6 to 7/7 (1.3 to 1.0).

 In beta minus decay, a neutron in the nucleus changes spontaneously into a proton and a high
kinetic energy electron forms the emitted beta minus particle.

 Since the proton and neutron have a mass of 1 and the electrons mass is negligible, the mass
number stays the same but the atomic (proton) number rises by 1.
 carbon-14 ====> nitrogen-14 + beta minus particle

 Since the proton and neutron have a mass of 1 and the electrons mass is negligible, the mass
number stays the same but the atomic (proton) number rises by 1.

How to balance the mass and charge for beta minus decay equations:

 For beta minus emission balancing “C” mass = 14 = 14 + 0 and

 For protons/beta-charge:6=7 + (-1). ((+6(protons)= +7(protons) + -1 (electron)))

 No. of protons as positive charges. So, 6=7 - 1 = conservation of electric

charge.
 uranium-235 ==> thorium-231 + alpha particle + γ

Emission of gamma radiation from a nucleus does NOT involve any change in the atomic (proton)
number or mass (nucleon) number i.e. no change in the particle composition of the nucleus.

When 'new' nucleus is formed it tends to have excess energy making it potentially unstable.

To become more 'nuclear stable' the nucleus loses some energy as a burst of gamma radiation (a gamma
photon) but the proton and neutron numbers do not change.

uranium-235 ==> thorium-231 + alpha particle + γ

To become more 'nuclear stable' the nucleus loses some energy as a burst of gamma radiation (a gamma
photon) but the proton and neutron numbers do not change.

This is a decrease in the nuclear energy store change to form electromagnetic radiation - which would
ultimately end up increasing the thermal energy store of the surroundings on absorption, but not before
ionising molecules and promoting chemical changes.

This can be observed with both alpha particle or beta particle emission
Gamma Ray: Equipment

 Gamma radiation, is very energetic, typically over 100keV, and can easily pass through a metal,
the thickness that can be penetrated depending on the type and size of isotope. The isotopes are
stored in shielded containers from which they can be wound to expose the isotope.

 Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an extra neutron to atoms of the source
material.

 As the material gets rid of the neutron, energy is released in the form of gamma rays.

 Two of the most common industrial gamma-ray sources for industrial radiography are Iridium-
192 and Cobalt-60.

 In comparison to an X-ray generator,

 Cobalt-60 produces energies comparable to a 1.25 MV X-ray system and

 Iridium-192 to a 460 kV X-ray system.

 These high energies make it possible to penetrate thick materials with a relatively short exposure
time.

 It can never be turned off and safely managing the source is a constant responsibility.

 Physical size of isotope materials varies between manufacturers, but generally an isotope material
is a pellet that measures 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm.

 Depending on the level of activity desired, a pellet or pellets are loaded into a stainless steel
capsule and sealed by welding.

 The capsule is attached to short flexible cable called a pigtail.

 The source capsule and the pigtail are housed in a shielding device referred to as a exposure
device or camera.

 Depleted uranium is often used as a shielding material for sources.

 The exposure device for Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60 sources will contain 22 kg and 225 kg of
shielding materials, respectively.
  Cobalt cameras are often fixed to a trailer and transported to and from inspection sites.

 When the source is not being used to make an exposure, it is locked inside the exposure device.

 To make a radiographic exposure, a crank-out mechanism and a guide tube are attached to
opposite ends of the exposure device.

 The guide tube has a collimator (usually made of tungsten) at the end to shield the radiation except
in the direction necessary to make the exposure.

 The end of the guide tube is secured in the location where the radiation source needs to be to
produce the radiograph.

 The crank-out cable is stretched as far as possible to put as much distance as possible between the
exposure device and the radiographer.

 To make the exposure, radiographer quickly cranks the source out of the exposure device & into
position in the collimator at the end of the guide tube.

 At the end of the exposure time, source is cranked back into the exposure device.

half life
Half-life is defined as the time required for the activity of any particular radionuclide to decrease to one-
half of its initial value. In other words one-half of the atoms have reverted to a more stable state material.

Radioisotopes decay at a constant rate and the time taken for half the original radioisotope to decay is
known as the half life

The time required for half of the atoms in a sample to decay.

An isotope’s half-life allows us to determine how long a sample of a useful isotope will be available, and
how long a sample of an undesirable or dangerous isotope must be stored before it decays to a low-
enough radiation level that is no longer a problem.
Eg. cobalt-60, an isotope that emits gamma rays used to treat cancer, has a half-life of 5.27 years. Since,
half of the Co nuclei decay every 5.27 years, both the amount of material and the intensity of the radiation
emitted is cut in half every 5.27 years.

(Note that for a given substance, the intensity of radiation that it produces is directly proportional to the
rate of decay of the substance and the amount of the substance.)

Thus, a cobalt-60 source that is used for cancer treatment must be replaced regularly to continue to be
effective.

Each isotope has a “half life”- a length of time by which half (50%) of the radioactive isotope has decayed
into a stable element – two half lives means the source has only 25% of its original strength, three half
lives 12.5%.
As the source decays and becomes less energetic the length of the exposure time must be increased to
achieve the same density of image on the radiographic film.

There is thus a point at which use of the gamma ray source is discontinued and replaced with a fresh
isotope.

In addition, because the gamma radiation emitted by an isotope cannot be varied in quality there is a range
of material thickness for which each source will give acceptable results.

The commonest isotope in regular use is iridium192 with cobalt60 being used for very thick components.
Half-life:74 days to Iridium-192, & 5.3 years for Cobalt-60.
Gamma Rays Sources: :

 Most of the radioactive material used in industrial radiography are artificially produced by
subjecting stable material to a source of neutrons in a special nuclear reactor.

 In this activation process, an extra neutron is introduced to the atoms of the source material.

 As the material rids itself of the neutron, energy is released in the form of gamma rays.--
(knowingly we are introducing one extra neutron like a

doping inside the material to make it unstable. )

 Selection of Radio isotopes for the purpose of radiography is usually done on the basis of

 Half-life,

 Intensity of gamma rays produced and

 Cost of the production.

Gamma rays Sources::

 The four most popular radiographic sources are:

 So generally Cobalt-60, Iridium-192 and Thulium-170, are produced by (n,γ) reactions, for
example, in case of Co-60:
1
0 n+59Co→60Co⟹ γ+γ

 Cesium-137 is separated out from the fission products of the irradiated reactor fuel.

Important characteristics of most popular radiographic sources:

 Characteristics Cobalt- 60 Iridium-192 Caesium-137 Thulium-170

Half life 5.27 yrs 74.3 days 30.1 yrs 129 days

Energy, (MeV) 1.33-1.17 0.3-0.6 0.66 0.08-0.05

Radiation output , (Rhm/Ci) 1.35 0.55 0.34 0.003

Size (dia.mm) 2.5 2.5 10 2.5

Steel thickness which can be 200 mm 75mm 40-100 mm 10mm

radiographed

Common properties of X-rays and the gamma rays : :

 They are not detected by the human senses. (Cannot see by naked eye or feel it or hear) – so
cannot recognize it by our organs.

 They travel in straight lines at the speed of light,

 Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic field.

 They can be diffracted to a small degree at interfaces between two different materials.

 They pass through the matter until they have a chance encounter with an atomic particle.

 Their degree of penetrations depends upon the thickness of that particular material, its activation
energy and the matter they are traveling

 They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy the living cells.

Important Factor for Proper Imaging: :

1. Energy of the penetrating radiations,

2. Geometric factors of the inspection systems.

3. Flaw orientations

Important Factor for Proper Imaging: :

1. Energy of the penetrating radiations

  Energy of the radiation affects its penetrating power,. If its power is very high so that
automatically it will go inside the material.

 Higher energy radiation can penetrate thicker and denser materials.

 Radiation energy with end exposure time must be controlled to properly image the region
of interest.

Low energy radiations : Blurred image

High energy radiations : Clear image.

2. Geometric factors of the inspection systems

Geometric conditions must fulfill for surface true shadow to get the real image

 Source size should be as small as possible.

 Source should be as far as possible from the object.

 The film should be closest to the object,

 X-rays should be directed perpendicular to the recording surface.

 Plane of the object and film should be parallel.

 Volumetric extension of the defect or flaw orientation should be parallel to

the direction of projections.

3. Flaw orientations
 how you are going to put your gun so that you can get the best image.

 Radiography has sensitivity limitations when detecting the cracks (from outside, we dont know
-- how the cracks are present inside the materials ---Whether it is into the horizontal /
longitudinal /angles).
  Penetrating radiations “see” a crack as a thickness variations and the larger the variation the
easier the crack is to detect.

 If it is very, very hairline, so, either we get a very fine line or sometimes we
cannot detect it.

 When the path of the rays is not parallel to a crack the thickness variation is less and the
crack may not be visible.

Flaw orientations

 Passing the X-rays from the top and perpendicular and angular

X-rays from the top and perpendicular X-rays from the top and angular

Interpret the Radiographs : :

To identify the discontinuity on the radiograph and correlate them with their appearance and
locations in the actual object the essential steps in interpretations are as follows:

 Sometimes pores or cracks or holes are almost looking like same

 Now you need a trained person who can judge properly that whether it this image is exactly for the
cracks or pores or holes or some other.
  Determine the accuracy of the identifications of the radiograph,

 Determine the workpiece material and the manufacturing processing setup,

 Verify the radiographic setup and procedure

 Review the film under good viewing conditions

 Determine if any faults or irregular indications are present on the film

 Identify any surface irregularities and verify their type

 Evaluate relevance of discontinuities with code or specification requirement and prepare the
radiographic report.

 So, generally the interpretation of radiographs in the weldments is in need of training and
interpretation.

Interpretation of radiographs in the weldments : :

Advantages:

 Information is presented pictorially.

 Permanent record is provided which may be viewed at a time and place distant from the test.

 Useful for thin sections,

 Access into small cavities,

 Technique is not limited by material type or density,

 Can inspect assembled components,

  Minimum surface preparations required,

 Sensitive to change in thickness, corrosion, voids, cracks and the material density changes,

 Detects both surface and the subsurface defects.

Limitations:

 Possible health hazard

 Need to direct the beam accurately for two-dimensional defects

 Film processing and viewing facilities are necessary

 Not suitable for automation

 High initial cost

 Many hours of technician training prior to use

 Access to both sides of samples required for getting the exact information

 Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical.

Advantages Gamma ray over X-ray:

 No electrical or water supplies needed,

 Equipment smaller and lighter,

 More portable

 Equipment simple and more robust,

 More easily accessed, less scatter and greater penetrating power,

 Equipment initially less costly.

Limitations Gamma ray over X-ray

 Poorer quality radiographs,

 Exposure times can be longer,

 Sources need replacing,

 Radiation cannot be switched off,

  Poorer geometric unsharpness,

 Remote handling necessary.

Radiation Safety: :

 Ionization radiations, whatever may be the X-rays or gamma rays are the extremely important
non-destructive testing tool but it can pose a hazard to human health.

 For this reason special precautions must be observed when using and working around ionizing
radiation.

 Complicating matters further is the fact that gamma and X-ray radiation are not detectable by the
human body.

 However the risk can be minimized when the radiation is handled and managed properly.

Radiation Safety: :

There are Three basic methods of providing the protections

1. Introducing the absorbing materials around the source.

 Some electrons which will not pass through the materials it will scatter or reflected
from the material.

 So, some kind of protection to be made. that is by which reflected electrons can be
absorbed by some other material.

2. Increasing the distance between the source and the personal,

(radiation dose rate at any point depends inversely on the square of the distance from the
source). Maintain the safe distance.

3. Reducing the time that is necessary for personal to be near the source

Few methods of providing the protections

 Engineered controls include :

 Shielding,

 Interlocks,

 Alarms,
  Warning signals,

 Material containment.

 Administrative controls include

 Postings,

 Procedures,

Few methods of providing the protections

 Engineered controls include :

 Fixed shielding materials are commonly high density concrete and/or lead.

 Door interlocks are used to immediately cut the power to X-ray generating equipment if a
door is accidentally opened when X-rays are being produced.

 Warning lights are used to alert workers and the public that radiation is being used.

 Sensors and warning alarms are often used to signal that a predetermined amount of
radiation is present.

Radioactive source handling equipment : :

 pellet of radioactive material cannot be safely handled except by the special methods.

 Apart from hazards of radiation from source there would be contamination hazards from particles
of radioactive matter wiped up by anything touching the pellet.

 Artificial radioactive source for gamma radiography are always supplied as “sealed sources” in a
capsule by the Atomic Energy Authority of the supplying country.

 (For All kind of health hazards materials and environmental hazard materials -- keep that
material or transferring that materials with a very high security and safety. )
  There should be no need for the industrial radiographer ever to encounter the problems of handling
unsealed sources.

 For transportation handling the radioactive capsules must either be supported by

 A mass of material which absorbs sufficient radiations for the dose rate on the outside of
the container to be reduced to a safe level.

 Using long tongues, a long rod or by other remote control handling equipment - the
distance between the source and handler reduces the dose rate to a safe value.

Summary: :

 Radiographic inspections which is nothing but the taking the image of that particular materials
either by x-rays, or gamma rays.

 An extra generator or radioactive isotope is used as the source of radiations and radiation is
directed through a part onto a film or some other detector. Results shadowgraph shows internal
failures.

 “Material thickness and density changes are indicated as lighter or darker areas on the film or
detector”.

 Radiographic examination finds many applications like casting, welding, and structures for
internal soundness.
Controlling Radiographic Quality: :

 One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the use of Image Quality
Indicators (IQIs), which are also referred to as penetrameters.

 IQIs provide means of visually informing the film interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and
definition of the radiograph.

 IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a material thickness
equivalent to the region of interest.

 The two most commonly used IQI types are:

 Hole-type and

 Wire IQIs.

 IQIs come in a variety of material types so that one with radiation absorption characteristics
similar to the material being radiographed can be used.

Controlling Radiographic Quality: :

Hole-Type IQIs

 ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material group
classification of hole-type image quality indicators.

 Hole-type IQIs are classified in eight groups based on their radiation absorption characteristics.

 Notching system is used to indicate the IQI material.

 Numbers on the IQI indicate the sample thickness that the IQI would typically be placed on.
  holes of different sizes are present where these holes should be visible on the radiograph.

 It should be noted that the IQI is used to indicate the quality of the radiographic technique and not
intended to be used as a measure of the size of a cavity (that can be located on the radiograph.)

Wire IQIs

 ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using wire IQIs to control
image quality.

 Wire IQIs consist of a set of six wires arranged in order of increasing diameter and encapsulated
between two sheets of clear plastic.
 Wire IQIs are grouped in four sets each having different range of wire diameters.

 The set letter (A, B, C or D) is shown in the lower right corner of the IQI.

 The number in the lower left corner indicates the material group.
Film Processing : :
 When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different chemical solutions for controlled
periods of time. Film processing basically involves the following five steps:

1. Development
2. Stopping the development
3. Fixing
4. Washing
5. Drying

1. Development: The developing agent gives up electrons to convert the silver

halide grains to metallic silver. Grains that have been exposed to the radiation
develop more rapidly, but given enough time the developer will convert all the
silver ions into silver metal.

 Proper temperature control is needed to convert exposed grains to

pure silver while keeping unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.

2. Stopping the development: The stop bath simply stops the development process
by diluting and washing the developer away with water.

3. Fixing: Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by the fixing bath.
The fixer dissolves only silver halide crystals, leaving the silver metal behind.

4. Washing: The film is washed with water to remove all the processing
chemicals.

5. Drying: The film is dried for viewing.

 RADIOGRAPHS AND PHOTOGRAPHS: :

 In photography, reflected light rays from the object expose the film to produce an image.

 In radiography, X-rays that pass through the object expose the film to produce an image.

 Differences in the types and amounts of the materials that the X-rays must travel through
are responsible for the details of the radiographic image.
ATOMS AND ELEMENTS ::

 Marie and Pierre Curie advanced the study of radiation and discovered the radioactive materials
radium and polonium.

 An atom is the smallest particle of an element that remain identical to all other particles.

 The atoms of one element are different from those of all other element.

 Compounds are made when atoms of different elements are chemically combined together.

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES ::

 Subatomic particles are particles that are smaller than the atom.

 Three main subatomic particles found in an atom are:

 Protons,

 Neutrons, and

 Electrons

 Protons have a positive (+) charge.

 (An easy way to remember this is to remember that both proton and positive start with the
letter "P.“)

 Neutrons have no electrical charge.

 (An easy way to remember this is to remember that both neutron and no electrical charge
start with the letter "N.)

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES ::

 Neutrons are all identical to each other, just as protons .

 “Atoms of a particular element must have the same number of protons but can have different
numbers of neutrons.”

 When an element has different variants that, while all having the same number of protons, have
differing numbers of neutrons, these variants are called isotopes.
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBERS ::

 An element's or isotope's atomic number tells how many protons are in its atoms.

 An element's or isotope's mass number tells how many protons and neutrons in its atoms.

STABLE AND UNSTABLE ATOMS ::

 Electrons spin and rotate around the outside of the nucleus.

 As the electrons circle the nucleus they travel at certain energy levels but can “jump” between
different energy levels if they gain or lose energy.

STABLE AND UNSTABLE ATOMS ::

 Electromagnetic fields cause like charges to repel each other and unlike charges to attract each
other.
  The protons stay together in the nucleus because the strong force opposes and overcomes the
forces of repulsion from the electromagnetic field.

 Binding energy is the energy that is associated with the strong force, and this energy holds the
nucleus together.

 A stable atom is an atom that has enough binding energy to hold the nucleus together permanently.

 An unstable atom does not have enough binding energy to hold the nucleus together permanently
and is called a radioactive atom

RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIOISOTOPES ::

 “Radioactivity is the release of energy and matter due to a change in the nucleus of an
atom”.

 Radioisotopes are isotopes that are unstable and release radiation. All isotopes are not
radioisotopes.

 Transmutation occurs when a radioactive element attempts to become stabilized and transforms
into a new element.

RADIOACTIVITY DECAY::

 As an unstable atom tries to reach a stable form, energy and matter are released from the nucleus.
This spontaneous change in the nucleus is called radioactive decay.

 When there is a change in the nucleus and one element changes into another, it is called
transmutation.

RADIOACTIVITY Half - Life::

 The term half-life describes how long it will take for half of the atoms to decay, and is constant for
a given isotope.

 The curie the unit of measure used to describe the radioactivity of radioactive material. (1C = 3.7
X 1010 disintegrations/sec)

 The disintegration of the atoms from different isotopes can produce different amounts of radiation.

 half-life of radioisotopes varies from seconds to billions of years.

 Carbon-dating uses the half-life of Carbon-14 to find the approximate age of an object that is
40,000 years old or younger.

 Radiographers use half-life information to make adjustments in the film exposure time due to the
changes in radiation intensity that occurs as radioisotopes degrade.
HALF-LIFE AFFECT AN ISOTOPE::

Let's look closely at how the half-life affects an isotope.

 Suppose you have 10 grams of Barium-139---It has half-life of 86 minutes.

 After 86 minutes, half of the atoms in the sample would have decayed into another
element, Lanthanum-139.

 Therefore, after one half-life, you would have

 5 grams of Barium-139, and 5 grams of Lanthanum-139.

 After another 86 minutes, half of the 5 grams of Barium-139 would

decay into Lanthanum-139;

 Therefore, after Two half-life, you would have

 2.5 grams of Barium-139 and 7.5 grams of Lanthanum-139.

Film Selection ::

 Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique for a particular
component depends on a number of different factors;

 Composition, shape, and size of the part being examined and, in some cases, its weight and
location.

 Type of radiation used, whether X-rays from an X-ray generator or gamma rays from a radioactive
source.

 Kilovoltage available with the X-ray equipment or the intensity of the gamma radiation.

 Relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and economical results.

Film Packing ::

 Industrial X-ray films are also available in a form in which each sheet is enclosed in a light-tight
envelope. The film can be exposed from either side without removing it from the protective
packaging. A rip strip makes it easy to remove the film in the darkroom for processing.

Film Handling ::

 X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such as pressure,
creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in semi-flexible holders and external
clamping devices are used, care should be taken to be sure pressure is uniform. Marks resulting
from contact with fingers that are moist or contaminated with processing chemicals, as well as
crimp marks, are avoided if large films are always grasped by the edges and allowed to hang free.
Use of envelope-packed films avoids many of these problems until the envelope is opened for
processing.
Exposure Calculations ::

 Properly exposing a radiograph is often a trial and error process, as there are many variables that
affect the final radiograph.

 Some of the variables that affect the density of the radiograph include:

1. The spectrum of radiation produced by the X-ray generator.

2. The voltage potential used to generate the X-rays (kV).

3. The amperage used to generate the X-rays (mA).

4. The exposure time.

5. The distance between the radiation source and the film.

6. The material of the component being radiographed.

(Counti….

 Properly exposing a radiograph is often a trial and error process, as there are many variables that
affect the final radiograph. Some of the variables that affect the density of the radiograph include:

7. Thickness of the material that the radiation must travel through.

8. The amount of scattered radiation reaching the film.

9. The film being used.

10. The use of lead screens or fluorescent screens.

11. The concentration of the film processing chemicals and the contact time.

Viewing Radiographs ::

 After the film processing, radiographs are viewed using a light-box (or they can be digitized and
viewed on a high resolution monitor) in order to be interpreted. In addition to providing diffused,
adjustable white illumination of uniform intensity, specialized industrial radiography light-boxes
include magnifying and masking aids. When handing the radiographs, thin cotton gloves should be
worn to prevent fingerprints on the radiographs.
RADIATION SAFETY ::

 The health risks associated with the radiation is considered to be one the major disadvantages of
radiography. The amount of risk depends on the amount of radiation dose received, the time over
which the dose is received, and the body parts exposed. The fact that X-ray and gamma-ray
radiation are not detectable by the human senses complicates matters further.

 Therefore, TRAINING on the safe handling and use of radioactive materials and radiation
producing devices in in need.

The occurrence of particular health effects from exposure to ionizing radiation is a complicated
function of numerous factors including:

I. Type of radiation involved.

II. Size of dose received.

III. Rate at which the dose is received.

IV. Part of the body exposed.

V. The age of the individual.

VI. Biological differences.

I. Type of radiation involved.

 The main difference in the ability of alpha and beta particles and gamma
and X-rays to cause health effects is the amount of energy they have. Their
energy determines how far they can penetrate into tissue and how much
energy they are able to transmit directly or indirectly to tissues.

II. Size of dose received.

  The higher the dose of radiation received, the higher the likelihood of health
effects.

III. Rate at which the dose is received.

 Tissue can receive larger dosages over a period of time. If the dosage occurs
over a number of days or weeks,

IV. Part of the body exposed.

 Extremities such as the hands or feet are able to receive a greater amount of
radiation with less resulting damage than blood forming organs housed in
the upper body.

V. The age of the individual.

 As a person ages, cell division slows and the body is less sensitive to the
effects of ionizing radiation. Once cell division has slowed, the effects of
radiation are somewhat less damaging than when cells were rapidly
dividing.

VI. Biological differences.

 Some individuals are more sensitive to radiation than others. Studies

have not been able to conclusively determine the cause of such
differences.
Controlling Radiation Exposure ::

 The three basic ways of controlling exposure to harmful radiation are:

I. Limiting the time spent near a source of radiation,

II. Increasing the distance away from the source,

III. Using shielding to stop or reduce the level of radiation.

 Time:

 The radiation dose is directly proportional to the time spent in the radiation. Therefore,
a person should not stay near a source of radiation any longer than necessary. If a
survey meter reads 4 mR/h at a particular location, a total dose of 4 mR will be
received if a person remains at that location for one hour. The received dose can be
simply calculated as:

 Dose = Dose Rate x Time

Distance

 Increasing distance from the source of radiation will reduce the amount of radiation
received. As radiation travels from the source, it spreads out becoming less intense.

Shielding

 The third way to reduce exposure to radiation is to place something between the
radiographer and the source of radiation. In general, the more dense the material the
more shielding it will provide. Lead and concrete are the most commonly used
radiation shielding materials primarily because they are easy to work with and are
readily available materials. Concrete is commonly used in the construction of radiation
vaults.

Regulatory Limits for Occupational Exposure

 Most international codes set the annual limit of exposure for industrial radiographers who
generally are not concerned with an intake of radioactive material as follows:

 The annual limits to the lens of the eye, to the skin, and to the extremities, which are:

 A lens dose equivalent of 15 rem

 A shallow-dose equivalent of 50 rem to the skin or to any extremity.

Over-Dose Health Symptoms

 When the doses are received by an individual within a twenty-four hour period. probable prompt
are:

Doses as received Probable prompt

 25-50 rem Definite blood change at 25 rem. No serious

injury.
 50-100 rem Some injury possible.

 100-200 rem Injury and possible disability.

 200-400 rem Injury and disability likely, death possible.

 400-500 rem Median Lethal Dose (MLD) 50% of exposures are

fatal.

 500-1,000 rem Up to 100% of exposures are fatal.

 Over 1,000 rem 100% likely fatal.

Radiation Detectors

 Instruments used for radiation measurement fall into two broad categories:

1. Rate measuring instruments.

a) Survey Meters

b) Audible Alarm Rate Meters

2. Personal dose measuring instruments.

a. Pocket Dosimeter

i. Direct Read Pocket Dosimeter

ii. Digital Electronic Dosimeter

b. Personnel dosimetry film badges

c. Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD)

1. Rate measuring instruments.

 Rate measuring instruments measure the rate at which exposure is received (more
commonly called the radiation intensity).

 Survey meters, audible alarms and area monitors fall into this category.

 These instruments present a radiation intensity reading relative to time, such as R/hr or
mR/hr

1. Rate measuring instruments.

a) Survey meters: Important resource of a radiographer

 The survey meter is to determine the presence & intensity of radiation.
  Gas filled detectors consists of a gas filled cylinder with two electrodes
having a voltage applied to them.

 Whenever the device is brought near radioactive substances, the gas

becomes ionized.

 The electric field created by the potential difference between the

anode and cathode causes the electrons of each ion pair to move to
the anode while the positively charged gas atom is drawn to the
cathode.

 This results in an electrical signal that is amplified, correlated to

exposure and displayed as a value.

b) Audible Alarm Rate Meters :

 Audible alarms are devices that emit a short "beep" or "chirp" when a
predetermined exposure has been received. It is required that these
electronic devices be worn by an individual working with gamma emitters.
These devices reduce the likelihood of accidental exposures in industrial
radiography by alerting the radiographer to exposure levels or dosages of
radiation above a preset amount.
2. Personal dose measuring instruments.

 Dose measuring instruments are those that measure the total amount of exposure received
during a measuring period. The dose measuring instruments, or dosimeters, that are commonly
used in industrial radiography are small devices which are designed to be worn by an
individual to measure the exposure received by the individual.

2. Personal dose measuring instruments.

a) Pocket Dosimeter
 Pocket dosimeters are used to provide the wearer with an immediate reading
of his exposure to X-rays or gamma rays.

 It also has the advantage of being reusable.

 The limited range, inability to provide a permanent record, and the potential
for discharging and reading loss due to dropping or bumping are a few of
the main disadvantages of a pocket dosimeter.

 The two types commonly used in industrial radiography are:

I. Direct Read Pocket Dosimeter

II. Digital Electronic Dosimeter.

I. Direct Read Pocket Dosimeter

  A direct reading pocket ionization dosimeter is generally of the size and
shape of a fountain pen.

 The accumulated dose value can be read by pointing the instrument at a

light source and observing the internal fiber through a system of built-in
lenses.

 The fiber is viewed on a translucent scale which is graduated in units of

exposure.

 Typical industrial radiography pocket dosimeters have a full scale reading

of 200 mR

II. Digital Electronic Dosimeter

 These dosimeters measure both dose information and dose rate and display
them in digital form. Also, some Digital Electronic Dosimeters include an
audible alarm feature which emits an audible signal or chirp with each
recorded increment of exposure.
b) Film Badges :
 The detector is, as the name implies, a piece of radiation sensitive film.
 The film is packaged in a light proof, vapor proof envelope preventing light,
moisture or chemical vapors from affecting the film.

 Badge incorporates a series of filters to find quality of the radiation.

 By comparing the results, the energy of the radiation can be find and
the dose can be calculated knowing the film response for that
energy.
 The major advantages of a film badge as a personnel monitoring
device are that it provides a permanent record, it is able to
distinguish between different energies of photons, and it can
measure doses due to different types of radiation.
 It is quite accurate for exposures greater than 100 mR.
 The major disadvantages are that it must be developed and read by a
processor (which is time consuming) and prolonged heat exposure
can affect the film.

c) Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) Film Badges :

1. They are often used instead of the film badge. Like a film badge, it is worn
for a period of time (usually 3 months or less) and then must be processed
to determine the dose received, if any. TLDs can measure doses as low as 1
mR.
Controlling Radiation Exposure ::

Radiation Detectors

 Instruments used for radiation measurement fall into two broad categories:

1. Rate measuring instruments.

1. Survey Meters

2. Audible Alarm Rate Meters

2. Personal dose measuring instruments.

1. Pocket Dosimeter

1. Direct Read Pocket Dosimeter

2. Digital Electronic Dosimeter

2. Personnel dosimetry film badges

3. Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD)