SCIENCE

Female Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System
Functions:
Functions:
➔ It produces female sex cells, the
➔ It produces, maintains, and
egg cells
transports sperm (male
➔ It receives sperm cells from the
reproductive cells) and semen
male
(sperm’s protective fluid)
➔ It nurtures the development and
➔ It discharges sperm into the
provides nourishment for the new
female reproductive tract
individual
➔ It produces and secretes male sex
hormones
Main Organs:
Main Organs:
Vagina- an organ that receives the penis
Penis- organ that deposits sperms into
of the male during mating
the vagina of the female
Cervix- facilitates the passage of sperm
Scrotum- sac of skin that hold the
into the uterine cavity
testes
Ovary- an organ that produces egg cells
Testes- also known as testicles; organs
Oviduct or Fallopian Tube- when the egg
that produces sperm cells
cells are released, this will serve as the
Vas deferens- a tube that carries sperm
passageway of eggs from the ovary to the
from the testes to the urethra
uterus, and it is also the site of egg
Urethra- carries sperms and urine out of
fertilization
the body
Uterus- serves as site of egg
Male Accessory Glands- provide liquid in
implantation, where the fertilized egg
which the sperms can swim
develops
● Seminal Vesicle- secretes a fluid
that make up most of the
The Role of Hormones in Female and
components of the semen Male Reproductive System
● Prostate Gland- an organ that
secretes a slightly alkaline milky Regulation of the reproductive system
fluid that is discharged as part of - A process that requires the action
the semen of hormones from the pituitary
● Bulbourethral Gland- an organ gland, the adrenal cortex, and the
that secretes a thick and clear gonads.
mucus that lubricates and
neutralizes any trace of acidic ➔ During puberty of both sexes, the
urine in the urethra hypothalamus produces
 gonadotropin-releasing hormone ovaries that trigger the
(GnRH) development of secondary
◆ Which stimulates the sex characteristics in
production and release of females as well as control in
follicle-stimulating maturation of the ova
hormone (FSH) & ➔ Pituitary also produces prolactin,
luteinizing hormone (LH) which stimulates milk production
Gonadotropins- hormones that regulate after childbirth
the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in ➔ Oxytocin, which stimulates uterine
females) contraction during childbirth and
milk let-down during suckling
In Males:
➔ FSH stimulates the maturation of Menstrual Cycle
sperm cells Hormones- chemicals that control many
➔ LH stimulates production of the changes in the reproductive system and
sex hormones (androgens) by the affect the certain body organs
interstitial cells of the testes Menstruation- monthly changes that take
➔ Most widely known androgen in place in the female reproductive system,
males is testosterone where the body is preparing for
◆ Testosterone- promotes pregnancy
the production of sperm Pituitary Gland- releases hormone that
and masculine cause the egg in the ovary to mature
characteristics LH- initiates the maturation of the
follicles and causes the secretion of
In Females: progesterone
➔ FSH stimulates development of FSH- assists in the maturation of the
egg cells, called ova, which develop follicles that cause estrogen secretion
in structures called follicles
◆ Follicle cells- produce the ➔ Ovary will release estrogen to
hormone inhibin, which increase the thickness of uterine
inhibits FSH production lining so that the fertilized egg
➔ Estradiol and progesterone are can attach to it
steroid hormones that prepare the ➔ Ovary releases an egg on 14 days
body for pregnancy ➔ If there’s no presence of sperms,
◆ Estrogen- group of steroid the egg won’t be fertilized so it
hormones produced by the will not attach to the uterus
 ➔ This is no longer necessary, so the ➔ Happens around 14th day of the
cells that thickened will break off cycle
and leave the vagina 4th Phase: Luteal Phase
➔ The loss of cells from the uterine ➔ After the follicle releases its egg,
lining, blood and egg is the it changes into corpus luteum and
menstruation. After this, the releases progesterone and
cycle starts again estrogen.
➔ The rise of these hormones
Stages of Menstrual Cycle thickens the uterine lining, ready
1st Phase: Menstrual/Bleeding Phase for egg implantation
➔ Phase when women have period ➔ If the woman doesn’t get
➔ Progesterone declines and the pregnant, the body produces
uterus release combination of human chorionic gonadotropin
blood, mucus, and tissue (hCG), a hormone detected by
➔ Typical period lasts for 3-7 days. pregnancy tests.
Symptoms include cramps, tender ➔ The corpus luteum shrink away and
breasts, bloating, mood swings, resorbed, causing the decreased
irritability, headaches, tiredness, level of estrogen and
and low back pain progesterone, which causes the
2nd Phase: Follicular Phase onset period
➔ Starts when the FSH stimulates
ovaries to produce follicles Feedback Mechanism in Menstrual Cycle
containing immature eggs - A process through which the level
➔ Healthy eggs will mature. The of one substance influences the
maturing follicles is where embryo level of another substance
grows ➔ A negative feedback affects the
➔ On average, this last for 16 days, production of hormones in the
from 11 to 27 day of cycle menstrual cycle. High levels of one
3rd Phase: Ovulation Phase hormone may inhibit the
➔ When the level of estrogen rises production of another hormone
and the pituitary gland releases ➔ FSH stimulates the ovaries to
LH that causes ovulation release estrogen
◆ Ovulation- release of ➔ High levels of estrogen () prevent
mature egg, and it travels (🛑) further production of FSH
down the fallopian tube ➔ High levels () of estrogen, can
toward the uterus to be cause menstrual problems (🟢)
fertilized by sperm
 ➔ Estrogen also stimulates the ■ Brain Stem- part
release of LH from the pituitary that connects the
gland, which controls the brain to the spinal
production of progesterone cord and controls
➔ High levels () of progesterone automatic functions
inhibit (🛑) further release of LH such as breathing,
➔ Low level () of LH can cause digestion, heart rate
infertility (🟢) and blood pressure
➢ Spinal Cord- serves as
Human Nervous System channel for signals between
➔ Your nervous system connects all the brain and the rest of
your body parts and transmits the body, and controls
signals from one part to another simple musculoskeletal
➔ A system of cells, tissues, and reflexes without input from
organs regulates the body’s the brain
responses to internal and external ❖ Peripheral Nervous System
stimuli (PNS)- connects the CNS to the
organs and limbs. It has two main
Major Divisions of the Nervous System divisions
❖ Central Nervous System (CNS)- ➢ Somatic Nervous System-
main processing center for the this system is associated
entire nervous system. It consists with the voluntary control
of two main components of body movements and has
➢ Brain- an organ located two main parts:
within the skull that ■ Spinal Nerves-
functions as organizer and nerves that carry
distributor of information motor and sensory
for the body signals between the
■ Cerebrum- large, spinal cord and the
upper part of the body
brain that controls ■ Cranial Nerves- the
activity and thought nerve fibers that
■ Cerebellum- part carry information
under the cerebrum into and out of the
that controls brain stem
posture, balance, and
coordination
 ➢ Autonomic Nervous hormone (ACTH), prolactin,
System- system that is LH, FSH
associated with the ❖ Thyroid- regulates body
involuntary control of body metabolism and causes storage of
movements calcium in bones
■ Sympathetic- it is ➢ HR- thyroxine, calcitonin
activated when the ❖ Parathyroid- controls the calcium
body is in a dynamic levels in your body and normalizes
role or stress (e.g., bone growth
increased heart ➢ HR- parathormone
rate) ❖ Pancreas- regulates blood sugar
■ Parasympathetic- it levels
maintains body ➢ HR- insulin, glucagon
functions and ❖ Testes- controls maturation and
restores the body to male characteristics
normal or relaxed ➢ HR- androgen,
mode. testosterone
❖ Ovaries- influence female traits
The Endocrine System and support reproductive function
- Regulatory system similar to ➢ HR- estrogen,
nervous system. Instead of using progesterone
electrical impulses for signaling, it
produces and uses chemical signals Nervous System Working Together with
called hormones Endocrine System to Maintain
- Which travel Homeostasis

through the
Homeostasis- the rate reached when
bloodstream and
each part of the body functions in
control the actions
equilibrium with other parts. This is
of cells and organs
attained through the regulation of the
Common Hormones and Glands
bodily functions by the endocrine and
❖ Pituitary- stimulates growth, and
nervous systems
controls the functions of other
glands
➔ Most body systems maintain
➢ HR- oxytocin, vasopressin,
homeostasis by using feedback
growth hormone,
mechanisms
adrenocorticotropic
 ➔ When the brain receives messages DNA, the nucleotides. Each
from the body, it works to restore nucleotide is composed of one
the system to its normal state phosphate group
➔ The levels of hormones in our body ➔ One sugar molecule and one of the
are controlled by feedback four bases—in the example.
➔ It is important that the amount of Across the strands of the helix, A
hormones in our body is kept in always pairs with T, and G with C
homeostasis
➔ To achieve homeostasis, the Ribonucleic Structure:
nervous and endocrine systems ● Like DNA, it is a nucleic acid.
maintain a normal range of the However, RNA structure differs
following variables: from DNA structure in three ways
◆ Body temperature ○ RNA is single stranded –
◆ Amount of water in the whereas DNA is double
body stranded
◆ Amount of metabolic ○ The sugar in RNA is ribose;
wastes wastes in the cell DNA has deoxyribose
◆ Blood calcium level ○ Both DNA and RNA contain
◆ Hormones in the blood four nitrogenous bases, but
Glucagon- glucoregulatory peptide instead of thymine, RNA
hormone that counteracts the actions of contains a similar base
insulin by stimulating hepatic glucose called uracil (U). The uracil
production and thereby increases blood pairs with adenine.
glucose level while the insulin is a ● The major types of RNA include;
hormone secreted by the pancreas to messenger RNA (mRNA),
regulate the amount of nutrients ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
circulating in the bloodstream. transfer RNA (tRNA)

Deoxyribonucleic Acid Structure DNA RNA

➔ The DNA molecule is composed of A-T A-U
three types of component G-C G-C
molecule: phosphate group, the
sugar deoxyribose, and the bases Deoxyribonucleic Acid Replication
A-adenine, T-thymine, C- ➔ In 1953, James Watson and
cytosine, G-guanine Francis Crick worked out on the
➔ There are three molecules that DNA, a double helix like a twisted
form the basic building block of staircase
 ➔ Deoxyribonucleic acid is copied ➔ For translation, another type of
during interphase prior to mitosis RNA called tRNA is needed.
and meiosis. It’s important that ➔ tRNA is a molecule made up of 3
new copies are like the original. nucleotides called anticodons
➔ DNA structure provides a ❖ Anticodons- complementary to the
mechanism for making accurate codons of mRNA
copies of molecules. ➔ Attached to the tRNA anticodons
➔ The process of making copies of are amino acids
DNA is called replication. When ➔ During this, tRNA anticodon will
DNA replicates, two identical bind to a specific mRNA codon and
copies of DNA molecules are bring with it the specific amino
produced, which are the same as acid coded for
the original ➔ As this happens, the amino acids
bond together forming polypeptide
DNA Transcription and Translation chains, which will form proteins
DNA Transcription
❖ Protein synthesis- begins with Protein Synthesis
DNA in the nucleus ➔ Protein such as enzymes are
mostly amino acids chained
➔ This takes place in the nucleus of together in a certain order
the cell ➔ Each group of three nucleotide
➔ During transcription, mRNA reads bases represents codon in a DNA
and copies DNA’s nucleotide or mRNA that corresponds to a
sequence in the form of a specific amino acid or a start/stop
complementary RNA strand signal
➔ Then, it carries the DNA’s ➔ This code is picked up by the
information in the form of codons mRNA and is carried from the
to the ribosome nucleus to the cytoplasm
➔ Codons are 3 nucleotide sequences ❖ Genetic Code Table- is the set of
in an mRNA strand. At the rules used by living cells to
ribosome, amino acids will be translate information encoded
assembled to form a polypeptide, within genetic material (DNA or
which will become a protein mRNA sequences of nucleotide
triplets, or codons) into proteins
DNA Translation ➔ The code defines how codons
❖ Translation- takes place on the specify which amino acid will be
ribosome
 added next during protein repeated, resulting in extra
synthesis genetic material
❖ Inversion- a mutation resulting in
Chromosomal Mutations a portion if a chromosome being in
- Or ‘block’ mutations occur as a the opposite orientation (inverted)
result of errors in crossing over
during meiosis Chromosome Disorder
➔ Abnormalities in chromosomal
➔ Certain mutagens may also include structure may occur during
Chromosomal mutations. meiosis.
➔ Chromosome mutations affect ➔ The normal process of crossing-
large segments of DNA containing over and recombination maybe
many genes. affected, such that chromosomes
➔ There are four different types of break and reunite the wrong
chromosomal mutations: Deletions, segments
Translocations, Duplications, and
Inversions ❖ Cri du chat- is caused by the
deletion of part of the short arm
❖ Deletion- a mutation causing the of chromosome 5. “Cri du chat” is
part of the chromosome to be a French word, and the condition
missing is so named because affected
❖ Translocation- a mutation causing babies make high-pitched cries
one portion of a chromosome to be that sound like a cat.
moved to a different part of the ❖ Down’s Syndrome- is usually
chromosome (intrachromosomal) caused by an extra copy of
or to a different chromosome chromosome 21 (trisomy 21).
altogether (interchromosomal). Characteristics include decreased
There are two key types: muscle tone, stockier build,
➢ Reciprocal- the segments asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes
from two different and mild to moderate mental
chromosomes are retardation.
exchanged ❖ Edwards Syndrome- is the second
➢ Robertsonian- an entire most common trisomy of
chromosome attaches to chromosome 18. Symptoms include
another mental and motor retardation and
❖ Duplication- a mutation causing numerous congenital anomalies
the part of the chromosome to be
 causing serious health problems. ➔ By studying fossils, scientists can
About 99% die in infancy learn how much or little organisms
❖ Jacobsen Syndrome- is also called have changed as life developed on
terminal 11q deletion disorder. Earth
This is a very rare disorder. Those ➔ There are gaps in the fossil
affected have normal intelligence because lots of early forms of life
or mild mental retardation, with were soft-bodied, which means
poor or excessive language skills. they left few traces behind, that’s
Most have a bleeding disorder why scientist can’t be certain
called — Trousseau Syndrome about how life begin
❖ Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY)-
men with this condition are usually ❖ Trilobite- An invertebrate, it lived
sterile and tend to have longer in a swallow marine environment
arms and legs and to be taller than during Ordovician and Silurian
their peers. They are often shy periods
and quiet and have a higher ❖ Crinoid Stem- Crinoids look like
incidence of speech delay plants but are actually animals
❖ Turner’s Syndrome- (X instead related to our modern day
of XX or YY)- female sexual starfish. They belong to Phylum
characteristics are present but Echinodermata and lived during
underdeveloped. They often have a the Triassic Period
short stature, low hairline, ❖ Dinosaur Bone- Dinosaurs or giant
abnormal eye features and bone reptiles ruled the earth during the
development and a “caved-in” Jurassic Period under Mesozoic
appearance to the chest. Era
❖ Vascular Plant- This fossilized
Evidence of Evolution leaf was once part of an early
❖ Fossil- the preserved remains of a vascular plant during the
dead organism from millions of Carboniferous Period
years ago. Fossil remains have
been found in rocks of all ages. ➔ Comparative anatomy is another
The simplest organisms are found hunt of evolutionary concept
in the oldest rocks, and more ➔ Structures from different species
complex in newest rocks which have similar internal
framework, position, and
➔ Evidence for early forms of life
comes from fossils
 embryonic development are ◆ Theory of Need- states
considered to be homologous that organisms change in
❖ Homologous- similarity of the response to their
structure, physiology, or environment
development of different species ◆ Ability to Survive- helped
of organisms based upon their them develop
descent from a common characteristics necessary
evolutionary ancestor for them to adapt in a given
❖ Analogous- are structures that environment
are similar in unrelated organisms. ◆ Theory of Use and
The structures are similar because Disuse- which according to
they evolved to do the same job, Lamarck, organs not in use
not because they were inherited will disappear while organs
from a common ancestor in use will develop
➔ He believed that giraffes before
❖ Embryo- an early stage of have short necks, but because of
development in organisms the need to survive and in order
❖ Embryonic Development- includes to reach tall trees for food, they
stages such as blastula, gastrula kept stretching their necks until
and organogenesis these became longer and able to
reach taller trees
➔ The embryo of fishes, ➔ These acquired characteristics
salamanders, lizards, birds, cats, were believed to be inherited by
and human are similar during the their offspring and propagated by
first stage of their embryonic the next generation of giraffes.
development; and have several Lamarck called it The Theory of
homologous structures that are Acquired Characteristics.
not present when the organisms
are adults ➔ The theory of evolution by Natural
Selection, first formulated in
Theory of Evolution Charles Darwin’s book “On the
➔ Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was Origin of Species” in 1859, is the
the first evolutionist to believe process by which organisms change
that organisms change over time over time as a result of changes in
➔ Using fossil records as a guide, heritable physical or behavioral
Lamarck was able to develop three traits
theories;
➔ Changes that allow an organism to given environment would likely
better adapt to its environment produce offspring
will help it survive and have more
offspring Population Growth
➔ Darwin suggested that selection ➔ Diminishing and growing
also takes place in nature. In populations can be indicators of
selective breeding, farmer potential problems in the
identifies and selects the best and ecosystem
desirable trait to propagate ❖ Birth rate or natality- birth
➔ In natural selection, number of organisms
environmental factors promote the ❖ Birth death or mortality- number
survival of the fittest and of organism that are dying in a
eliminates the less fit population
➔ According to Darwin, giraffes with ❖ Population density- number of
longer necks could feed on taller organisms per unit area
trees that were available. Giraffes ➔ Population’s growth are controlled
with short neck were eliminated by two factors
due to lack of accessible food ◆ Density — independent-
supply limiting factors are when
➔ Organisms struggle for existence population density does not
in order to survive; they compete directly influence
for food and space. Organisms population growth. These
with favorable and advantageous limiting factors can stop a
characteristics survive and population from growing, it
produce can be such things as
natural disasters,
❖ Fitness- the ability of an organism temperature, sunlight, and
to survive and produce offsprings the activities of human in
❖ Variation- different individuals in the environment
population possess different ◆ Density — dependent-
characteristics and abilities limiting factors regulates
➔ Variation among individuals in the population growth and is
population would like to bring influenced by population
greater chances of survival. density. These limiting
➔ An organism that is adapted and factors come into play when
has structured fitted to survive in a population reaches a
certain number of
 organisms. For example, different carrying capacity in
when a population reaches a every area
certain size, there won’t be ➔ As the number of prey decreases,
enough resources like food, so will the number of predators,
shelter, or water for all of because there is no enough food to
the organisms sustain them
❖ Exponential Growth- a population
➔ Limiting factors that depend on experiences a period of rapid
population density includes disease growth before it reaches its
and parasites, which are carrying capacity. Plenty of
infectious and spread faster in resources are available at this
densely populated areas, period therefore; more births are
competition for resources, recorder than deaths of organisms
organisms with better adaptations ➔ When resources are unlimited,
to obtain food resources will be population exhibit exponential
able to reproduce more often, and growth resulting in a J-shaped
its population will grow curve
❖ Predation- when plenty of prey ➔ When resources are limited,
are available, predators will be population exhibit logistic growth
able to eat sufficiently, thus have ❖ Logistic Growth- population
energy to reproduce much, and expansion decreases as resources
increase their numbers become scarce, and it levels off
❖ Emigration- occurs when individual when the carrying capacity of the
organisms leave and go to a new environment is reached, resulting
areas where they can find enough in a S-shaped curve
resources for survival and
reproduction Relationship Between Population Growth
and Carrying Capacity
Carrying Capacity ❖ Population- a group of individuals
- The cause of stop in population of the same species that occupy a
growth as it reaches the maximum specific area over a certain period
number of organisms that can be of time
supported by the environment ❖ Population dynamics- how
populations of a species change
➔ The amount of resources available over time
in which organisms live has
➔ Several processes can affect for limited resources with each
population size and dynamics other (same species or intra-
include population size, which is specific competition) or with other
influenced by the per capita species (interspecific
population growth rate, the rate at competition)
which the population size changes ❖ Density Dependence- a process in
per individual in the population which per capita population growth
➔ This growth rate is determined by changes when population density
the birth, death, emigration, and changes
migration rates in population
➔ When the per capita growth rate
remains constant, the population
can experience exponential growth
followed by exponential decline
➔ Interestingly, Darwin was one of
the first scientists to realize that
high rates of population growth
can cause massive mortality events
— he related this to evolutionary
changes in heritable traits or
genes
➔ The maximum per capita growth
rate for a population is called the
intrinsic rate of increase
➔ As population grows in an area, it
may experience the effects of
increases densities
❖ Carrying Capacity- in a given area
in which the maximum population
size of the species that the
environment can sustain.
Determined by the amount of
available resources
➔ As the density of the individuals in
a population increases, these
individuals must begin competing