COMPUTER MEMORY

Just like a human brain, the digital devices such as computer, microcontroller & smartphone needs a
space to store the information & instruction, this storage space is called memory or “computer
memory” and the building block of memory is called a memory cell. In simple words, memory is an
electronic circuit or device capable of storing information temporarily or permanently. . It is used to
store data/information and instructions. It is a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is
to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. It can store both the input and
output can be stored here.

An Overview of Memory Hierarchy Design

The memory hierarchy in computers primarily includes the following components:

1. Registers

Registers, usually static RAM or SRAM in the computer processor, hold the data word, typically 64
bits or 128 bits. Most processors use a status word register and an accumulator. The accumulator is
primarily used to store the data for mathematical operations, and the status word register is used for
decision-making purposes.

2. Cache Memory

The cache memory holds a block of frequently used information from the main memory. Cache
memory is also present in the processor. Single-core processors typically have multiple cache levels.
Current multi-core processors have three 2-levels for each core, with one level being shared.

3. Main Memory

The main memory in a computer, which communicates directly with the CPU, is the primary storage
unit of a computer system. This fast and large memory stores information during the computer's
operations. The main memory is composed of ROM and RAM.

4. Magnetic Disks

Magnetic disks in a computer are circular plates made of plastic or metal with a magnetised material.
Both sides of a disk are typically used, and multiple disks can be stacked on a single spindle with
read/write heads available on each plane. The disks in a computer rotate collectively at high speed.

5. Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a standard magnetic recording made with a thin magnetizable coating on a long,
thin strip of plastic film. It is primarily used to back up large amounts of data. When a computer
needs to access a strip, it first mounts it to access the information. After the information is accessed,
it is then unmounted. The actual access time of computer memory is slower within a magnetic strip,
taking a few minutes to access a strip.

Characteristics of Computer Memory

It is faster computer memory as compared to secondary memory.

It is semiconductor memories.

It is usually a volatile memory, and main memory of the computer.

A computer system cannot run without primary memory.

How Does Computer Memory Work?

When you open a program, it is loaded from secondary memory into primary memory. Because there
are various types of memory and storage, an example would be moving a program from a solid-state
drive (SSD) to RAM. Because primary storage is accessed more quickly, the opened software can connect
with the computer’s processor more quickly. The primary memory is readily accessible from temporary
memory slots or other storage sites.
Memory is volatile, which means that data is only kept temporarily in memory. Data saved in
volatile memory is automatically destroyed when a computing device is turned off. When you
save a file, it is sent to secondary memory for storage.
There are various kinds of memory accessible. It’s operation will depend upon the type of
primary memory used. but normally, semiconductor-based memory is more related with
memory. Semiconductor memory made up of IC (integrated circuits) with silicon-based metal-
oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistors.

Types of Computer Memories

The computer memory is classified into three main types;

1. Cache Memory,
2. Primary Memory and
3. Secondary Memory
 Cache Memory
The Cache memory is the fastest type of memory that acts as a buffer to store temporary data
between the processor & data memory. It stores the necessary data frequently used by the CPU
so that it can easily access it. It is the most expensive type of memory & it is integrated inside
the CPU chip.
Primary Memory/Main Memory :
The primary memory or primary storage or main memory is a type of computer memory that is
directly accessed by the CPU. It allows the processor to quickly fetch & execute the instruction &
commands stored in this memory.
The Primary memory stores all the necessary data on the startup so that the processor can use it
when the program code needs to. It stores the data that is frequently used by the CPU. It is fast
& expensive then secondary memory bearing very low storage capacity. The primary memory
can store the data permanently such as ROM & temporarily such as RAM.
The Primary memory is further classified into the following two types; RAM and ROM.

 RAM (Random Access Memory)

The RAM is an acronym for Random Access Memory & it is a type of primary memory that
stores the information or data temporarily to be used by the processor while the system is
running. It is also called volatile memory because the content of the data stored in its modules
is erased when the power supply is interrupted. Thus they need a constant supply of power to
retain that information.
The RAM has further two types & they are briefly discussed below;
1. DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
DRAM or Dynamic RAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) is a type of RAM where the
computer memory cell used for storing a bit of data is made of capacitor & a transistor. Due to
the leakage current of the capacitor, the cell cannot retain the information for too long.
Therefore, the DRAM needs to be refreshed or recharge after a specific time to maintain the
data. Since the memory cell of DRAM is made from one transistor, more memory cells can be
designed in a single chip to increase the storage density of DRAM. And the price per cell is
reduced thus they are inexpensive.
 Advantages of DRAM
Here are some of the advantages of DRAM
Each memory cell is made of only one transistor, so its design is simple
The bit per chip density is higher.
The Cost per bit is relatively low
The DRAM is inexpensive.
Power consumption is low because the data is store in a capacitor.
Disadvantage of DRAM
Here are some of the Disadvantages of DRAM;
The memory is volatile.
The cell needs to be refreshed at a constant rate to retain data.
The refreshing consumes extra power.
The circuitry required for refreshing is complex
The DRAM is relatively slower in operation than SRAM
The DRAM is used as the main memory. It is an off-chip memory, placed externally on the
motherboard.

2.SRAM (Static RAM)

The SRAM or Static RAM is another type of primary memory that stores it data using flip
flop & latches. The flip flop is a memory cell of SRAM & it is made of multiple logic gates
consisting transistors. There is no leakage current thus it does not need to be refreshed, unlike
DRAM.
Each memory cell used for storing a single bit of data is made of 6 transistors. Thus price per bit
of SRAM is more than DRAM & it requires more physical space on-chip to store the same
amount of data. Therefore, the storage capacity of SRAM is lower than DRAM.
Advantage of SRAM
Here are some of the advantages of SRAM over DRAM
 There is no leakage current, thus it does not need to be refreshed.
 Due to no need for refreshing. The access time is faster.
 It is on-chip memory which also increases its operation speed
 It does not need extra circuitry for refreshing.
 It is relatively very faster than DRAM.
Disadvantages of SRAM
 Each cell is made of 6 transistors which require more space than DRAM
 It is more expensive than DRAM.
 Due to large physical space for each bit, it has very low storage capacity.
 The memory is volatile i.e. the data is erased when there is no power.
 It consumes more power than DRAM due to a large number of transistors & constant
power supply.
 ROM (Read-Only Memory)
 The ROM or Read-only Memory is a non-volatile type of primary memory i.e. the
content of information stored does not get erased when the power is off. This
data is stored during its manufacturing & it cannot be altered by any user. That is
why it is called a Read-Only Memory.

 The ROM is slower than RAM because the CPU cannot access its data. The
data first need to be transferred to RAM where the CPU can access it. It only
contains the necessary instruction regarding the startup of the system.


 Characteristics of ROM

 It is a non-volatile memory or permanent memory.
 It stores the instructions regarding the startup (& program code) of a
microcontroller or computer.
 The CPU cannot directly access its data.
 It can be write once & read multiple times.
 It does not need the power to maintain its data.
 It has a very low capacity.
 It is slower than RAM
 It is comparatively cheaper than RAM
 The ROM is classified into the following types

 PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)
 PROM stands for Programmable Read-only Memory, which is a type of ROM
where each memory cell is programmed after its manufacturing. Black PROMs
are made during manufacturing which is then programmed during the production
of devices they are being used for. The difference between ROM & PROM is that
ROM is programed during manufacturing & PROM is programmed after its
manufacturing..


 The data in each cell is stored & maintained by a fuse. During manufacturing, all
the fuses are intact & read “0”. The fuse is blown using a high voltage pulse
which then reads “1”. In such a way the PROM is programmed by blowing the
fuses for selected bit locations that should be “1” using a special programmer
called PROM Programmer.
 Since the blown or burned fuse cannot be restored, they can be programmed
only once. And they can be read multiple times which is why it is a Read-Only
Memory.

 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
 EPROM or also known as EROM is a modified type of PROM which is a non-
volatile memory. Unlike PROM, the EPROM data can be erased once it’s
programmed by exposing it to a UV (ultraviolet) light source.


 The cells are made from a floating gate transistor which is programmed by
supplying high voltage that creates an avalanche discharge of electrons to store
it in the gate electrode. Due to the gate insulation, the charge does not leak & is
stored permanently. This process cannot be reversed using electricity but
exposing it to the UV light can dissipate the charge & erase the data inside.


 The EPROM chips have a quartz window for UV light penetration & they are
easily recognizable. Since the whole die is exposed, there is no way to erase any
specific byte of data but the whole memory is wiped clean. It needs to be
removed from the circuit & place under a UV lamp. It takes several minutes of
exposure to completely erase the memory.

 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
 EEROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory & it
is a type of PROM whose individual bytes can be erased & reprogramed. It is
developed to replace the UV erase function of the EPROM & it can be erased &
reprogramed inside the circuit using a special programming circuit.

 Due to single-byte operation, they are relatively slower while the flash memory
which is a type of EEPROM is specially designed to have high speed. The flash
memory has limited reprogramming cycles of around 10k while the latest models
 of EEPROM can have 1million cycles. The EEPROM is expensive than the flash
memory but the flash memory does have a disadvantage of a large erase block.
 Secondary Memory
 Secondary memory is a broad term used for the computer memory that is used
for storing data on a long-term basis. It is commonly known as the storage of a
system. It is a non-volatile memory that can store data permanently without the
need of power supply. The CPU does not have direct access to secondary
memory. The data is first stored in primary memory RAM which is then accessed
by CPU.

 The secondary memory is also known as external memory. It has a huge amount
of storage space with relatively low speed & cheaper than primary memory. It is
used for backup storage.

 The secondary memory is classified into fixed & removable memory;

 Fixed Memory
 This type of secondary memory is fixed internally in the system. Fixed memory
means not be removed during the operation, it does not mean it is literally fixed.
It can be removed using a proper tool kit for upgrading or replacing purposes.
Here are some examples of fixed memories; HDD (Hard disk), SSD (Solid State
Disk), etc.




 Removable Memory
 This type of Secondary memory is often referred to as external or portable
memory. This type of memory or storage device can be removed even when the
system is running. It does not need any special tool to remove them.

 They offer a portable form of memory that can be transferred from one system to
another. They are mostly used as backup storage devices. Examples of
removable memories are optical disk such as Compact disk, DVDs & Blu-ray
disk, etc, that require optical drives to read them & pen drives such as USB
drives that can be connected to any USB port.



 The secondary memory can be classified into the following types of memories

 Magnetic Memory
 Magnetic memory or magnetic storage media is a form of non-volatile secondary
memory that uses any type of magnetized medium to store data. The two
magnetic polarities are used to represent the “1” & “0” of the digital data.

 The head moves over a circular rotating magnetic disk & reads the data in the
form of magnetic polarities. Since the data is stored in a magnetic medium, the
data can easily get damaged near any external magnetic field. It also cannot
withstand any shock from falling. It is relatively slower & cheaper than solid-state
computer memory.

 This is the most common type of secondary storage memory used in almost
every computer & laptop. Examples of magnetic memory are Hard disk, floppy
disk & magnetic tapes.

 Magnetic memory can be fixed internally such as hard disks & portable or
removable such as floppy disk & external hard drives which can be connected
through a USB port.

 Optical Memory
 Optical memory or optical storage as the name suggests is a type of memory that
store & read the information using light. The data is stored in a removable disk
called optical disk & the device used for storing & reading the data is called
optical drive.

 The optical drive is equipped with a sharp laser beam that is used for storing &
reading the data in the form of marks on an optical disk that is spinning inside it.
Back in the days, the optical memories used were read-only memories i.e. we
could only access it & cannot modify the content of the disk. Nowadays, we can
write them using special drives.

 They are cheap & portable & lightweight. Examples of optical memories are CD,
DVD, Blu-ray disc, etc.

 Related Post: Different Types of Sensors with Applications
 Solid-State Memory SSD
 The solid-state memory or solid-state drive (SSD) is an electronic storage device
that permanently stores data in an electronic circuit. There is no moving part
such as a spinning disk or magnetic disks or read-write heads. So they are
resistant to any shock from falling.

 The solid-state computer memory uses flash memory which is very fast but
expensive than magnetic or optical memory. They are used as a backup storage
device or to transfer data from one system to another. They are compact & small
in size having very low power consumption.

 Solid State Memory

 The SSDs are available as fixed internal storage used in computers &
smartphones & as external portable memory such as pen or USB drives &
memory cards.