SKELETAL SYSTEM

 Parts of the skeletal system: bones (skeleton), joints, cartilages, and ligaments
 Two subdivisions of the skeleton: axial,
appendicular
 Function of Bones:
 Support the body
 Protect soft organs
 Allow movement due to attached
skeletal muscles
 Store minerals and fats
 Blood cell formation
 Bones of the Human Body:
 The adult skeleton has 206 bones
 Two basic types of bone tissue :
o Compact bone- homogeneous
o Spongy bone- small needle-like pieces of bone, many open spaces
 Classification of Bones:
 Long bones- typically longer than they are wide, have a shaft with heads at both ends,
contain mostly compact bone
Example: femur and humerus
o Anatomy:
 Diaphysis- shaft, composed of compact bone
 Epiphysis- ends of the bone, composed mostly of spongy bone
 Periosteum- outside covering of the diaphysis, fibrous connective tissue
membrane
 Sharpey’s fibers-secure periosteum to underlying bone
 Arteries- supply bone cells with nutrients
 Articular cartilage - covers the external surface of the epiphyses, made
of hyaline cartilage, decreases friction at joint surfaces
 Epiphyseal plate- flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing
bone
 Epiphyseal line- remnant of the epiphyseal plate, seen in adult bones
 Medullary cavity- cavity inside of the shaft, contains yellow marrow
(mostly fat) in adults, contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in
infants
 Short bones- generally cube-shape, contain mostly spongy bone
Example: carpals and tarsals
 Flat bones- thin, flattened, and usually curved, two thin layers of compact bone
surround a layer of spongy bone ▪
Example: skull, ribs and sternum
 Irregular bones- irregular shape, do not fit into other bone classification categories
Example: vertebrae and hip bones

 Bone Markings:
 Surface features of bones- sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments,
passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Categories of bone markings
 ▪ Projections or processes—grow out from the bone surface
▪ Depressions or cavities—indentations

 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

> Osteon (Haversian
system) - a unit of
bone containing
central canal and
matrix rings
> Central (Haversian)
canal- opening in the
center of an osteon
carries blood vessels
and nerves
> Perforating
(Volkmann’s) canal-
canal perpendicular to the central canal carries blood vessels and nerves
> Lacunae- cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes), arranged in concentric rings
> Lamellae- rings around the central canal, sites of lacunae
> Canaliculi- tiny canals, radiate from the central canal to lacunae, form a transport
system connecting all bone cells to a
nutrient supply

 Formation of the Human Skeleton

▪ in embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline
cartilage
▪ during development, much of this cartilage is
replaced by bone
▪ Cartilage remains in isolated areas: bridge of the
nose, parts of ribs and joints
 Bone Growth (Ossification)
▪Epiphyseal plates allow for lengthwise growth of
long bones during childhood
▪New cartilage is continuously formed
▪Older cartilage becomes ossified
▪ Cartilage is broken down
▪ Enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a medullary cavity
▪ Bone replaces cartilage through the action of osteoblasts
▪Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
▪Bones are remodeled in response to two factors: blood calcium levels and pull of
gravity and muscles on the skeleton
▪Bones grow in width (called appositional growth)

 Types of Bone Cells

 Osteocytes- mature bone cells
 Osteoblasts- bone-forming cells
 Osteoclasts- bone-destroying cells, break down bone matrix for remodeling and release
of calcium in response to parathyroid hormone
 o Bone remodeling is performed by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts
 Bone Fractures
 Fracture- break in a bone
 Types of bone fractures:
o Closed (simple) fracture- break that does not penetrate the skin
o Open (compound) fracture- broken bone penetrates through the skin, bone
fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization
 Repair of Bone Fractures:
o Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
o Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
o Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
o Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch
 AXIAL SKELETON
 Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
 Divided into three parts: skull, vertebral column and bony thorax
 Skull
 2 sets of bones: cranium and facial bones
 Bones joined by sutures
 Mandible- the only one attached by a free moving joint

> Lateral View > Superior View

> Inferior View > Anterior View

 Paranasal Sinuses- hollow portions of bones

surrounding the nasal cavity
 Functions of paranasal sinuses:
lighten the skull, give resonance and
amplification to voice

 Hyoid Bone
 The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
 Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
 Aids in swallowing and speech

 Fetal Skull
 The fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s
total body length
 Fontanels—fibrous membranes connecting the
cranial bones, Allow the brain to grow, convert to
bone within 24 months after birth

 Vertebral Column
 Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location
 There are 24 single vertebral bones separated by intervertebral discs
o 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
o 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
o 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back
o 5 sacral vertebra (sacrum), fused into a composite bone
o 4 coccygeal vertebra (coccyx), fused into a composite bone, may be 3-5
vertebra, “tailbone” or remnant of a tail that other vertebrates have
 The spine has a normal curvature
 o Primary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions
and are present from birth
o Secondary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar
regions and develop after birth

> Typical Vertebra > Atlas and Axis > Cervical Vertebra

> Thoracic Vertebra > Sacrum and Coccyx

 Bony Thorax
 Forms a cage to protect major organs
 Consists of three parts: sternum; ribs [true ribs (pairs 1–7) false ribs (pairs 8–12)
Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)] and thoracic vertebrae

 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 Composed of 126 bones: limbs (appendages), pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle

 Pectoral Girdle (shoulder)

 Composed of two bones:
o clavicle—collarbone
 o Scapula—shoulder blade
o These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement

 Upper Limbs
 Humerus- forms the arm, single bone
 Forearm
o Ulna- medial bone in anatomical position
o Radius- lateral bone in anatomical position
 Hand
o Carpals- wrist
o Metacarpals- palm
o Phalanges- fingers

 Pelvic Girdle
 Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones
 Composed of three pairs of fused bones: ilium, ischium and pubis
 The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
 It protects several organs: reproductive organs, urinary bladder and part of the large
intestine
 Gender Differences of the Pelvis: (female)
o inlet is larger and more circular
o pelvis as a whole is shallower, and the bones are lighter and thinner
o ilia flare more laterally
 o sacrum is shorter and less curved
o ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; thus the outlet is larger
o pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of the pubic arch is greater

 Lower Limbs
 Lower Leg:
o Tibia- shinbone, larger and medially oriented
o Fibula- thin and sticklike
 The foot:
o Tarsals- two largest tarsals : calcaneus (heelbone) and talus
o Metatarsals- sole
o phalanges—toes
 Arches of the foot
o Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches:
2 longitudinal, 1 transverse

 Joints
 Articulations of bones
 Functions of joints: hold bones together, allow for
mobility
 Ways joints are classified: functionally & structurally
 Functional classification:
o Synarthroses- immovable joints
o Amphiarthroses- slightly moveable joints
o Diarthroses- freely moveable joints
 Structural classification:
o Fibrous joints- generally immovable (suture, syndesmosis and gomphosis),
united by collagenic fibers: distal end of tibia and fibula
o Cartilaginous joints- immovable or slightly moveable (synchondrosis and
symphisis), united by cartilage: pubic symphisis and intervertebral joints
 o Synovial joints- freely moveable (plane, hinge and pivot), covered with articular
cartilage enclosed in an articular capsule lined with synovial membrane, with
synovial fluid and reinforced by ligaments
 Bursae- flattened fibrous sacs, lined with synovial membranes, filled
with synovial fluid, not actually part of the joint
 Tendon sheath- elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

 Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Joints

 Bursitis—inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or friction
 Tendonitis—inflammation of tendon sheaths
 Arthritis—inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints, over 100 different types, the
most widespread crippling disease in the United States
o Clinical Forms of Arthritis:
 Osteoarthritis- most common chronic arthritis, related to normal aging
processes
 Rheumatoid arthritis- autoimmune disease, the immune system
attacks the joints, symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of
certain joints, leads to deformities
 Gouty arthritis- inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of uric
acid crystals from the blood, can usually be controlled with diet

 Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System

 At birth, the skull bones are incomplete
 Bones are joined by fibrous membranes called fontanels
 Fontanels are completely replaced with bone within two years after birth
 Skeletal Changes Throughout Life
 Fetus:
o Long bones are formed of hyaline cartilage
o Flat bones begin as fibrous membranes
o Flat and long bone models are converted to bone
 Birth: Fontanels remain until around age 2
 Adolescence
o Epiphyseal plates become ossified and long bone growth ends
Size of cranium in relationship to body:
 2 years old—skull is larger in proportion to the body compared to that of an adult
 8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult size and proportion
 Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows out from the skull
Curvatures of the spine:
 Primary curvatures are present at birth and are convex posteriorly
 Secondary curvatures are associated with a child’s later development and are convex
anteriorly
 Abnormal spinal curvatures (scoliosis and lordosis) are often congenital
Osteoporosis
 Bone-thinning disease afflicting 50% of women over age 65, 20% of men over age 70
 Disease makes bones fragile and bones can easily fracture
 Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also known as dowager’s hump)
 Estrogen aids in health and normal density of a female skeleton