Chapter 5

FLAMES
WE NEED TO KNOW!
A flame is the visible, gaseous part of a fire. The substance which vaporise
during burning give flames, It is caused by a highly exothermic reaction taking
place in a thin zone. A hot glowing body of gas that generates fire is called
flame.
Flames are fundamental to all combustion applications.
A flame is a rapid exothermic reaction between a gaseous fuel and an oxidizer
that occurs over a short distance.
FLAMES CAN BE CLASSIFIED TO THIS STUDY:
Premixed or Diffusion:
Premixed: Fuel and oxidizer are mixed before entering the combustion zone.
Diffusion: Fuel and oxidizer are introduced separately into the combustion
zone and mix as they burn.
Laminar or Turbulent:
Laminar: Smooth, orderly flow.
Turbulent: Chaotic, irregular flow with mixing.
Homogeneous or Heterogeneous:
Homogeneous: Uniform composition.
Heterogeneous: Non-uniform composition.
FLAMES CAN BE CLASSIFIED TO THIS STUDY:

Stationary or Traveling:
Stationary: Flame front does not move.
Traveling: Flame front moves through the mixture.
Luminous or Non-luminous:
Luminous: Emits visible light.
Non-luminous: Does not emit visible light.
PREMIXED FLAMES
Premixed flames arise from the
combustion of gaseous reactants
that are well mixed prior to
combustion This results in a
homogeneous mixture that burns
uniformly. These flames are
commonly found in applications
like bunsen burner, where the fuel
and air are mixed before ignition.
DIFFUSION FLAMES
Diffusion flames arise from the combustion
of separate gaseous fuel and oxidizer
streams that combust rapidly as they mix
unlike premixed flames, which have a very
narrow reaction zone, diffusion flames
have a wider region over which the
composition changes and chemical reaction
can take place. These flames are commonly
found in application like candle flame, were
the wax vaporizes and mixes with
surrounding air before burning at the
flame's edge.
 LAMINAR PREMIXED FLAMES

A laminar premixed flame is a type of combustion where the fuel and

oxidizer are well-mixed before ignition, and the combustion process occurs
in a smooth and orderly manner without significant turbulence. In a laminar
premixed flame, the flow of the fuel and oxidizer is characterized by
streamlined, non-chaotic movement, resulting in a clearly defined flame front
and also exhibits a more predictable and controlled combustion. It is often
used as a theoretical reference for studying combustion processes and
understanding fundamental flame behavior.
 EFFECT OF STOICHIOMETRY ON LAMINAR FLAME SPEED
The stoichiometry of a fuel-air mixture affects the
laminar flame speed. At the stoichiometric ratio,
where fuel and oxidizer are mixed in the right
proportions, the flame speed is fastest. Flame
speed decreases as the mixture becomes either
fuel-rich or oxidizer-rich due to incomplete
combustion or dilution effects
FUEL-LEAN describes a combustion condition where
there is not enough fuel compared to the amount of air in
the mixture, leading to incomplete combustion.

FUEL-RICH describes a combustion condition where

there is too much fuel compared to the amount of air,
leading to incomplete combustion

The flame speed is defined as the velocity of the flame

relative to the unburned reactants. Thus, when a flame is
stationary, the speed of the reacting mixture and the
speed of the flame are equal. The laminar flame speed
can be measured by the normal velocity of the mixture
into the flame front.
EFFECT OF STOICHIOMETRY ON LAMINAR FLAME SPEED
The equivalent ratio in combustion refers to the ratio of
the actual air-fuel mixture to the stoichiometric air-fuel
mixture required for complete combustion.

stochio

actual

Fuel rich

Fuel lean

= Stoichiometry air
Theory of Laminar Premixed Flame Speed
The Thermal Theory by Mallard and Le Chatlelier (1885) to estimate laminar premixed flame speed
considers two zones, which are stationary relative to coordinate frame moving with the flame.
Oncoming gas is heated to ignition temperature in zone I by the heat conducted from zone II, which
can be seen from the following figure.

The energy conducted from zone II equals that necessary to

bring unburned gases to ignition temperature

(SL) laminar burning velocity – flame front velocity (relative to a stationary

reference point) through an unburned mixture
 Thermal Diffusity
It is a measure of the rate of heat transfer
inside a material.
Indicates the rate of flow of heat while
taking into account temperature change
cause in the transfer material due to flow
of heat
Experimental Methods for Measuring Flame Speed

Cylindrical tube
Bunsen burner
Experimental Methods for Measuring Flame Speed

Flat flame burner Closed spherical bomb

SL - laminar flame speed of the mixture
VL - velocity of the fuel-air mixture in the tube
α - is the angle between
 TURBULENT PREMIXED FLAMES

A turbulent premixed flame is a type of

combustion that occurs when a mixture of
fuel and oxidizer is pre-mixed before
entering the combustion zone and is then
ignited. Turbulence plays a significant role in
these flames, mixing the fuel and oxidizer
more efficiently and promoting faster
combustion. This type of flame is often found
in engines, gas turbines, and some types of
industrial burners.
TURBULENCE PARAMETERS, LENGTH SCALES, AND TIME SCALES
Characterization in terms of mean and fluctuating properties

Length Scales • Characteristic width of the flow, the macroscale:

the ratio of the large eddy turnover time to the chemical reaction time scale

Karlovitz number : the ratio of the smallest eddy turnover time to the chemical reaction time scale
 Structure of Premixed Turbulent Flames
Wrinkled Laminar Flame Regime - Most theories of premixed turbulent flames deal with this type of flame. Wrinkling of flame
increases the area of contact between hot combustion products and unburned reactants, increasing the rate of consumption of
the unburned reactants.
Structure of Premixed Turbulent Flames
DIFFUSION FLAMES
Diffusion flames arise from the combustion
of separate gaseous fuel and oxidizer
streams that combust rapidly as they mix
unlike premixed flames, which have a very
narrow reaction zone, diffusion flames
have a wider region over which the
composition changes and chemical reaction
can take place. These flames are commonly
found in application like candle flame, were
the wax vaporizes and mixes with
surrounding air before burning at the
flame's edge.
FREE JET FLAMES
Consider a gaseous fuel that jets upward
from a nozzle of diameter into stagnant air
(in figure. This type of free jet is sometimes
called a flare. As the velocity of the fuel jet
is increased, the character of the flame
changes. At a low jet velocity, the mixing
rate is slow and the flame is long and
smooth (laminar). The laminar flame height
increases linearly with jet velocity up to a
point where the flame becomes brush-like
(turbulent). The flame height decreases due
to more rapid turbulent
 Chapter 6
Gas-Fired Furnaces and
Boilers
We need to know

Gas-fired furnaces and boilers are common heating systems used

in residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. They utilize
natural gas or propane as the primary fuel source to generate
heat for space heating or water heating purposes.
Gaseous fuels are the easiest fuels to utilize in furnaces and
boilers
Gas-fired furnaces and boilers use burners that mix the fuel and
air, and stabilize the flame. The burner flames are either partially
premixed or fully premixed turbulent flames.
Gas-fired furnaces
directly supply heat to the supply air
stream
used for residential house and small
commercial
cheaper than hydronic systems
warms up building faster when a night
temperature setback is used
Components
Heat Exchanger
Fuel Burner
Air Blower
Control System
Housing Cabinet
Filter
The Steam Generator or Boiler

Source of heat for boiler: Classification of boiler

Solid fuel According to the Contents of
Liquid fuel the Tubes:
Gaseous fuel
Furnaces and Boilers: The Difference
Both furnaces and boilers produce and
distribute heat. A boiler is a vessel that heats
water and then pushes the steam or hot water
through a system of pipes via radiators,
baseboards, or underfloor radiant heating. A
furnace forces heated air through ducts,
which is why it’s sometimes called a “forced
hot air” system. Keep in mind that replacing
filters and cleaning ductwork on a regular
basis preserves the air quality in your home or
business and can extend the life of your
system.
FUEL SUBSTITUTION

Substitution of one gaseous fuel for another more readily

available or sustainable fuel is sometimes desirable for a
particular burner. When a new gaseous fuel is being used,
the burner should be adjusted to preserve the heat rate and
flame stability and shape where possible. If the substitute
fuel is similar, as in the case of substituting propane for
methane, it may be sufficient simply to adjust the airflow to
achieve the proper equivalence ratio.
 If the substitute fuel is dissimilar, the fuel flow rates may WI is the Wobbe Index, which is a measure of the
have to be adjusted by changing the fuel pressure or orifice interchangeability of fuels, defined by
size to maintain the heat rate. The heat rate, q, equals the
volumetric flow rate of the fuel times the heating value of
the fuel per unit volume

The volumetric flow rate of the fuel is given by where:

HHV - high heating value
vf - volumetric flow rate
q - heat rate
Δp - is the pressure drop across the fuel
Hence, for a fixed orifice size, fuel pressure and temperature, orifice,
the heat rate is given by where K is the system constant Af - is the effective area of the fuel orifice,
and
ρf - is the density of the fuel.
sg - specific gravity fuel
WI - Wobbe Index
 TYPES OF BURNERS

Residential Gas Burners are integral components

of heating systems in homes, responsible for
combusting natural gas or propane to produce heat.
These burners are designed with safety features
such as automatic ignition and flame sensors to
ensure safe operation. Modern gas burners are also
equipped with technology to optimize combustion
and improve energy efficiency, reducing emissions
and fuel consumption. Regular maintenance and
inspection of gas burners are crucial to ensure they
operate safely and efficiently, including cleaning,
leak checks, and adjustments by a professional
technician following manufacturer guidelines.
 TYPES OF BURNERS

Industrial Gas Burners are heavy-duty devices used in

industrial settings to burn gases like natural gas or propane
for processes requiring high temperatures or precise
heating. They come in various types and sizes, such as
atmospheric, power, or high-velocity burners, each suited
for different applications. Equipped with advanced control
systems, these burners regulate fuel and air flow for
efficient combustion. Regular maintenance and inspection
are crucial for their safe and efficient operation, including
cleaning, component checks, and control calibration.
 TYPES OF BURNER

Low Swirl Gas Burners are a type of industrial

burner designed to achieve efficient combustion
with low emissions, particularly in high-
temperature applications such as industrial
furnaces and boilers. These burners use a unique
swirling airflow pattern to mix fuel gas with air,
promoting thorough mixing and combustion
stability. The swirling motion helps distribute the
flame evenly, reducing the formation of harmful
byproducts like nitrogen oxides (NOx). Low swirl
gas burners are known for their high efficiency
and low emission characteristics, making them
environmentally friendly options for industrial
heating applications.
 Chapter 7
Premixed-Charge Engine
Combustion
INTRODUCTION TO THE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE
The spark ignition engine, also known as the gasoline engine, is a type of internal combustion engine that uses a
spark plug to ignite a mixture of fuel (typically gasoline or petrol) and air. This ignition process creates a
controlled explosion within the engine's cylinders, generating the force needed to power the vehicle or
machinery. Spark ignition engines are widely used in automobiles, motorcycles, small aircraft, and various other
applications due to their efficiency, power output, and relatively low emissions compared to other types of
internal combustion engines.
 Process parameters
Cycle Events
Displacement volume
Maximum cylinder volume Compression ratio
Intake valve closes Closed cycle portion of the engine cycle
Spark discharge starts Gas exchange portion of the engine cycle
Clearance volume Combustion duration
Trapped mass in the cylinder
Peak pressure of combustion
Theoretical mass in the cylinder
End of combustion heat release Volumetric efficiency (%)
Exhaust valve opens Blowdown portion of the exhaust
BDC of expansion stroke Valve overlap period
Intake valve opens Pumping work
Indicated work
Exhaust valve closes
Indicated mean effective pressure
Net indicated work
AIR – STANDARD OTTO CYCLE
The Otto cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle that
describes the operation of a spark-ignition piston engine,
such as those used in most automobiles.
The air-standard Otto cycle is an ideal cycle that assumes
heat addition occurs instantaneously while the piston is at
top dead center. The Otto cycle is shown on the p–V
diagrams of Figure.

The cycle consists of four internally reversible processes in

series:
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic Compression
Process 2 – 3: Isometric Addition of Heat
Process 3 – 4: Isentropic Expansion
Process 4 – 1: Isometric Rejection of Heat
Let’s Practice
In an ideal Otto cycle the pressure at the beginning of the compression
process is 15 psia, the temperature is 21.11°C and the volume is 0.37 m3 .
The maximum temperature of the cycle is 1540°C, and the heat supplied is
372 Btu. Using constant specific heat, calculate the temperature at the
beginning of the combustion, pressure ratio, the efficiency of the cycle,
,network of the cycle and heat regected.
Let’s Practice
In an ideal Otto cycle the pressure at the beginning of the compression
process is 15 psia, the temperature is 21.11°C and the volume is 0.37 m3 .
The maximum temperature of the cycle is 1540°C, and the heat supplied is
372 Btu. Using constant specific heat, calculate the temperature at the
beginning of the combustion, pressure ratio, the efficiency of the cycle,
,network of the cycle and heat regected.
T2= 603.56°K
rp= 12.38
e= 51.27%
Wnet= 201.22 KJ
Qr= 191.24 KJ
IN-CYLINDER FLAME STRUCTURE
The in-cylinder flame structure refers to the spatial and
temporal characteristics of the flame inside an internal
combustion engine cylinder during the combustion
process. Understanding this structure is crucial for
optimizing engine performance, fuel efficiency, and
emissions control.
The flame front in the cylinder is not smooth but rather
is a wrinkled flame. The brush-like nature of the flame
surface is due to persistent turbulence formed by flow
through the inlet manifold and valves. Under
magnification the chemical reaction zone (flame front)
appears instantaneously as a thin laminar flame.
Macroscopically, the flame propagates outward from
the spark plug as a brush-like, wrinkled flame sheet.
Combustion chamber design
Combustion chamber design is a crucial aspect of internal combustion
engines, influencing performance, efficiency, and emissions. The design
aims to optimize air-fuel mixing, combustion efficiency, and flame
propagation. Key factors include chamber shape, volume, piston crown
design, spark plug or injector placement, and intake and exhaust valve
geometry. Different engine types (e.g., diesel, gasoline) and configurations
(e.g., inline, V, rotary) require unique combustion chamber designs to
achieve optimal combustion characteristics. Computational fluid dynamics
(CFD), along with experimental methods, is often used to simulate and
optimize combustion chamber designs for specific performance and
emissions targets.
Types of Combustion Chamber
Combustion chambers can be categorized into
various types based on their design and
application.
Some common types include:
Piston Engine Combustion Chamber: In
internal combustion engines, these chambers
are found in cylinders where fuel is ignited by
a spark plug to produce power.
Diesel Engine Combustion Chamber: Found
in diesel engines, these chambers compress
air to a high temperature, allowing fuel to
ignite spontaneously when injected.
Types of Combustion Chamber
Rocket Engine Combustion
Chamber: These chambers are
crucial in rocket propulsion
systems, where fuel and
oxidizer are burned to produce
thrust.
Gas Turbine Combustion
Chamber: These are used in gas
turbines where air and fuel are
mixed and ignited to generate
hot gases that drive the turbine.
Any Questions?