BEEd 2A- GROUP 4

BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity refers to the various species living and interacting with each other in a given area. This
encompasses all individual organisms, as well as their populations and species. It includes genetic
diversity and the complex community and ecosystem structures.

Species diversity is the number of different species (see species richness) as well as the differences
among and within those species. These include all different kinds of species: microorganisms, fungi,
plants, and animals.

Genetic diversity refers to the variety of genes within a species. Genetic diversity is beneficial for a
species because it helps the species adapt to a changing environment.

Ecosystem diversity encompasses different biological communi- ties, ecological processes, and various
habitats.

Species diversity can be high, as is the case with the tropical rainforests that contain 50% of the world's
species. It is estimated that the rainforests contain over 5 million species of plants and animals! High
biodiversity is a sign of ecosystem health and a good indicator that it will recover in a reasonable
amount of time after a disturbance or periods of stress.

Areas of high biodiversity are called hot spots.

Areas with low biodiversity are called dead zones.

Biodiversity is further defined by species richness and species abundance.

•Species richness refers to the total number of different species present in a given area.

•Species abundance refers to the number of individuals of a given species that is present in that area.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE BIODIVERSITY

Loss of biodiversity is one of the significant problems that, if ignored, could threaten the very existence
of humankind on Earth

Pollution

Air pollution is harmful to humans and other living beings. It affects the respiratory system and health,
including changes in spawning ability and behaviour. Massive emissions of greenhouse gases such as
nitric oxide, carbon dioxide, and methane rapidly change the Earth's climate.
Water pollution has adversely affected biodiversity. Chemical fertilisers generally contain nitrogen and
phosphorus, which are added to the soil to increase crop productivity. These then flow down to the
lakes and water bodies and pollute them.

Soil pollution is another factor that negatively impacts biodiversity. Soil contaminated with heavy metals
has a great impact on the health of microorganisms essential for sustaining the life of living organisms.

Climate change

Global warming is a long-term rise in the Earth's average temperature over the past two centuries. This
increase in the temperature is due to increased concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and other
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Global warming has led to changes in the climate of regions as it
has disturbed the cycle of seasons.

Habitat loss

Habitat destruction is the massive destruction of a species' natural habitat, making it impossible to
maintain its native ecosystem and species. This ultimately leads to the extinction of the species.
Deforestation is the main reason for this extinction. Forests are cleared to create residential and
commercial areas, resulting in the loss of habitat to a large extent.

Natural disasters

Droughts, floods and storms damage ecosystems and destroy habitats and food.

They may also change the food web, making it difficult for plants and animals to repopulate the area.
Droughts can also rapidly destroy vast areas and promote fires that can seriously damage biodiversity.
Natural disasters such as volcanoes, forest fires, floods, hurricanes, droughts, plagues and tsunamis can
be devastating to biodiversity.

FACTORS INFLUENCING AQUATIC BIODIVERSITY

Aquatic biodiversity is a rich and wonderful variety of flora and fauna. Many species of flora and fauna
live in the water.

Dams

Dam construction can have a negative impact on the ecosystem. This can lead to the flooding of limited
habitats. Dams also impede the movement of fish species, resulting in the loss of certain species, some
of which may be endemic.

Habitat moderation

Physical changes in habitat can lead to species extinction. Damming, deforestation, diversion of
irrigation water, and conversion of wetlands and small bodies of water to other uses are significant
reasons. Building a dam in the river impedes the migration of fish upstream, moving the population from
its normal spawning ground and dividing the population into two smaller groups.

Pollution

Pollution is another factor influencing aquatic biodiversity. Pollution of water areas by various pollutants
from many sources of pollution (mining activity, industrial wastewater, domestic wastewater,
agricultural wastewater) is considered a major threat to aquatic biodiversity. Pollution causes many
illnesses and even deaths around the world.

WHAT FACTORS INCREASE BIODIVERSITY

Sustainable farming

Agriculture has had a great impact on biodiversity. Sustainable farming practices will secure and manage
farmland with a diverse combination of crop diversity, traditional farming techniques to control pests
and increase productivity, pastures, farmlands, orchards and wetlands.

Green zone

A green infrastructure is an approach aimed at combining modern development and infrastructure

Organic method

Urban biodiversity can be supported by avoiding fertilisers and pesticides, which are not selective, and
one cannot distinguish between good and bad insects.

WHY PROTECT BIODIVERSITY ?

Biodiversity provides us with wood for our homes and paper to write on. It provides us with recreation,
clean water, clean air, clothing, shoes, jobs, perfume, emollients, aesthetics, and medicine. In fact, some
species contain chemicals that are anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antimicrobial. And some have
chemicals that act as painkillers!

Biodiversity also provides ecological value. It provides us with protection from storms and floods. It
moderates climate, provides wildlife habitats, acts as a carbon storehouse, creates food-webs, recycles
waste, and maintains an overall balance to the biosphere.

It provides us with a means for eco-tourism in which we travel to exotic destinations. and educate
ourselves on endemic flora, fauna, and ecological systems.

Biodiversity provides us with scientific value.

On a more philosophical level, all life on earth possesses its own intrinsic value-an innate integrity and
unique place in the biotic world. But it appears as though our approach (stemming from our materials
economy based on extraction) has morphed into treating biodiversity as though it is fungible-easily
replaced or substituted over time. Not only is this approach unrealistic and unsustainable, but it
devalues biodiversity and denies its intrinsic value.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the result of billions of years of evolution. Now through human activity, the process is
increasing and we are faced with many threats to which would lead to a loss of bio- diversity. Some are
more obvious and on a grander scale than others. For simplicity, we will summarize the major threats to
biodiversity and collectively give them the acronym HIPPCO

Habitat Loss

Habitat loss is the number one cause for extinction. Our growing human population needs homes,
schools, paved roads, and other resources. This means construction, logging, mining, constructing dams,
and paving over land inhabited by other species. This ultimately leads to fragmenting their land. Species
that do not die out (as a result of habitat and food loss) are driven to other habitats where they
encounter new parasites, new competition, and new predators. Such prolonged stress would attenuate
the already struggling number of species. The conversion of land for agriculture and development
creates an overall loss of biodiversity.

Invasive Species

Invasive (sometimes called exotic) species are species from other parts of the world introduced to a new
habitat. These transplanted species now lack their natural predators, competitors, and other population
controls. Some exotic species prey on or outcompete native species which severely compromises
biodiversity. So it should not come as a surprise that the introduction of invasive species is a major cause
for the extinction of native species.

Population

All other threats to biodiversity can be traced back to overpopulation. Having over 7 billion people on
earth means our resources are exhausted-from land to minerals to freshwater, the earth simply does
not have enough bounty to effectively distribute its goods to such a large and growing population.

Humans are not the only ones feeling the pinch from diminishing resources; other species rely on them
as well and suffer as a result. Because of the increase in international trade of plants, animals, and food,
pathogens are traveling much more rapidly than ever. This means that wildlife, once shielded from
pathogens across the globe, are now exposed to new threats at a growing rate. Often they do not have
developed immunity to fight off the newly introduced pathogens. Diseases carried by domestic animals
and livestock can harm wildlife populations. African wild dogs for example, have been exposed to rabies
and distemper. See Chapter 4 for more information on population growth.
Climate Change

Global temperatures have increased 1°C in the last 100 years. This has devastating effects on
biodiversity. Flowers are blooming before their pollinators can successfully access them. Species are
forced to migrate to the poles to find more amenable tem- perature ranges. Species' ranges are both
constricting and contracting. We are seeing greater extinction rates and changes in species composition
and interaction. Pathogens are attacking new species that lack the immunity to fight back against them.
We are experiencing droughts and other temperature extremes-photosynthesis rates decrease with
extreme temperatures, possibly causing ecosystem collapse. We are experiencing a spike in vector-
borne (spread by mosquitoes or ticks) diseases that harm not only us but wildlife as well. The melting
glaciers and ice caps leave polar bears, which perch atop arctic glaciers while fishing, weakened from
exhaustion and lack of food.

Overexploitation

Our economy and many others are built on extraction-taking vital goods and resources from the earth.
This leads to the excess use of vital goods and resources taken from the earth faster than they are able
to replenish naturally. Over-fishing, over-hunting and over-collecting of species can quickly result in a
loss of biodiversity.

The assembly of an ecosystem and all its inhabitants are vital for the evolutionary process. Because of
the complexity of ecosystems, most wildlife and plants suffer from losing such resources. They also
suffer from being exposed to the pollution caused by the extraction. It drives them from their homes,
forces more competition for resources, and depletes food supply.

Biodiversity and habitat loss can cause some species to be considered formally endan- gered.
Endangered species are species with such low abundance that they are at high risk of becoming extinct.

PROTECTING BIODIVERSITY

Drafted in 1992 and enforced in December of 1993, the United Nations created an interna- tional treaty
called The Convention on Biological Diversity, often referred to by its acronym CBD. Its mission is:

1. The conservation of biological diversity,

2. The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity, and

3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the uses of genetic resources.

EVOLUTION

What we observe as earth's impressive biodiversity is, in fact, the result of millions of years of evolution.
Evolution is defined as the change in gene frequency of a given population over time. It is important to
note that populations evolve, not the individuals within a population.
In 1831 Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, embarked on the British ship H.M.S. Beagle to study the
biodiversity of the Galapagos Islands of the South Pacific. He noticed that the tortoises were much larger
than they were on the mainland. He also thoroughly examined the Galapagos finches for their unusual
morphological diversity.

Darwin observed that each distinct species of finch has its own unique adaptations, mak- ing it
undeniably separate and different from other birds on the island. At the same time, however,
morphologically they appeared very similar, and so one could not deny a com- mon ancestor. He could
not answer the question why, if species are created for the environ- ment (as previously believed), were
there 13 species of birds for one single environment? This

observation was the catalyst for further examination of the question: perhaps species can change, but
how?

In 1859 Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in which he describes the evolution of species
through natural selection. According to Darwin, the theory of natural selection is based on several
observations:

1. There is observed variation in every species population,

2. Within the population, some members of the species will have beneficial variations that will ensure
better likelihood of survival,

3. The members of a population with the beneficial variations will leave the most

offspring, and

4. The beneficial traits are heritable and passed on to future generations.

In colloquial terms, we call this process survival of the fittest.

The Origin of Species also established that all species descended from a common ancestor through a
process called speciation.

Speciation is the process through which a new species arises as a result of adaptation to an ever-
changing environment.

Allopatric speciation is speciation occurring in the presence of a physical barrier, such as a moun- tain
range or a river, etc. In such a case, gene flow is blocked, and evolutionary agents work on the now-
isolated population, resulting in new species.

Sympatric speciation is speciation occurring without the presence of a physical barrier. Often the reason
for lack of gene flow between populations is behavioral. In the case of plants, speciation may be the
result of self- or cross-pollination, as is the case with plants. Plants have a higher threshold for abnormal
chromosome number than humans, and so hybrid- ization is a common occurrence in the Kingdom
Plantae. This is an example of sympatric speciation.
Adaptations are structures or behaviors. that increase the livelihood or fitness of an individual. Over
time, structures and genetic frequencies shift so profoundly that a new species forms.

Various anatomical structures and much other observable evidence support Charles Darwin's theory of
evolution through descent from a common ancestor:

A. Although sizes and shapes may vary, the arm bones of dogs, cats, whales, and humans. all have
similar orientations. This suggests they all share a common ancestor with this anatomical trait and
evolved separately into new species. Anatomical structures that provide evidence of a shared
evolutionary past are called homologous structures.

B. Hurther evidence to support evolution comes in the form of analogous structures, similar structures
that are the result of convergent evolution. Convergent evolution results when unrelated species occupy
similar envi- ronments and so natural selection favors similar adaptations. This causes the unrelated
species to look or behave similarly. These behaviors or appear- unces are considered analogous.
Analogous struc tures, therefore, are anatomical structures that do not share an evolutionary past but
are the result of similar environmental selective pressures. Consider the eyes of a squid and the eyes of
humans. They evolved separately as a result of similar selective pressures, although there is no evidence
of a recently shared evolutionary past. The fact that both bats and dolphins communicate and navigate
through echo- location is also an example of convergent evolution.

C. Goosebumps in humans is left over from a time when we had fur! When the flight or fight response
was initiated long ago, the erector pili muscles in the skin would contract. This would theoretically make
our hair stand on end and so make us look larger to potential predators or other threats. Such a struc-
ture is considered vestigial; it is no longer employed by the organism but left over from a time when it
was. This suggests that humans adapted to their environment, changing genetically and
morphologically.

D. The fact that all living organisms, from the bacterium to the cow, share the same molecules of DNA
and sequences of amino acids for building proteins is biochemical evidence that supports the idea that
we evolved from a common ancestor.

E. Sediment such as dead plant and other organic matter settles in layers and eventually forms
sedimentary rock. Each layer of sedimentary rock is called a stratum and collec tively called strata. Each
stratum represents a distinct period of time in earth's geologi- cal history. Some fossils are found in one
strata of rock but not in another, suggesting that species have thrived during a specific finite period, and
then either died out or evolved. This fossil record, therefore, gives evidence that species have evolved,
adapted, or gone extinct, support- ing Darwin's theory of adaptation and descent from a common
ancestor.

Reference:

Biodiversity and Evolution - Kendall Hunt Higher Education

Factors Affecting Biodiversity

https://unacademy.com/content/neet-ug/study -material/biology/factors -affecting-biodiversity/