the International Journal Volume 17

on Marine Navigation Number 2

http://www.transnav.eu and Safety of Sea Transportation June 2023

DOI: 10.12716/1001.17.02.23

Anti-drone Sensors, Effectors, and Systems – A Concise

Overview
D. Zmysłowski, P. Skokowski & J.M. Kelner
Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland

ABSTRACT: The dynamic development of microelectronics and wireless communication at the turn of the 20th
and 21st centuries contributed to the increase in the availability and popularity of all kinds of unmanned
platforms, air, land, surface, and underwater. In the case of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), also popularly
known as drones, the significant (crucial) advantages are high freedom of motion (i.e., the ability to move in
three planes) and the possibility of using it practically anywhere (as opposed to water platforms). These factors
influenced the dynamic development of this market sector and the high availability of various models and
equipment. UAVs are being used in many sectors and services, both for civil and military purposes.
Widespread availability, low cost, and ease of use also favor the possibility of using civilian UAVs for criminal,
smuggling, terrorist, or military purposes. Recent armed conflicts, e.g., in Nagorno‐Karabakh or Ukraine, and
the situation on the eastern Polish‐Belarusian border clearly show this. All countries recognize the potential and
threat posed by the development of unmanned platforms. Therefore, for several years, special attention has
been paid to analyses and research in sensors, effectors, and anti‐drone systems. It is worth emphasizing that
some effectors (e.g., jammers or spoofers) may significantly affect the navigation process of neighboring objects
that use global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs). On the other hand, the use of anti‐drone systems is
important, especially in the context of protecting institutions and facilities of companies, state administration
(i.a., embassies, consulates), army, strategic importance objects (e.g., related to energy, chemical industry), or
protection of mass events. In this paper, we present an overview of solutions available on the market and
development directions in the field of anti‐drone technology.

1 INTRODUCTION the military, agencies, special services, and private

individuals. Knowledge and practice in designing and
Drones, also known as unmanned aerial vehicles manufacturing drones have become more accessible.
(UAVs), have become ubiquitous in recent years due A lot of institutions and individuals are designing and
to their various applications, including aerial using their drones. The components for constructing
photography, surveying, and delivery services. simple micro‐class drones are available in the market
However, drones can also be used for nefarious without legal restrictions. All of these factors prevent
purposes, including espionage, terrorism, and using commercially available drones and self‐made
smuggling. The number of drones is growing very drones for military, terrorist, or unintentional use that
fast, and their commercial use is becoming more violates the law. The development of anti‐drone
widespread, attracting a high level of interest from systems has become the need of the hour. The
investors, industry, business, government institutions, increasing number of incidents or acts of security

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breaches or even attacks using drones has led to the flight control as well as transferring of data from
emergence of increasingly sophisticated drone sensors and control of effectors;
detection and countermeasure equipment. Therefore,  mainly electronic sensors:
it is necessary to have anti‐drone systems in place to  for multispectral imaging (visible range,
detect and neutralize these threats. Anti‐drone thermal range, forward looking infrared
systems called also as counter unmanned aerial (FLIR)),
systems (C‐UASs), both stationary and mobile, have  for radio‐electronic surveillance,
also started to be built and offered.  others;
 effectors for affecting objects:
The dynamic growth of the C‐UAS sector is  RF jammers and spoofers ‐ electronic devices,
evidenced also by the ongoing research and
 explosives ‐ bombs and guided missiles,
development in this area. Results of searching for  others.
works related to the keyword ‘anti‐drone’ in the IEEE
Xplore international technical publications database The principle of operation, architecture, and
[1], the database provides 45 works (as of 10 March procedures of using anti‐drone devices and systems
2023), including one book, two journal articles, six are closely related to the functions, operational use,
scientific journal articles, and 36 conference papers. and technical parameters of modern drones. To
All these works are from the period 2017–2022. effectively counteract the potentially harmful impact
of drones, the anti‐drone system should identify
One of the primary methods of detecting drones is drones, classify them, assess their activity, and
using sensors. There are several types of sensors that
countermeasure them if they have been identified as a
can be used for this purpose, including acoustic threat to the protected facility. The important role of
sensors, radar systems, and optical sensors. Once a unambiguous identification and classification of
drone has been detected, it is necessary to neutralize
objects observed by the anti‐UAS system should be
the threat. There are several types of effectors that can considered. Practice shows that mere detection of an
be used for this purpose, including jamming systems, object is insufficient because the radar that detects
directed energy weapons, and nets.
drones can also recognize other flying objects as birds.
This paper presents the general concept of C‐UAS, In addition, own flying objects such as planes and
its functionalities, and main elements. This class of drones can move in the protected space. It makes
systems started to be more important these days. We identification and classification of the elementary
decided to make a high‐level functional overview functions of modern C‐UAS devices.
which can be a kind of guidance around anti‐drone The role of these functions will grow in the future,
systems and their elements. We intended to
mainly to protect critical infrastructure and its mobile
characterize the topic as simply as possible, to be a elements (e.g., oil terminals, gas terminals, tankers,
quick start guide for people not well‐oriented in this gas carriers, etc.). The technology that classifies
area of knowledge. We believe it will help them in
drones will usually be able to separate them from
further personal investigations. Section 2 presents other objects – such as planes, trains, and cars. The
reasons for designing, deploying, and using drone next step is to identify the classified objects. Some
countermeasures. We considered constructing and
devices can assess a specific drone model and identify
functional aspects of existing and future drones as the radio emission signature of the UAV (i.e., digital
platforms that could be potential threats to people and fingerprint) or its controls or controllers.
states, especially for critical infrastructure. How
effective could be a concrete C‐UAS depends on its The elementary criterion for evaluating the C‐UAS
sensors and effectors. Section 3 describes the most system is the effectiveness of protection against
often implemented cost‐ and target‐effective sensors drones provided to a given facility. The system must
as acoustic radio frequency (RF), radar, and optical be appropriate from the viewpoint of the
sensors. Section 4 shows anti‐drone effectors such as characteristics of the protected facility (location, size,
jamming systems, directed energy weapons, and nets. technological processes, functions performed, and
In Section 5, both fixed and mobile systems have been activities performed).
described. We also presented selected vendors of anti‐
UAS. The paper is finished with the conclusions. Anti‐drone devices and systems are being
constructed to eliminate threats resulting from the
impact of drones on protected facilities. After
detecting and identifying a drone as a potentially
2 FUNCTIONAL CONCEPT OF ANTI‐DRONE dangerous object, their operation should enable its
SYSTEM disposal by eliminating it (physical destruction) or
preventing its destructive impact on the protected
location (turning around, changing the flight
Modern drones are unmanned flying objects, which
parameters so that it is impossible to reach the target).
are mechanical devices with: It means that C‐UAS devices and systems affect the
 drive based on engines: electric, combustion droning engine and all devices and systems, both on‐
(piston or turbine) or operating in hybrid systems;
board and sensors and effectors. It leads to taking into
 avionics providing control and flight control, account in the design, implementation, and
which are electromechanical and electronic operational use of anti‐drone systems many aspects
systems;
related to drones as risk factors for the protected
 navigation devices and systems, mainly gyroscopic objects, the technology of their production, tactics of
– inertial () and electronic – satellite, i.e., based on their use, but also the development trends of the
global navigation satellite system (GNSS),
information and communication technologies (ICT),
 electronic devices and radio communication aerospace, and breakthrough technologies, because
systems, providing support for remote control and

456
they are chosen for the construction and operation 3.2 RF sensors and direction finders
support of drones.
RF sensors and direction finders are critical sensors
A holistic, multi‐faceted approach also requires the used in C‐UAS to detect and locate drones. RF sensors
very selection of technically effective solutions for detect the electromagnetic signals emitted by drones,
anti‐UAS devices and systems, considering the while direction finders provide the direction of the
following issues [2,3]: droneʹs source. Together, these sensors enable C‐UAS
 the design of broadband radio detectors and systems to quickly identify and locate drones,
direction finders, covering the droneʹs allowing operators to take necessary countermeasures
communication and navigation bands, to mitigate potential threats. With the increasing
 development and use of operationally effective proliferation of drones, RF sensors, and direction
hemispheric radars, operating in X and S bands finders are becoming more crucial in ensuring the
and using the micro‐Doppler effect to identify and safety of critical infrastructure, facilities, and events
distinguish drones from other objects (birds), high‐ [7,8,10,11]. Concept of drone position tracking by
resolution, multi‐spectral cameras (visible range, multiple RF scanners is shown in Figure 3.
thermal range, FLIR)
 highly effective & sensitive acoustic microphones
and analyzers for audio identification of drones,
 artificial intelligence(AI) algorithms to support
identification processes, classification,
 a creation of situational imagery to facilitate the
handling of hazardous situations,
 customized system interface ‐ customized human
machine interface (HMI),
 highly performative effectors usage: RF jammers
and spoofers, laser systems, high power energy
(HPE) systems [4–6], C‐UAS nets, anti‐aircraft
weapons capable of fighting drones, etc. Figure 2. Discovair G2 acoustic detector (source: [9]).

The functionality concept of the modern anti‐drone

system is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 3. Drone position tracking by multiple RF scanners

(source: [2]).

3.3 Radar systems

Figure 1. Functional concept of anti‐drone system (source:
[7,8]).
Radar systems use radio waves to detect drones.
Radar can detect drones at a distance and can track
their movements. There are several types of radar
systems, including pulsed radar, continuous‐wave
radar, and frequency‐modulated continuous‐wave
3 ANTI‐DRONE SENSORS radar. Each type of radar has its advantages and
disadvantages, and the choice of radar system
3.1 Acoustic sensors depends on the specific application [7,11–18]. Samples
of radar for drone detection are illustrated in Figures 4
Acoustic sensors use microphones to detect the sound and 5.
of drones. The sound of a droneʹs propellers is distinct
and can be used to detect its presence. Acoustic
sensors effectively detect drones at close range, but
their effectiveness diminishes as the drone moves
further away. Figure 2 depicts exemplary precision
acoustic detection system.

457
 4 ANTI‐DRONE EFFECTORS

4.1 Jamming systems

Jamming systems disrupt the communication between
the drone and its operator. The jamming system sends
out a signal that interferes with the droneʹs control
signal, causing it to lose control and crash. Jamming
systems are effective against drones that are
controlled by remote operator [7,8,10,16,20–22].
Figures 7 and 8 present the commercial jammer
examples.

Figure 4. Radar R8SS‐3D made by Teledyne FLIR (source:

[18]).

Figure 7. Jammer R&S®ARDN‐GS GNSS made by Rohde &

Schwarz (source: [8]).

Figure 5. Radar MESA‐SSR made by Echodyne (source:

[16]).

3.4 Optical sensors

Optical sensors use cameras to detect drones. Optical
sensors can detect drones at a distance and can
provide visual confirmation of the droneʹs presence. Figure 8. Jammer SKY NET made by LONGBOW+ (source:
Optical sensors can be used during the day or at night [22]).
using infrared cameras [3,19]. The optical detection
system made by Aronia is presented in Figure 6.

4.2 Directed energy weapons

Directed energy weapons use high‐powered lasers to
disable or destroy drones. The laser beam can damage
the droneʹs electronics or cause it to crash. Directed
energy weapons are effective against drones that are
within line of sight [5,6,20,23]. Figure 9 illustrates the
vision of destroying drones by a military system
based on a high‐energy laser.

Figure 6. The optical detection system made by Aronia

(source: [19]).

458
Figure 9. High‐powered laser in action (source: [6]).
Figure 11. Container version of GUARDION system (source:
[10]).
4.3 Nets
Nets can be used to capture drones mid‐flight. The net
is launched from a device that can be hand‐held 5.2 Mobile systems
[17,24], or mounted on a vehicle [24]. The net
Mobile anti‐drone systems (see Figure 12) are
entangles the drone, causing it to lose control and
designed to be deployed quickly and can be moved to
crash. Nets are effective against drones that are flying
different locations as needed. Mobile systems are
at low altitudes.
commonly used for events, such as concerts and
sporting events, where there is a need for temporary
protection.

Figure 12. Mobile version of AARTOS drone detection

system (source: [19]).

5.3 Exemplary vendors

There are numerous vendors of anti‐drone systems in
Figure 10. Net cannon made by OpenWorks Engineering the market. These vendors offer various solutions that
(source: [24]).
are tailored to meet the needs of different industries,
such as military, law enforcement, and private
organizations. Some of the notable companies and
their systems include:
5 ANTI‐DRONE SYSTEMS  DJI Aeroscope: This system provides drone
detection and tracking capabilities for law
Anti‐drone systems are composed of sensors and enforcement agencies, allowing them to locate
effectors that work together to detect and neutralize drones in restricted airspace and identify the
drones. There are several types of anti‐drone systems, pilotʹs location. The system is compatible with DJI
including fixed systems and mobile systems [2,3,10– drones, making it an ideal solution for those
13,17,19,25–29]. operating DJI drones [27].
 Dedrone: Dedrone provides an airspace security
platform that uses multi‐sensor detection to detect
and track drones, providing early warning to
5.1 Fixed systems users. The system integrates with various other
Fixed anti‐drone systems (see Figure 11) are installed security systems and can be used to protect critical
in a specific location and are designed to protect that infrastructure, events, and other sensitive locations
location. Fixed systems are commonly used to protect [4].
critical infrastructure, such as airports, power plants,  Raytheon: Raytheon offers a range of anti‐drone
and government buildings. solutions, including the Drone Defender, a
handheld device that uses radio frequency
jamming to disable drones, and the Coyote drone,

459
 which is used to intercept and destroy other infrastructure. The survey of anti‐drone solutions is
drones [23]. shown in this paper. We want to continue research in
 D‐Fend Solutions: D‐Fend Solutions provides a designing and implementing C‐UASs for the
radio frequency‐based system called EnforceAir protection of military units, state administration, and
that can detect and mitigate rogue drones. The critical infrastructure facilities. We also plan to
system can be used in urban, rural, and indoor consider in our future works aspects of command and
environments, making it suitable for various control of C‐UAS.
applications [28].
 Rheinmetall Defence: Rheinmetall Defence offers
the Skysweep system, which uses radar to detect
and track drones. The system is capable of ACKNOWLEDGMENT
detecting drones at a range of up to 10 km, making
it an ideal solution for protecting large areas [29]. This work was financed by the Military University of
Technology under project no. UGB/22‐863/2023/WAT on
When comparing these solutions, itʹs essential to ‘Modern technologies of wireless communication and
consider factors such as detection range, accuracy, emitter localization in various system applications’.
cost, and ease of use. Some solutions, such as DJI
Aeroscope and Raytheonʹs Drone Defender, are
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