Chapter 3

Molecules, Compounds and Chemical Equations

 Sec 3.3 - Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models

- Chemical bonds result from the reactions between the charged particles (the electrons and protons) that
compose atoms.

a) Ionic Bonds

- Ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged particles where the metal
atom loses one or more electrons to form a cation and the non-metal atom gains the electron lost by the
metal atom
- Ionic bonds (which occur between metals and non-metals) involve the transfer of electrons from one
atom to another.
- The ionic compound, in the solid phase is composed of a lattice – a regular three dimensional array – of
alternating cations and anions

b) Covalent Bonds

- Covalent bonds - occur between two or more nonmetals – involve the sharing of electrons between two
atoms.
- When a nonmetal bonds with another nonmetal, neither atom transfers its electron to the other. Instead
the bonding atoms share some of their electrons. The shared electrons have a lower potential energy than
they would in the isolated atoms because they interact with the nuclei of both atoms.

Chapter 3 Notes 1 ASP Chemistry

- A compound is represented with its chemical formula.
- Chemical formula indicates the elements present in the compound and the relative number of atoms or
ions of each.
– Water is represented as H2O (molecular compound)
– Carbon dioxide is represented as CO2 (molecular compound)
– Sodium Chloride is represented as NaCl (ionic compound)
– Carbon tetrachloride is represented as CCl4 (molecular compound)

Note: Both molecular and ionic compounds have chemical formulae.

 Types of Chemical Formulae

- Chemical formulae can generally be categorized into three different types:

Empirical formula Molecular formula

It gives the relative number of atoms of each It gives the actual number of atoms of each
element in a compound. element in a molecule of a compound.

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.1

- Solve For Practice 3.1
- Solve Problems by Topic Question 35
- Solve Conceptual Connection 3.1

 Structural formula
A structural formula uses lines to represent covalent bonds and shows how atoms in a molecule are
connected or bonded to each other.

 Example: The structural formula for hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, is shown:

Which of the following represents a structural formula?

1 2 3 4 5
CH4 HCl
O=C=O

6 7 8 9

C6H6 H—CC—H

Chapter 3 Notes 2 ASP Chemistry

 Molecular Models

- A molecular model is a more accurate and complete way to specify a compound.

- There are two types of molecular models:

1) A ball-and-stick molecular model represents atoms as

balls and chemical bonds as sticks; how the two connect
reflects a molecule’s shape.
The balls are typically color-coded to specific elements.

2) In a space-filling molecular model, atoms fill the space between each other to more closely
represent our best estimates for how a molecule might appear if scaled to visible size.

 Questions

- Solve Problems by Topic Question 25, 26

 Sec 3.4 - An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds

Chapter 3 Notes 3 ASP Chemistry

We can categorize pure substances as either elements or compounds.
We can subcategorize elements and compounds according to the basic units that compose them.
Elements may be either atomic or molecular.
Compounds may be either molecular or ionic.

 Difference between Atomic Elements and Molecular Elements

Atomic elements Molecular elements

They exist in nature with single atoms as their They do not normally exist in nature with single
basic units. atoms as their basic units; instead, they exist as
Most elements fall into this category. molecules—two or more atoms of the element
bonded together.

Examples Examples:
Na, Ne, C, K, Mg, etc.
a) Diatomic molecular elements
There only seven diatomic elements and they
are H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2.

b) Polyatomic molecular elements

P4 and S8

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.2

- Solve for Practice 3.2
- Solve Problems by Topic Question 27
- Solve Conceptual Connection 3.4

Chapter 3 Notes 4 ASP Chemistry

 Difference between Molecular Compound and Ionic Compound

Covalent
Molecular compound Ionic compound
It is usually composed of two or more covalently It is composed of cation (positive ion, usually a
bonded nonmetals. metal) and anion (anions, usually one or more
nonmetals) bound together by ionic bonds.

The basic unit of a molecular compound is The basic unit of an ionic compound is the
molecules composed of the constituent atoms. formula unit, the smallest, electrically neutral
collection of ions.

Examples: Example:
a) Water is composed of H2O molecules. The ionic compound table salt, with the formula
b) Dry ice is composed of CO2 molecules. unit NaCl, is composed of Na+ and Cl– ions in a
c) Propane (often used as a fuel for grills) is one-to-one ratio.
composed of C3H8 molecules.

 Questions

- Solve Conceptual Connection 3.5

- Solve Problems by Topic Question 29

 Sec 3.5 - Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names

– Ionic compounds are usually composed of metals and nonmetals.

Example: NaBr, Al2(CO3)3, CaHPO4, and MgSO4

 Naming Ionic Compounds

- Ionic compounds can be categorized into two types, depending on the metal in the compound.
- The first type contains a metal whose charge is invariant from one compound to another.
- Whenever the metal in this first type of compound forms an ion, the ion always has the same charge
- Binary compounds contain only two different elements. The names of binary ionic compounds take
the following form:

Chapter 3 Notes 5 ASP Chemistry

 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds of Type I Cations

Base Names of Common Cations Base Names of Monoatomic Anions

Metals whose charge is irrelevant from on Some common Monoatomic Anions
compound to another
Group Symbol Anion
Metal Ion Name Non-metal
Number for Ion Name
Li Li+ Lithium 1A Fluorine F– Fluoride
Na Na+ Sodium 1A Chlorine Cl– Chloride
K K +
Potassium 1A Bromine Br– Bromide
+ –
Rb Rb Rubidium 1A Iodine I Iodide
+ 2–
Cs Cs Cesium 1A Oxygen O Oxide
Be Be2+ Beryllium 2A Sulfur S2– Sulfide
Mg Mg2+ Magnesium 2A Nitrogen N3– Nitride
2+
Ca Ca Calcium 2A Phosphorus P3– Phosphide
Sr Sr2+ Strontium 2A
Ba Ba2+ Barium 2A
3+
Al Al Aluminum 3A
2+
Zn Zn Zinc *
Sc Sc3+ Scandium *
+
Ag Ag Silver *
* The charge on these metals cannot be inferred
from their group number
Silver sometimes forms compounds with other
charges, but these are rare
 Example: Give the chemical name of the following ionic compounds

KCl Potassium chloride

CaO Calcium oxide
NaBr Sodium bromide
Al2O3 Aluminium oxide

 Writing formula of Binary Ionic Compound Type I

– Ionic compounds always contain positive and negative ions.

– In a chemical formula, the sum of the charges of the positive ions (cations) must equal the sum of the
charges of the negative ions (anions).
– The formula of an ionic compound reflects the smallest whole-number ratio of ions.

– The charges of the representative elements can be predicted from their group numbers.
– The representative elements forms only one type of charge.

Chapter 3 Notes 6 ASP Chemistry

 Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8
elements elements Elements Elements Elements Elements Elements elements
1+ 2+ 3+ 3- 2- 1- 0

– Transition metals tend to form multiple types of charges.

– Hence, their charge cannot be predicted as in the case of most representative elements.

 Example: Write the formula of aluminium oxide

Steps:

1) Write the symbol for the metal cation and its charge followed by the symbol Al3+ O2-
for the nonmetal anion and its charge. Determine charges from the element's
group number in the periodic table

2) Adjust the subscript on each cation and anion to balance the overall charge. Al2O3

3) Check that the sum of the charges of the cations equals the sum of the cations: 2(3+ ) = 6+
charges of the anions. anions: 3(2-) = 6-
The charges can cancel out

 Naming and writing formula of Binary Ionic Compounds of Type II Cations

– Iron, for instance, forms a 2+ cation in some of its compounds and a 3+ cation in others.
– Metals of this type are often transition metals.
FeSO4: iron is Fe2+
Fe2(SO4)3: iron is Fe3+
Cu2O: copper is Cu+
CuO: copper is Cu2+

– Some main group metals, such as Pb, Tl, and Sn, form more than one type of cation.

– For these types of metals, the name of the cation is followed by a roman numeral (in parentheses) that
indicates the charge of the metal in that particular compound.
For example, we distinguish between Fe2+ and Fe3+ as follows:
• Fe2+ Iron(II)
• Fe3+ Iron(III)

The full names for compounds containing metals that form more than one kind of cation have the following
form:

The charge of the metal cation can be determined by inference from the sum of the charges of the nonmetal.

Chapter 3 Notes 7 ASP Chemistry

 Some metals that form cations with different charges

Metal Ion Name

Cr2+ Chromium (II)
Chromium
Cr3+ Chromium (III)
Fe2+ Iron (II)
Iron
Fe3+ Iron (III)
Co2+ Cobalt (II)
Cobalt
Co3+ Cobalt (III)
Cu1+ Copper (I)
Copper
Cu2+ Copper (II)
Sn2+ Tin (II)
Tin
Sn4+ Tin (IV)
Hg22+ Mercury (I)
Mercury
Hg2+ Mercury (II)
Pb2+ Lead (II)
Lead
Pb4+ Lead (IV)

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6

- Solve For Practice 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6
- Solve For More Practice 3.5, 3.6

 Polyatomic ions

Many common ionic compounds contain ions that are themselves composed of a group of covalently
bonded atoms with an overall charge.
This group of charged species is called polyatomic ions.
o NaNO3 contains Na+ and NO3–.
o CaCO3 contains Ca2+ and CO32–.
o KClO Contains K+ and ClO–.

 Common polyatomic ions:

Name Formula Name Formula

Acetate CH3COO― or C2H3O2― Dihydrogen phosphate H2PO4―
Carbonate CO32― Ammonium NH4+
Bicarbonate HCO3― Permanganate MnO4―
Hydroxide OH― Sulfate SO42―
Nitrate NO3― Sulfite SO32―
Nitrite NO2― Hydrogen sulfite HSO3―
Chromate CrO42― Cyanide CN―
Dichromate Cr2O72― Oxide O2―
Phosphate PO43― Peroxide O22―
Hydrogen phosphate HPO42―

Chapter 3 Notes 8 ASP Chemistry

 Naming and Writing Formula of Ionic Compounds containing Polyatomic Ions

We name ionic compounds that contain a polyatomic ion in the same way as other ionic compounds,
except that we use the name of the polyatomic ion whenever it occurs.
For example, KNO3 is named as follows
– its cation, K+, potassium
– its polyatomic anion, NO3–, nitrate
– Hence, KNOs is potassium nitrate

 Oxyanions

– Most polyatomic ions are oxyanions, anions containing oxygen and another element.
– Notice that when a series of oxyanions contains different numbers of oxygen atoms, they are named
according to the number of oxygen atoms in the ion.
– If there are two ions in the series,
• the one with more oxygen atoms has the ending -ate, and
• the one with fewer has the ending -ite.
– For example,
• NO3– is nitrate SO42– is sulfate
• NO2– is nitrite SO32– is sulfite

– If there are more than two ions in the series then the prefixes hypo-, meaning less than, and per-,
meaning more than, are used.

Examples

ClO3– chlorate BrO3– bromate IO3– iodate

ClO2– chlorite BrO2– bromite IO2– iodite
ClO– hypochlorite BrO– hypobromite IO– hypoiodite
ClO4– perchlorate BrO4– perbromate IO4– periodate

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.7

- Solve For Practice 3.7
- Solve For More Practice 3.7
- Solve Conceptual Connection 3.7

Chapter 3 Notes 9 ASP Chemistry

 Naming and Writing the Formula of Hydrated Ionic Compounds

 Hydrated ionic compounds:

Hydrates are ionic compounds containing a specific number of water molecules associated with each
formula unit.

– For example, the formula for epsom salts is MgSO4 • 7H2O.

– Its systematic name is magnesium sulfate heptahydrate.

– CoCl2 • 6H2O is cobalt(II)chloride hexahydrate

Common hydrate prefixes

hemi = ½ penta = 5
mono = 1 hexa = 6
di = 2 hepta = 7
tri = 3 octa = 8
tetra = 4

Examples:

Hydrated salt Name

CaSO4 • ½ H2O calcium sulfate hemihydrate
BaCl2 • 6H2O barium chloride hexahydrate
CuSO4 • 6H2O copper sulfate hexahydrate

 Questions

- Solve Problems by Topic Questions 45 and 46

 Sec 3.6 – Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names

The formula for a molecular compound cannot readily be determined from its constituent elements
because the same combination of elements may form many different molecular compounds, each with a
different formula.

– Nitrogen and oxygen form all of the following unique molecular compounds:
NO, NO2, N2O, N2O3, N2O4, and N2O5.

Chapter 3 Notes 10 ASP Chemistry

 Naming Molecular compounds

- Molecular compounds are composed of two or more nonmetals.

- Generally, write the name of the element with the smallest group number first.
- If the two elements lie in the same group, then write the element with the greatest row number first.
– The prefixes given to each element indicate the number of atoms present.

- These prefixes are the same as those used in naming hydrates:

mono = 1 hexa = 6
di = 2 hepta = 7
tri = 3 octa = 8
tetra = 4 nona = 9
penta = 5 deca = 10

- If there is only one atom of the first element in the formula, the prefix mono- is normally omitted.
Examples:

NO Nitrogen monoxide

NO2 Nitrogen dioxide

N2O Dinitrogen monoxide

N2O3 Dinitrogen trioxide

N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide

N2O5 Dinitrogen pentoxide

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.8

- Solve For Practice 3.8
- Solve For More Practice 3.8
- Solve Conceptual Connection 3.8
- Solve Problems by Topic Questions 47 – 50

Chapter 3 Notes 11 ASP Chemistry

 Acids

– Acids are molecular compounds that release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
– Acids are composed of hydrogen, usually written first in their formula, and one or more nonmetals,
written second.
HCl is a molecular compound that, when dissolved in water, forms H+(aq) and Cl–(aq) ions, where
aqueous (aq) means dissolved in water.

– Formula generally starts with H (e.g., HCl, H2SO4)

– To indicate that the compound is dissolved in water, the symbol (aq) is written after the formula.
– A compound is not considered an acid if it does not dissolve in water.
– Acids are sour in taste
– Acids dissolve many metals (such as Zn, Fe, Mg; but not Au, Ag, Pt)

 Naming Different Types of Acids

Binary Acid Oxyacids

• They have H+ cation and nonmetal anion. • They have H+ cation and polyatomic anion.
• They are acids that contain hydrogen and an
oxyanion (an anion containing a non-metal and
oxygen)

• Naming Binary acids • Naming Oxyacids

– Write a hydro- prefix. – If polyatomic ion name ends in –ate, then

– Follow with the nonmetal name. change ending to –ic suffix.
– Change ending on nonmetal name to –ic. – If polyatomic ion name ends in –ite, then
– Write the word acid at the end of the name change ending to –ous suffix.
– Write word acid at the end of all names.

Oxyanion ending
with
-ate

• Examples:
HCl hydrochloric acid Oxyanion ending
HI hydroiodic acid with
HBr hydrobromic acid -ite
HF Hydrifluoric acid

Chapter 3 Notes 12 ASP Chemistry

 Examples of Naming Oxyacids

Oxyanion Corresponding acid

ClO3– chlorate HClO3 Chloric acid
ClO2– chlorite HClO2 Chlorous acid
ClO4– perchlorate HClO4 Perchloric acid
ClO– hypochlorite HClO Hypochlorous acid
NO3– nitrate HNO3 Nitric acid
NO2– nitrite HNO2 Nitrous acid
SO42– sulfate H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
SO32– sulfite H2SO3 Sulfurous acid

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.9, 3.10

- Solve For Practice 3.9, 3.10
- Solve For More Practice 3.10
- Solve Problems by Topic Questions 51 – 54

 Writing formula for Acids

• When name ends in acid, formulas starts with H.

• Write formulas as if ionic, even though it is molecular.
• Hydro- prefix means it is binary acid; no prefix means it is an oxyacid.
• For oxyacid
– if ending is –ic, polyatomic ion ends in –ate.
– if ending is –ous, polyatomic ion ends in –ous.

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.9

- Solve For Practice 3.9

 Acid Rain

– Certain pollutants—such as NO, NO2, SO2, SO3—form acids when mixed with water, resulting in
acidic rainwater.

– Acid rain can fall or flow into lakes and streams, making these bodies of water more acidic.

Chapter 3 Notes 13 ASP Chemistry

 – When sulphur dioxide reacts with water in the air it forms sulfurous acid , when oxides of nitrogen
react with water in rain they form nitric acid. The rain becomes acidic and hence is called acid rain.

– Natural rain is slightly acidic due to dissolved carbon dioxide (forms carbonic acid), it has a pH of 5.5
whereas acid rain has a pH of around 4

 Problems caused by acid rain

1. Acid rain reacts with iron and steel objects leading to their corrosion.
2. Acid rain reacts with carbonate in marble and limestone (calcium carbonate) leading to the erosion
of the stone buildings and statues leading to death of fish and other aquatic life.
3. Acid rain damages plants leading to their stunted growth and eventually death.
4. Acid rain enhances leaching of vital minerals out of the soil leading to the death of trees.

 Sec 3.8 – Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds

– Atomic mass is the average mass of an atom of an element

Example: Hydrogen has an atomic mass of 1.008 (For simplicity, atomic mass of H is 1)

– Formula mass (molecular mass) is the average mass of a molecule of a compound

Example: Water has a formula mass of 18.02
(For simplicity, atomic mass of H is1, of O is 16, so the formula mass is 16)

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 =
(𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟏 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 × 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟏)
+(𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟐 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 × 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟐)

 Examples:

1) The formula mass of carbon dioxide, CO2, is 44.01 amu

Formula mass = 12.01 amu + 2 (16.00 amu) = 44.01 amu

2) The formula mass of sodium oxide, Na2O, is 61.98 amu

Formula mass = 2(22.99 amu) + 16.00 amu = 61.98 amu

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.12

- Solve For Practice 3.12
- Solve Problems by Topic Questions 59 and 60

Chapter 3 Notes 14 ASP Chemistry

 Molar Mass of a Compound
It is the mass in grams of 1 mole of its molecules (equivalent to formula mass or molecular mass)

 Example:
The formula mass of CO2 is 44.01 amu
The molar mass of CO2 is 44.01 g/mole

 Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing

Number of molecules = number of moles × Avogadro’s number

N = n × NA

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Number of molecules = 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × Avogadro’s number

𝒎
N = 𝑴 × NA

 Example:
Calculate the number of molecules present in 4.40 g of CO2 [Use Avogadro’s number as 6.0×1023]

𝑚 4.40
N = 𝑀 × NA = (1×12)+(2×16) × 6.0 × 1023
4.40
= × 6.0 × 1023
44
44 ×10−1
= × 6.0 × 1023 = 1.00 × 10−1 × 6.0 × 1023 = 6.00 × 1022 molecules.
44

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.13

- Solve For Practice 3.13
- Solve For More Practice 3.13
- Solve Conceptual Connection 3.9
- Solve Problems by Topic Questions 65 and 66

Chapter 3 Notes 15 ASP Chemistry

 Sec 3.9 – Composition of Compounds

 The mass percent or mass percent composition of an element

𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 × 𝐢𝐧 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝

Mass percent = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝

 Example:

Calculate the mass percent composition of carbon, C, in the chlorofluorocarbon CCl2F2.

1 ×molar mass of C
Mass percent of Cl = × 100 =
Mass of 1 mole of the compound

1×12
(1×12.01)+(2×35.5)+(2×19.00)
× 100 ≈ 10 %

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.14

- Solve For Practice 3.14
- Solve For More Practice 3.14
- Solve Problems by Topic Questions 71 – 75
- Solve Conceptual Connection 3.10

 Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor

The mass percent composition of an element in a compound is a conversion factor between mass of the
element and mass of the compound.

Example, we saw that the mass percent composition of S in SO3 is 40.0 %. Since percent means per
hundred, there are 40.0 g S per hundred grams SO3, which can be expressed as the ratio:
40.0 g S : 100 g SO3

40.0 g S 100 g SO3

or, in fractional form: =
100 g SO3 40.0 g S

 Example:
The U.S. Food and Drug Adminstration (FDA) recommends that a person consume less than 7.8 g of
sodium per day. What mas of sodum chloride (in grams) can you consume and still be within the FDA
guidelines? Sodium chloride is 39% sodium by mass.

Na NaCl
39 g 100 g
7.8 g ??? 20 g

Chapter 3 Notes 16 ASP Chemistry

 Questions

- Solve For Practice 3.15

- Solve For More Practice 3.15

 Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas

– Always remember that the chemical formula gives us a relationship between the amounts (in moles) of
substances, not between the masses (in grams) of them.

– The general form for solving problems in which we are asked to find the mass of an element present in a
given mass of a compound is
Mass compound → moles compound → moles element → mass element

– We use the atomic or molar mass to convert between mass and moles, and we use relationships inherent
in the chemical to convert between moles and moles.

 Example:
Determine the mass of oxygen in a 3.42 g sample of Al2(SO4)3.

1. Write ratio between given compound and Al2(SO4)3 : 12 O

number of moles of required element

2. Write the ration between moles given 1 mole 12 moles

3. Change moles to grams by multiplying number 1 × 342 g 12 × 16 g

of moles by the molar mass or atomic mass
4. Find the required mass 3.42 g ????? g

Mass of oxygen atoms in Al2(SO4)3 is 1.92 g

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.16

- Solve For Practice 3.16
- Solve For More Practice 3.16
- Solve Conceptual Connection 3.11

Chapter 3 Notes 17 ASP Chemistry

 Sec 3.10 – Determining a chemical formula from experimental data

 TYPE I Problems

 Example:
A compound containing nitrogen and oxygen is decomposed in the laboratory and produces 28.0 g
nitrogen and 72.0 g oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.

N O
1. Write given quantity 28.0 g 72.0 g
2. Calculate number of moles 28.0 72.0
𝑚 𝑛= 2.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑛= = 4.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑂
𝑛= 14 16.00
𝑀
3. Divide moles by the smaller 2.00 4.50
value = 1.00 = 2.50
2.00 2.00
4. Write the simplified ratio Multiply by 2 → 2 Multiple by 2 → 5
then deduce the empirical
formula
N2O5
Important Notes:
1. Number of moles, n, can be calculated from the volume at STP or RTP conditions as follows:

At STP conditions At RTP conditions

At 0oC and 1 atm , 1 mole of a gas occupies At 25oC and 1 atm , 1 mole of a gas occupies
22.4 L 24 L

𝑉 𝑉
𝑛= 𝑛=
22.4 24

2. If the subscripts are not whole numbers, multiply all the subscripts by a small whole number (see
table) to get whole-number subscripts.

Fractional Subscript Multiply by this

0.20 5
0.25 4
0.33 3
0.40 5
0.50 2
0.66 3
0.75 4
0.80 5

Chapter 3 Notes 18 ASP Chemistry

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.17

- Solve For Practice 3.17
- Solve Problems by Topic Questions 71 – 75

 Application:

A chemist decomposes a sample of a compound containing 5.40g Ag and 4.00 g O. Calculate the
empirical formula of the compound.

 TYPE II Problems

A laboratory analysis of an organic determined the following mass percent composition:

C 60.00% H 8.00% O 32.00%
Find the empirical formula.

Steps:

Given: Aspirin containing 60.00 % C, 8.00 % H and 32.00 % O

RTF: Empirical formula of the compound

Hint: In a 100g sample of aspirin, there is 60.00 g C, 8.00 g H and 32.00 g O

C H O
1. Write given
60.00 g 8.00 g 32.00 g
quantity
2. Calculate number 60.00 8.00 32.0
of moles 𝑛= 𝑛= 𝑛=
𝑚 12 1 16.00
𝑛= = 5.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = 8.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 = 2.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑂
𝑀
3. Divide moles by the 5.00 8.00 2.00
smallest value = 2.50 = 4.00 = 1.000
2.00 2.00 2.00
4. Write the simplified Multiply by 2 → 5 Multiple by 4 → 8 Multiple by 2 → 2
ratio then deduce
the empirical
formula C5H8O2
 Application:
Calculate the empirical formula of an organic compound based on its elemental percent composition as
follows: C 54.0% H 2.00% N 28.0% O 16.0%

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.18

- Solve For Practice 3.18

Chapter 3 Notes 19 ASP Chemistry

 Calculating Molecular formula for Compounds from Empirical formula and Molar Mass

General STEPS for finding Molecular formula given empirical formula:

1. Determine molar mass of the empirical formula

𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂
2. Calculate number of empirical formula units(n) = 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂
3. Determine molecular formula

 Example:
Butanedione-a main component responsible for the smell and taste of butter and cheese-contains the
elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The empirical formula of butanedione is C2H3O, and its molar
mass is 86 g/mol. Find its molecular formula.

1. Determine molar mass of the empirical

(2×12) + (3×1) + (1×16) = 43 g/mole
formula

2. Calculate number of empirical formula units

𝟖𝟔
molar mass of molecular formula 𝒏 = 𝟒𝟑 = 2
(n) =
molar mass of empirical formula

Molecular formula is 2 of C2H3O which is

3. Determine molecular formula
C4H6O2

CHECK your answer by calculating the molar mass of the molecular formula as follows:
(4×12) + (6×1) + (2×16) = 86 g/mole

 Application
A compound has the empirical formula CH and a molar mass 78 g/mole. What is its molecular formula?

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.19

- Solve For Practice 3.19
- Solve For More Practice 3.19

Chapter 3 Notes 20 ASP Chemistry

 Determination of Empirical Formula from Combustion Analysis

– In combustion analysis, the unknown substance undergoes combustion (or burning) in the presence of
pure oxygen, as shown in the figure above.
– When the sample is burned, all of the carbon in the sample is converted to CO2, and all of the hydrogen
is converted to H2O. The CO2 and H2O produced are weighed.
– With these masses, we can use the numerical relationships between moles inherent in the formulas for
CO2 and H2O to determine the amounts of C and H in the original sample where
l mole CO2 : l mole C and l mole H2O : 2 moles H
– The amounts of any other elemental constituents, such as O, Cl, or N, can be determined by subtracting
the sum of the masses of C and H from the original mass of the sample.

Steps:
1. Find mass of carbon from given mass of carbon dioxide
2. Find mass of hydrogen from given mass of water
3. Find mass of oxygen (if present) = mass of compound – (mass of hydrogen + mass of carbon)
4. Find the ratio of elements
5. Specify the empirical formula

Hydrocarbon is a compound containing carbon and hydrogen ONLY

Chapter 3 Notes 21 ASP Chemistry

 Example
Upon combustion, a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen produces 4.40 g CO2 and 1.80 g
H2O. Find the empirical formula of the compound.

1) Find mass of carbon C  CO2

from given mass of 1 mole 1 mole
carbon dioxide 1×12 g 1×44 g
??? 4.40g mass of C = 1.20 g

2) Find mass of 2H : H2O

hydrogen from 2 moles 1 mole
given mass of water 2 × 1g 1×18 g
??? 1.80 g mass of H = 0.200 g

3) Find the ratio of

elements Steps C H

1. Find number of moles of 1.20 0.200

=
12
each component 1
0.100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
= 0.200 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
2. Divide each number of 0.100 0.200
=1 =2
0.100
moles by the smaller number 0.100
of moles

3. Find the ratio CH2

4) Specify the The empirical formula of the compound is CH2

empirical formula

 Application:
Upon combustion, a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen produced 2.40 g CO2 and 1.80 g
H2O. Find the empirical formula of the compound.

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.20

- Solve For Practice 3.20

Chapter 3 Notes 22 ASP Chemistry

 Example :
Upon combustion, a 3.20 g sample of a compound containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
produces 4.40 g CO2 and 3.60 g H2O. Find the empirical formula of the compound.

1) Find mass of carbon C  CO2

from given mass of 1 mole 1 mole
carbon dioxide 1×12 g 1×44 g
??? 4.40 g mass of C = 1.20 g

2) Find mass of 2H : H2O

hydrogen from 2 moles 1 mole
given mass of water 2×1g 1×18 g
??? 3.60 g mass of H = 0.400 g

3) Find mass of Mass of oxygen = 3.20 – (1.20 + 0.400) = 1.60 g

oxygen (if present)
= mass of
compound – (mass
of hydrogen + mass
of carbon)

4) Find the ratio of

elements Steps C H O

1. Find number of moles 1.20 0.400 1.60

=
12
of each component 1 16
0.100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
= 0.400 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 0.100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

2. Divide each number

of moles by the
1 4 1
smallest number of
moles (0.100)
3. Find the ratio CH4O

5) Specify the The empirical formula of the compound is CH4O

empirical formula

 Application:
Upon combustion, a 9.00 g sample of a compound containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
produced 13.2 g CO2 and 5.40 g H2O. Find the empirical formula of the compound.

 Questions

- Solve Example 3.21

- Solve For Practice 3.21

Chapter 3 Notes 23 ASP Chemistry

 Sec 3.11 – Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

 Chemical Reactions
Reactions involve:
1) chemical changes in matter resulting in new substances.
2) exchange of atoms to produce new molecules.

Reactants  Products

 Chemical Equations

• Shorthand way of describing a reaction.

• Provide information about the reaction
– Formulas of reactants and products
– States of reactants and products
– Relative numbers of reactant and product molecules that are required
– Can be used to determine weights of reactants used and products that can be made

States of Reactants and Products in Chemical Equations

(g) Gas
(l) Liquid
(s) Solid
(aq) Aqueous (Water solution)

Example: Combustion of Methane

• Methane gas burns to produce carbon dioxide gas and gaseous water.
– Whenever something burns it combines with O2 (g).
CH4 (g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)

• If you look closely, you should immediately spot a problem.

• Notice also that the left side has four hydrogen atoms while the right side has only two.

• To correct these problems, we must balance the equation by changing the coefficients, not the
subscripts.
• To show the reaction obeys the Law of Conservation of Mass the equation must be balanced.

Chapter 3 Notes 24 ASP Chemistry

 We adjust the numbers of molecules so there are equal numbers of atoms of each element on both
sides of the arrow.

1C+4H+4O 1C+4H+4O
Important Note
In any chemical reaction, the following must be noted
1. Mass is conserved (sum of mass of reactants and products is equal)
2. Number of atoms is conserved
But, number of moles and molecules is not a must to be conserved.

Example:

N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)

Reactants Products
2 N atoms
2 N atoms 6 H atoms Atoms are Conserved
6 H atoms
1 mole 3 moles 2 moles
28 g 2×3=6g 2 × 17 = 34 g
34 g 34 g Mass is Conserved

 Questions

- Solve Example 4.1, 4.2, 4.3

- Solve For Practice 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
- Solve Conceptual Connection 4.1, 4.2
- Solve Problems by Topic Questions 13 – 24

 Application:

1) Write a balanced equation for the combustion of glucose (C6H12O6) to produce carbon dioxide gas
and water vapor.

2) Write a balanced equation for the combustion of ethanol (C2H5OH) to produce carbon dioxide gas
and water vapor.

Chapter 3 Notes 25 ASP Chemistry

Chapter 3 Notes 26 ASP Chemistry