Lecture 7 (Handouts)-Physics

Optional Foundation CSE 2021 by

Quantum IAS
Specially designed according to the need of UPSC. It is only for
the private circulation or uses for Quantum IAS Students.
Supplement it with Class lectures.

💡 Topics Covered - Two-body problem; Reduced mass; Motion under a

central force; Kepler’s laws;

Johannes Kepler was the assistant of the sixteenth-century Danish astronomer Tycho
Brahe. They had an ideal combination of talents. Brahe had the ingenuity and skill to
measure planetary positions to better than 0.01°, all made by the naked eye because
the telescope was not invented until a few years after his death. Kepler had the
mathematical genius and fortitude to discover that Brahe’s measurements could be
fitted by three simple impirical laws. The task was formidable. It took Kepler 18 years
of laborious calculation to obtain the following three laws of planetary motion( also
known as Kepler's laws), which he stated early in the seventeenth century:
1. Every planet moves in an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.
2. The radius vector from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The period of revolution T of a planet about the Sun is related to the major axis A
of the ellipse by T 2 = KA3 , where K is the same for all the planets.

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 Kepler’s empirical laws went unexplained until the latter half of the seventeenth
century when Newton’s fascination with the problem of planetary motion inspired him
to formulate his laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. Using these
mathematical laws, Newton explained Kepler’s empirical laws, giving an overwhelming
argument in favour of the new mechanics and marking the beginning of modern
mathematical physics. panetary motion and the more general problem of motion
under a central force continue to play an important role in many branches of physics
and turn up in such topics as particle scattering, atomic structure, and space
navigation.
In this chapter, we apply Newtonian physics to the general problem of central force
motion. We shall start by looking at some of the general features of a system of two
particles interacting with a central force F (r)r^, where F (r)is any function of the
distance r between the particles and r^ is a unit vector along the line of centres. After
making a simple change of coordinates, we shall show how to find a complete
solution by using the conservation laws of energy and angular momentum. Finally, we
shall apply these results to the case of planetary motion, F (r) ∝ r12 , and show how
they predict Kepler’s empirical laws.

Central Force
Central Forces: The Definition. Suppose that a force acting on a particle of mass m
has the properties that:
• the force is always directed from m toward, or away, from a fixed point O,
• the magnitude of the force only depends on the distance r from O.
Forces having these properties are called central forces. The particle is said to move
in a central force field. The point O is referred to as the centre of force.

A central force is a force that points along with the (positive or

negative) radial direction r^ , and whose magnitude depends only
on the distance r to the origin - so F (r) = F (r)r^ .

Properties of a Particle Moving under the Influence of a Central Force: If a particle

moves in a central force field then the following properties hold:

 1. The path of the particle must be a plane curve, i.e., it must lie in a plane.

 2. The angular momentum of the particle is conserved, i.e., it is constant in time.

 The particle moves in such a way that the position vector (from point O sweeps
out equal areas in equal times. In other words, the time rate of change in area is

Lecture 7 Handouts)-Physics Optional Foundation CSE 2021 by Quantum IAS 2

 constant. This is referred to as the Law of Areas. We will describe this in more
detail, and prove it, shortly

 4. Central force are conservative in nature, i.e. a particle moving in a central field
will have constant mechanical energy.

We first note that a central force can exert no torque on an object:

Consequently, under the action of a central force, angular momentum is conserved.

Moreover, we have

r ⋅ L = r ⋅ ( r × p ) = 0 and v ⋅ L = v ⋅ ( r × m v ) = 0.
Both the position vector r and the velocity vector v thus lie in the plane
perpendicular to L . As L is conserved r and v must be confined to the plane
perpendicular to L and through the origin.

Two-Body Problem
In classical mechanics, the two-body problem is to predict the motion of two massive
objects which are abstractly viewed as point particles. The problem assumes that the
two objects interact only with one another; the only force affecting each object arises
from the other one, and all other objects are ignored.

an isolated system of two particles which interact through a

central potential.

The most prominent case of the classical two-body problem is the gravitational case,
arising in astronomy for predicting the orbits (or escapes from orbit) of objects such
as satellites, planets, and stars. A two-point-particle model of such a system nearly
always describes its behaviour well enough to provide useful insights and predictions.

A simpler "one body" model, the "central-force problem", treats one object as the
immobile source of a force acting on others. One then seeks to predict the motion of
the single remaining mobile object. Such an approximation can give useful results
when one object is much more massive than the other (as with a light planet orbiting
a heavy star, where the star can be treated as essentially stationary).

However, the one-body approximation is usually unnecessary except as a stepping

stone. For many forces, including gravitational ones, the general version of the two-
body problem can be reduced to a pair of one-body problems, allowing it to be
solved completely, and giving a solution simple enough to be used effectively.

Central Force Motion of Two-body as a One-body Problem

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 Consider an isolated system consisting of two particles interacting under a central
force F (r)r^. The masses of the particles are m1 and m2 and their
position vectors are r 1 and r 2 . We have
r = r1− r2 and r = ∣ r ∣ = ∣ r 1 − r 2∣
The equations of motion are

¨
m1 r 1 = F (r)r^ (1)

and

¨
m2 r 2 = −F (r)r^ (2)

F (r)r^ < 0 and repulsive for

From our definition of r, the force is attractive for
F (r)r^ > 0. Equations above are coupled together by r ; the behavior of r 1 and
r 2 depends on r = r 1 − r 2 . The problem is easier to handle if we replace r 1
and r 2 by r = r 1 − r 2 and the center of mass vector R .

m1 r 1 + m2 r 2
R=
m1 + m2

¨
The equation of motion for R is trivial if there are no external forces: R = 0 which
has the simple solution R = R 0 + V t. The constant vectors R 0 and V depend on
the choice of coordinate system and the initial conditions. If we are clever enough to
take the origin at the center of mass, R 0 = 0, and if the center of mass is stationary,
V = 0. The equation for r turns out to be like the equation of motion of a single
particle and has a straightforward solution. To find the equation of motion for r we
divide Eq. 1 by m1 and Eq. 2 by m2 and subtract to give

¨ ¨ 1 1
r1− r2 =( + )F (r)r^
m1 m2

or,

m1 m2 ¨ ¨
( )( r 1 − r 2 ) = F (r)r^
m1 + m2

Denoting ( mm1 1+m

m2
2
) by μ, the reduced mass, and using r = r 1 − r 2 , we have

Lecture 7 Handouts)-Physics Optional Foundation CSE 2021 by Quantum IAS 4

 ¨
μ r = F (r)r^ (3)

Equation 3 is identical to the equation of motion for a particle of mass μ acted on
by a force F (r)r^ ; no trace of the two-particle problem remains. The two-particle
problem has been transformed to a one-particle problem. Unfortunately, the method
cannot be generalized. There is no way to
reduce the equations of motion for three or more particles to equivalent one-body
equations, and partly for this reason the exact solution of the general three-body
problem remains unknown, although there are solutions for a few special cases (not
relevant for us).
¨
Solving the vector equation of motion μ r = F (r)r^ for r (t) depends on the
particular form ofF (r), but some properties of central force motion hold true in
general regardless of the form of F (r). Constraints imposed by the conservation
laws of energy and angular momentum provide a major step toward finding the
complete solution. In this section we shall see how to use conservation laws to
identify some universal features of the solution and to reduce the vector equation to
an equation in a single scalar variable. Conservation of linear momentum adds
nothing new, because it is already embodied in the equal and opposite forces on the
two masses, and in the uniform motion of the system’s center of mass. Although we
shall focus mainly on the gravitational central force F (r) = −C/r 2 later in this
chapter, the consequences of the conservation laws discussed in this section hold for
all central forces, whatever the form of F (r).

Reduced Mass
In physics, the reduced mass is the "effective" inertial mass appearing in the two-
body problem of Newtonian mechanics. It is a quantity which allows the two-body
problem to be solved as if it were a one-body problem. Note, however, that the mass
determining the gravitational force is not reduced. In the computation one mass can
be replaced with the reduced mass, if this is compensated by replacing the other
mass with the sum of both masses. The reduced mass is frequently denoted by μ. It
has the dimensions of mass, and SI unit kg.

m1 m2
μ=( )
m1 + m2

The reduced mass is always less than or equal to the mass of each body and has the
reciprocal additive property.

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 Case I : when m1 = m2 = m
Putting this condition in above equation, you can get μ = m/2 i.e. equal to half the
mass of either particle. e.g.

Case II : when m2 >> m1

Using this condition, we can get μ ≈ m1 , showing the value of reduced mass tends
to be nearest to the value of smaller mass. In this case we can assume center of mass
to be coincided with the heavier mass (e.g. Sun in case of Sun-Earth; Earth in case of
Earth-Moon; Proton in hydrogen atom) , which simplify the case and makes easier to
detect motion in center of mass frame.
This may perhaps best to be seen if we calculate the reduced mass of a hydrogen
atom which consists , as we know of a single proton in the nucleus with a single
electron going round it , where a proton is 1836 heavier than an electron. If, therefore
me be the mass of the electron and mp that of proton. we have reduced mass of
m 1
hydrogen atom , μH ≈ me (1 − me ) ≈ me (1 − 1836 ) ≈ me . i.e. nearly equal to mass
p
of the electron.
On the other hand, the reduced mass of the positronium atom, a short-lived
combination of a positron (having the same as an electron but a positive charge ) and
an electron is given by μp = me me
me +me
= 12 me . i.e. equal to the half the mass of an
electron, nearly half the reduced mass of a hydrogen atom.
Thus in calculating the time-period of an electron or its energy state etc. as it moves
in its orbit around the nucleus, we must, in the case of hydrogen, imagine a mass μH
revolving round the fixed position, rather than a mass me .

Since, however, μH ≈ me , the error involved in the case of hydrogen in taking the
revolving mass to be me ( the actual mass of the electron) instead of μH will only be
a marginal one. But, since μp is only half the actual mass of electron, i.e., me , the
error involved in the case of positronium, in taking the revolving mass to be me
instead of μp will obviously be quite considerable.

Incidentally, the fact of the reduced mass of positronium being half that of hydrogen
is amply borne out by examining their respective spectra. For the frequency (ν ) of a
spectral line in a hydrogen atom spectrum is, in accordance with Bohr's theory , given
2π 2 e 2 μ 1
by the relation ν = h3
− m12 ). where h is Planck's Constant, m and n are
( n2
integers , such that m > n and μ is the reduced mass. so, ν ∝ μH ∝ me .

But in case of Positronium ν ∝ μp ∝ me /2. indicating clearly that the frequencies of

spectral lines of positronium are half those of hydrogen . and since wavelength is
inversely proportional to frequency , it follows wavelength of positronium are double
those of spectral lines given by hydrogen.

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 Central Force Motion and Orbital Differential Equation
Introducing plane polar coordinates r, θ in the plane of motion, the equation of
¨
motion μ r = F (r)r^ becomes
In Radial direction (r^):

m(r̈ − r θ̇ 2 ) = F (r) (4)

In Transverse direction (θ^):

m(r θ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ ) = 0 (5)

also we can write above Eq. 4 as

1 d(mr 2 θ̇ )
=0
r dt
mr 2 θ̇ = contsnat = L

here, the constant L is know as angular momentum of the particle, which is conserve
in this case. Hence, θ̇ = L/mr 2 . putting this value of in Eq(4) we get,

L2
mr̈ − = F (r) (6)
mr 3
Now ,

dr dr dθ dr L dr
ṙ = = = θ̇ = (7)
dt dθ dt dθ mr 2 dθ
and

d L dr d L dr dθ L d L dr
r̈ = [ 2 ]= [ 2 ] = [ ]
dt mr dθ dθ mr dθ dt mr 2 dθ mr 2 dθ
2 2 2 2
d2 u
Letu = 1/r , therefore, du dθ
= − r12 dθ
dr
. Then, r̈ = − Lmu2 d du
[ ]
dθ dθ
= − Lmu2 dθ 2
.
substituting value of r̈ in Eq.6 we get

L2 u2 d2 u L2 u3 1 L2 u2 d2 u 1
− − = F ( ) or [ 2 + u] = −F ( )
m dθ2 m u m dθ u
finally we can rearrange this and write it like

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 d2 u m 1
+ u = − F ( ) (8)
dθ2 L2 u2 u

This is the differential equation of an orbit , provided the force law F (r) = F ( u1 ) =
− δV
δr
or the potential V is known.

Angular Momentum Analysis in Central Motion

The central force F (r)r^ is along with r and can exert no torque on the reduced
mass μ. Hence the angular momentum L of μ is constant, both in direction and in
magnitude.
Consequences of the Conservation of Angular Momentum

The motion is confined to a plane:

˙
As a proof, L = r × μ r , so it follows that r is always perpendicular to L by
the properties of the cross product. Because L is fixed in direction, the plane of
the motion is also fixed, and r can only move in a plane
perpendicular to L.
The law of equal areas:
The magnitude L of the angular momentum is constant and is L = μr 2 θ̇ . This
leads immediately to the law of equal areas, Kepler’s second empirical law,
= r 2 dθ/2. so that
Summarizing, the area element in polar coordinates is dA
dA/dt = r 2 θ̇ /2 = L/2μ=constant. The areas swept out by r are the same for
equal time intervals. The law of equal areas holds for any central force and for
both closed and open orbits. For the solar system, a planetary orbit is an example
of a closed orbit. An open orbit would be like the orbit of a comet entering the
solar system, sweeping around the Sun, and heading back out to space, never to
return

Energy Analysis in Central Motion

The kinetic energy of μ is

1 2 1
K= μV = μ(ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇ 2 )
2 2
We have learnt in Lecture 1 that all central forces are conservative, so we can
associate a potential energy U(r) with F (r):
r
U(r) − U(ra ) = − ∫ F (r)dr
ra

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 The constant U(ra ) is not physically significant, so we can leave ra unspecified;
adding a constant to the energy has no effect on the motion. From the work-energy
theorem,

1
E = K + U(r) = μ(ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇ 2 ) + U(r)
2

where E , the total mechanical energy, is constant. We can eliminate θ̇ by putting θ̇ =

L
μr2
. The result is

1 2 1 L2
E = μṙ + + U(r) (8.1)
2 2 μr 2

Above equation looks like the energy equation for a particle moving in one
dimension; all reference to μ is gone. We can press the parallel further by introducing

1 L2
Uef f (r) = + U(r)
2 μr 2

so that,

1 2
E= μṙ + Uef f (r) (9)
2

Uef f (r) is called the effective potential energy. Often it is referred to simply as the
L2
effective potential. Uef f (r) differs from the true potential U(r) by the term μr 2

called the centrifugal potential. Introducing the effective potential is a convenient

mathematical trick to make Eq. 9 look just like the energy equation for a particle in
L2
one dimension. However, the term μr2 is not a true potential energy related to a
force. This term is seen to be another way of writing the kinetic energy due to the
2
L
tangential velocityrθ̇ . The term μr 2 is really a kinetic energy, but grouping it with the

true potential U(r) helps us write the formal solution of Eq. 9 more directly, and it
will also help us use simple energy diagrams to describe central force motion
qualitatively.

Conic Sections
Conic sections are produced if a double right circular cone intersects with a plane. It
may be a circle, a parabola, an ellipse, or a hyperbola.

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 The four conic sections. Each conic is determined by the angle the plane makes with the axis of the
cone.

The Polar Equation of a Conic Section

A conic section has the property that the ratio e (called the eccentricity) of the
distance between any point on the curve (for example point P and another point
called the focus F to the distance between P and a line called the directrix is equal
to a constant (see Fig. 7.1. This constant differs from one conic section to another.
Consider Fig. 7.1 where the focus F is at the origin O of the x and y coordinate system
and the directrix is at x=d . Since the distance between P and F is

Fig 7.1

P F = r then, the nearest distance between P and the directrix is P D = d − F E =

d − r cos θ. The eccentricity is therefore given by

PF r
e= =
PD d − r cos θ

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 Hence,

ed
r=
1 + e cos θ

we can also rearrange the above equation and put the value of ed = l , we will get.

l
= 1 + e cos θ
r

or,

l
= 1 + e cos(θ − θ0 ) (10)
r

where θ0 depends upon initial conditions ( for geometry it depends upon symmetry)

This equation is the polar equation of a conic section.

if , 0 < e < 1 the conic is an ellipse

if, e = 0 the conic is circle NOTE : Circle is a special case of ellipse)
if ,e = 1 the conic is a parabola
if ,e > 1 the conic is an hyperbola

Trajectory/ Orbit of Particle in Inverse Square Law field-

(Coulombic attraction and gravitation)
For a particle moving under inverse square law (attractive force ), We can take
F (r) = −k/r 2 = −ku2 and U(r) = −k/r = −ku. By puting the value of Force
law in Equation 8, We will get

d2 u mk
+ u = −
dθ2 L2
d2 u′
Let u′ = u − mk/L2 and by differentiating both side twice with θ we get, dθ 2 =
d2 u
dθ 2 . which ultimately reduces to

d2 u′
2
+ u′ = 0
dθ
here ,solving above equation as we did in simple harmonic motion we get the solution
for u′ . i.e.

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 u′ = A cos(θ − θ0 )

where, A is an arbitrary constant and θ0 depends upon initial conditions also we get
the value u = 1/r from this

1 mk
= u = A cos(θ − θ0 ) + 2 (11)
r L
we can rearrange the above equation and try to match with the polar form of conic
section i.e. Equation 10

L2 /mk AL2
=1+ cos(θ − θ0 ) (12)
r mk
and try to match with the polar form of conic section i.e. Equation 10, we can say
that the orbit or trajectory of the particle in square law force will be a conic section
having e = AL2 /mk and l = L2 /mk.
Here, A is not a general parameter to describe a central field, so we have to eliminate
A and bring the above equation to more generic representation.
we can find time derivative of Equation 11 to get ṙ , such that

AL
ṙ = sin(θ − θ0 )
m
1
By putting U(r) = −k/r and r
= A cos(θ − θ0 ) + mk
L2
and ṙ = AL
m
sin(θ − θ0 )
in Equation 8.1, we get

mk 2L2 E
A= 1+
L2 mk2

putting the value of A in Equation 12 , we get trajectory or orbit equation under
inverse square law, i.e.

L2 /mk 2L2 E
=1+ 1+ cos(θ − θ0 ) (13)
r mk2

where e = eccentricity

2L2 E
1+ =e (13.1)
mk2

and l = Semi-Latus rectum of the conic section.

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 L2 /mk = l (13.2)

if , 0 < e < 1 i.e. E < 0, the conic or trajectory or orbit is an ellipse.

2
if, e = 0 i.e. E = − mk
2L 2 , the conic or trajectory or orbit is circle

if ,e = 1 i.e. E = 0 ; the conic or trajectory or orbit is a parabola

if ,e > 1 i.e. E < 0 ; the conic or trajectory or orbit is an hyperbola
This means that in general the path of a particle under an inverse square law force
due to centre of force in space could be bounded (ellipse or circle) or unbounded
parabola or hyperbola) depending on the sign of total energy.

Energy Diagrams in Central Force Motion (Planetary

Motion)
Now let us apply energy diagrams to the planetary motion. For the gravitational
force, which is always attractive,
∞
we can write force as F (r)= −G mr1 m
2
2
and U(∞) − U(r) = − ∫r F (r)dr . By the
usual convention, we have taken U(∞) = 0. The effective potential energy is

L2 Gm1 m2
Uef f = −
2μr 2 r
2 2
IfL=  0 the repulsive centrifugal potential L /2μr ) dominates at small r , and the
attractive gravitational potential −Gm1 m2 /r dominates at large r . The drawing
shows the energy diagram with various values of the total energy E .

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 The kinetic energy of radial motion is K = E − Uef f , and the motion is restricted to
regions where K ≥ 0. The nature of the motion is determined by the total energy.
Here are the various possibilities, as shown in the sketch:
Case 1. E > 0: r is unbounded for large values but cannot be less than a certain
minimum if L =
 0 . The particles are kept apart by the “centrifugal barrier.”
Case 2. E = 0: this is qualitatively similar to case 1 but on the boundary between
unbounded and bounded motion.
Case 3. E < 0: the motion is bounded for both large and small r . The two particles
form a bound system.
Case 4. E = Emin : r is restricted to one value. The particles stay a constant
distance from one another.
we shall find that case 1 corresponds to motion in a hyperbola; case 2, to a parabola;
case 3, to an ellipse; and case 4, to a circle.
There is one other possibility, L = 0. In this case, the particles accelerate toward
each other along a straight line on a collision course, since when L = 0 there is no
“centrifugal barrier” to keep them apart.

Kepler's Laws
Using the precise data collected by Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler carefully analyzed
the positions in the sky of all the known planets and the Moon, plotting their positions
at regular intervals of time. From this analysis, he formulated three laws, which we
address in this section. Kepler's laws were derived for orbits around the sun, but they
apply to satellite orbits as well.

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 Kepler's First Law : Law of Orbits

All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one focus.

(a) An ellipse is a curve in which the sum of the distances from a point on the curve to two foci (f1
and f2 is a constant. From this definition, you can see that an ellipse can be created in the following
way. Place a pin at each focus, then place a loop of string around a pencil and the pins. Keeping
the string taught, move the pencil around in a complete circuit. If the two foci occupy the same
place, the result is a circle—a special case of an ellipse. (b) For an elliptical orbit, if m << M , then m
follows an elliptical path with M at one focus. More exactly, both m and M move in their own ellipse
about the common center of mass.

We know that the trajectory of any particle moving under the influence of
gravitational force is given by

L2 /mk 2L2 E
=1+ 1+ cos(θ − θ0 )
r mk2
2
where eccentricity can be given as e = 1 + 2L mk2
E
. Also, the gravitational force is
always attractive. so, total energy E is always negative in the case of planetary
motion. which implies, if E < 0 then the eccentricity e will be e < 1. which ultimately
trace out an ellipse. Let's discuss some general properties of the elliptical path.

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 Here shown are: semi-major axis a , semi-minor axis b and semi-latus rectum l;
center of ellipse and its two foci marked by large dots.
At θ = 0° ,r = rmin , the distance the sun and planet are minimum and the point on
the orbit known as perihelion.

l
rmin =
1+ϵ

At θ = 90° and at θ = 90°, the distance is l .

At θ = 180°,r = rmax , the distance the sun and planet are maximum and the point
on the orbit known as aphelion.

l
rmax =
1−ϵ

💡 Did you know that the Moon’s orbit around the Earth is also elliptical? The
point in the Moon’s orbit that is closest to the Earth is called the “perigee”
and the point farthest from the Earth is known as the “apogee.” Perigee and
Apogee are often confused with perihelion and aphelion. Remember Helion,
The words come from Ancient Greek, in which helios means “Sun,”

Isn’t it interesting that the Earth is farthest from the Sun during the hot summer
months and closest during the winter months? Though this doesn’t seem to make
sense, it’s not the distance from the Sun that causes our seasons. Seasons happen
because Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle. It’s because Earth orbits the Sun on a tilt
that our planet gets more or less of the Sun’s direct rays at different times of
the year.

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 The semi-major axis a is the arithmetic mean between rmin and rmax :

rmax −a = a−rmin

l
a= (14)
1−ϵ2

The semi-minor axis b is the geometric mean between rmin and rmax :

rmax b
=
b rmin
l
b= (15)
1−ϵ2

The semi-latus rectum l is the harmonic mean between rmin and rmax :

1 1 1 1
− = −
rmin l l rmax

la = rmax ⋅ rmin = b2

The eccentricity rectum e is the coefficient of variation between rmin and rmax :

rmax −rmin
ϵ=
rmax + rmin

or we can write above equation as

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 vmax −vmin
ϵ=
vmax + vmin

where vmax and vmin are the maximum and minimum velocities of the planet.

The first law is a consequence of the inverse square law of gravitation. An inverse
square law of attraction will actually result in a path that is a conic section– that is, an
ellipse, a parabola or a hyperbola, although only an ellipse, of course, is a closed
orbit. An inverse square law of repulsion (for example,α particles being deflected by
gold nuclei in the famous Geiger-Marsden experiment) will result in a hyperbolic path.
An attractive force that is directly proportional to the first power of the distance also
results in an elliptical path (a Lissajous ellipse) - for example a mass whirled at the
end of a Hooke’s law elastic spring - but in that case the center of attraction is at the
center of the ellipse, rather than at a focus.

All the planetary orbits, except those of Mercury and the body Pluto, have
eccentricities near zero and are nearly circular. Mercury is never far from the Sun and
is hard to observe, and Pluto (no longer classed as a planet) was not discovered until
1930, so that neither of these was an impediment to the Ptolemaists. Mars has the
most eccentric orbit of the easily observable planets, and its motion was a stumbling
block to the Ptolemaic theory. Kepler discovered his laws of planetary motion by
trying to fit his calculations to Brahe’s accurate observations of Mars’ orbit.

Kepler's Second Law : Law of Areas

A line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in
equal times.

The shaded regions shown have equal areas and represent the same time interval.

Kepler’s second law states that a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times, that is,
the area divided by time, called the areal velocity, is constant. Consider above Figure.
The time it takes a planet to move from position A to B, sweeping out area A1 , is

Lecture 7 Handouts)-Physics Optional Foundation CSE 2021 by Quantum IAS 18

 exactly the time taken to move from position C toD, sweeping area A2 , and to
move from E to F , sweeping out area A3 . These areas are the same: A1 = A2 = A3 .

Comparing the areas in the figure and the distance traveled along the ellipse in each
case, we can see that in order for the areas to be equal, the planet must speed up as
it gets closer to the Sun and slow down as it moves away. We will show that Kepler’s
second law is actually a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum,
which holds for any system with only radial forces.

Recall the definition of angular momentum from Angular Momentum, L= r × p .

For the case of orbiting motion, L is the angular momentum of the planet about the
Sun, r is the position vector of the planet measured from the Sun, and p = m v is
the instantaneous linear momentum at any point in the orbit. Since the planet moves
along the ellipse, p is always tangent to the ellipse.
We can resolve the linear momentum into two components: a radial component p rad
along the line to the Sun, and a component p perp perpendicular to r . The cross
product for angular momentum can then be written as

L = r × p = r × ( p rad + p perp ) = r × p rad + r × p perp

The first term on the right is zero because r is parallel to p rad , and in the second
term r is perpendicular to p perp , so the magnitude of the cross product reduces to

L = rpperp = rmvperp .

Note that the angular momentum does not depend upon p rad . Since the
gravitational force is only in the radial direction, it can change only p rad and not
p perp ; hence, the angular momentum must remain constant.

The element of area Δ A swept out in time Δ t as the planet moves through angle Δϕ . The angle
between the radial direction and v⃗ is θ .

Now above Figure . A small triangular area ΔA is swept out in time Δt . The velocity
is along the path and it makes an angle θ with the radial direction. Hence, the
perpendicular velocity is given by vperp = v sin θ . The planet moves a distance
Δs = v sin θ(Δt) projected along the direction perpendicular to r . Since the area of
a triangle is one-half the base (r) times the height (Δs), for a small displacement, the

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 area is given by ΔA = 12 rΔs. Substituting for Δs , multiplying by m in the
numerator and denominator, and rearranging, we obtain

1 1 1 1 L
ΔA = rΔs = r(vΔt sin θ) = r(mv sin θΔt) = r(mvperp Δt) = Δt.
2 2 2m 2m 2m
The areal velocity is simply the rate of change of area with time, so we have

ΔA L
areal velocity = = = constant
Δt 2m

Kepler's Third Law : Law of Periods

The square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube

of the semimajor axis of its orbit.

The area of an ellipse is given by A = πab , where a and b are the semimajor and
semiminor axis of the ellipse, respectively. From Kepler’s second law, the areal
velocity is a constant given by areal velocity = ΔAΔt
= 2m L
= constant.
Therefore, the period of revolution may be considered as the time it takes the radius
vector to sweep an area of πab.

πab
T =
L/2m

From Equation 14 and 15 we have , b = a 1 − e2 . That gives

πa2 1 − e2
T =
L/2m
l
Using Equation 13.2 i.e. L2 /mk = l and Equation 14 i.e. a = or l = a(1 −
1−ϵ2
e2 ) we have 1 − e2 = L
2mka
. which in turn gives us

πa2 1 − e2 πa2 2mka

L
m 3/2
T = = = 2π a
L/2m L/2m k

or,

4m 2 3/2
T2 = π a (16)
k
or,

Lecture 7 Handouts)-Physics Optional Foundation CSE 2021 by Quantum IAS 20

 T 2 ∝ a3/2

For two body problem like Sun and Planet moving under gravitational force we have
k = GMsun Mplanet and m = Mplanet . If we put these values in Equation 16 we
have

4m
T2 = π 2 a3/2 (17)
GMsun
4m
In above relation GM
sun
π 2 is constant for every planet. So we can conclude that
every planet with the same major axis of their elliptical orbits has the periodic time.
This relation actually enables us to weigh the sun(any star), as if we knew the time
period and the major axis of the orbit of ay planet around it. Also, the above relation
can be used for any Planet and satellite problem.

Circular Orbits
The orbits of most planets in our solar system are almost circular. Next, we will find
the total energy of a body of mass m moving in a circular orbit about a massive
body of mass M that is assumed to be fixed (at rest) in an inertial frame of
reference. From that energy, we will find the eccentricity and prove that the orbit is
circular. The potential energy of such a system is U = −GM r
m
. where r is the radius
of the circular orbit. Applying Newton’s second law to m gives

GMm v2
=m
r2 r

Therefore, the kinetic energy of the particle is K = 12 mv2 = GM m

2r
.The total energy
of m is therefore given by

GMm GMm GMm

E =K+U = − =−
2r r 2r
Now, Putting the value of total energy i.e. E = − GM
2r
m
; angular momentum i.e. L =
2L 2 E
mvr and k = GMm in eccentricity relation e = 1+ mk2

we get e = 0 .Hence the orbit is circular. The potential, kinetic, and total energy as
functions of r of an object in circular orbit are shown below

Lecture 7 Handouts)-Physics Optional Foundation CSE 2021 by Quantum IAS 21

 The potential, kinetic and total energy as functions of r of an object in a circular orbit.

The Escape Speed for Circular Orbit.

The escape speed vesc is the speed required for an object to escape from the
influence of the gravitational field of an astronomical object or system. Suppose an
object of mass m is projected from the surface of a planet of mass M . The minimum
speed for the object to escape the gravitational field of the planet is that in which the
object has zero total mechanical energy at infinity. From the conservation of energy,
we have Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf .

1 −GMm
2
mvesc +( )=0
2 R

Hence,

2GM
vesc =
R

where R is the radius of the planet. If the object’s initial speed is greater than the
escape speed from that planet, then the object will still have some kinetic energy at
infinity. The escape velocity from Earth's surface is approximately about 11 km/s.

Practice Questions (*Complete Discussion In Class)

Q 1. Central Force Description of Free-particle Motion - Two non-interacting
particles m1 and m2 move toward each other with velocities v1 and v2 . respectively.
The reduced mass is μ = mm1+mm2
. Their paths are offset by distance b, as. We shall
1 2
develop the equivalent one-body description of this system and its energy diagram.

Lecture 7 Handouts)-Physics Optional Foundation CSE 2021 by Quantum IAS 22

 Q 2. r 3 central force - A particle of mass 50 g moves under an attractive central
force of magnitude 4r 3 dynes. The angular momentum is equal to 1000g⋅ cm2 /s.
(a) Find the effective potential energy.
(b) Indicate on a sketch of the effective potential the total energy for circular motion.
(c) The radius of the particle’s orbit varies between r0 and 2r0 . Find r0 .

Q 3. Mass of the Moon - Before landing astronauts on the Moon, the Apollo 11 space
vehicle was put into orbit about the Moon. The mass of the vehicle was 9979 kg and
the period of the orbit was 120 min. The maximum and minimum distances from the
centre of the Moon were 1861 km and 1838 km. Assuming the Moon to be a uniform
spherical body, what is the mass of the Moon according to these data? G = 6.67 ×
−11 2 2
10 N⋅ m /kg
Q 4. Mass Of Sun - Find the mass of sun from the following data: Radius of earth
orbit r = 1.5 × 108 km and G = 6.67 × 10−11 N⋅ m2 /kg2 .

Q 5. Perihelion and Aphelion- The earth is moving around the sun under
gravitational force and its orbit has semi-major axis 1.495 × 108 km. When the earth
passes closest to the sun at its perihelion its distance is and its orbital velocity is
0.303kms−1 . Find the velocity of the earth at aphelion and its angular velocities at
the two points.
Q 6. Central Force IThe motion of a particle under the influence of a central force is
described by r = a sin θ. Find the expression of Force.
Q 7. The density of the earth - A satellite revolves in a circular orbit at a height of h
from the surface of the earth. If the period of revolution of the satellite is T .
Calculate the average density of the earth.
Q 8. Geosynchronous satellites - The Geosynchronous satellites move in a circular
orbit in the equatorial plane of the earth. They move in such a way that they always
remain over the same point on the earth. Find the height and velocity of this satellite.

Q 9. Satellite Motion in elliptical orbit - Show that the speed of a satellite in an

elliptical orbit about the earth at apogee and perigee are given by vp =
1+e Ra 1−e Rp
GM
a 1−e
= GM
a Rp
and va = GM
a 1+e
= GM
a Ra
.

Q 10. The equation of orbit of a particle of mass m moving under the action of
central force field about a fixed point is r = 1/2θ. Find the force law.
Q 11. Prove that all ellipses with same major axes have the same energy.

Q 12. What will be the shape of orbit of a particle moving under repulsive inverse
square force? Explain with examples.
Q 13. A particle moving around the sun is suddenly stopped. Find the time taken by
the planet to fall in to sun in terms of its Time Period.

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 Q 14. A particle follows a spiral orbit given by r = cθ2 under an unknown force law.
Prove that such orbit is possible in central field. Also find force law.
Q 15. A particle moving under a central force field describes spiral orbit given by
r = aebθ . Where a and b are constants. Find Force law.
Q 16. Enunciate Kepler‘s law and show how they may be deduced from Newton's
laws of gravitation.

Q 17. With the help of Kepler‘s first two laws of planetary motion and Newton's laws
of motion, show that the force acting on a planet is directed towards the sun and is
inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the sun.
Q 18.with the help of Kepler‘s third law, show that forces on the planets are
proportional to their masses

Q 19. Deduce Newton's laws of gravitation from Kepler‘s law

Q 20. Show that the spectral lines of positronium are arranged in the same pattern as
in the case of atomic hydrogen spectrum but have nearly double the wavelengths.

Q 21. A particle of mass M moves under the action of a central force who is potential
is V (r) = Kmr 3 where (K > 0) , then (i) For what kinetic energy and angular
momentum will the orbit be a circle of radius R about the origin? (ii) Calculate the
period of circular motion.

Q 22. The eccentricity of the earth orbit is 0.0167. Calculate the ratio of maximum
and minimum speed of the earth in its orbit.

Q 23. A particle describes a circular orbit given by r = 2a cos θ under the influence
of an attractive central force directed towards a point on the circle. So that the force
varies as the inverse fifth power of the distance.

Q 24. A particle of mass m is observed to move in a spiral orbit given by the

equation r = Cθ, where C is a constant. Is it moving in a central force field? If it is
so, find the force law

Q 25. A particle, moving in a central force field located at r = 0, describes a spiral

−θ
r=e . Prove that the magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to r 3 .

Q 26. Find the central force under the action of which, a particle will follow an orbit
described by r = a(1 + a cos θ)
p
Q 27. A particle describe a conic r= 1+e cos θ
, where p and e involves constant
quantities. Shows that the force under which the particle is moving is a central force.
Deduce the force law.

Q 28. A satellite of radius a revolves in a circular orbit about a planet of radius b with
periodT . If the shortest space distance between their surfaces is c, find out the
expression for the mass of the planet M.

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 Q 29. Prove that the product of minimum and maximum speed of a particle moving in
an elliptical orbit is (2πa/T )2 .

Q 30. A particle moves in a bounded orbit under an attractive inverse force. Prove
that the time average of the kinetic energy is half the time average of the potential
energy.

Q 31. Show that the velocity of a planet at any point of its orbit is the same as having
been if it has fallen that point from rest at a distance from the Sun equal to the length
of the major axis.

Q 32. Calculate the time in which a particle moving under inverse square law force
describe the area 0 ≤ θ ≤ α of elliptical orbit.

Previous Years Questions (*Complete Discussion In

Class)
Q 32. A planet revolves around the sun in an elliptic orbit of eccentricity e. If T is the
time period of the planet, find the time is spent by the planet between the ends of the
minor axis close to the sun. 2010

Q 33. A particle is moving in a central force field r = keαθ (i) Find the force law (ii)
Find θ(t) (iii) Find the total energy 2012
Q 34. A particle describes a circular orbit under the influence of an attractive central
force directed towards a point on the circle. Show that the force varies as the inverse
fifth power of distance. 2013

Q 35. A charge particle is moving under the influence of a point nucleus. Show that
the orbit of the particle is an ellipse. Find out the time period of the motion. 2014

Q 36. A body moving in an inverse square attractive field traverses on an elliptical

orbit with eccentricity e and period T . Find the time taken by the body to traverse
the half of the orbit that is nearer the center of force. Explain briefly why a comet
spends only 18% of its time on the half its orbit that is nearer the sun.2016

Q 37. Express angular momentum in terms of kinetic, potential and total energy of a
satellite of mass m in a circular orbit of radius r . 2017

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