Jestr Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Review 10 (1) (2017) 138- 147

Research Article
JOURNAL OF
Engineering Science and
Technology Review

www.jestr.org

Experimental and Numerical Thermal Analysis of Formula Student Racing Car Disc
Brake Design
Manthan Vidiya1,* and Balbir Singh2
1
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal University, Manipal, 576104
INDIA.
2
Department of Aeronautical and Automobile Engineering, Manipal institute of Technology, Manipal University, Manipal, 576104 INDIA.

Received 2 January 2017; Accepted 17 March 2017

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract

Formula racing car brakes undergo massive loading not only mechanical, but thermal as well. There are various
problems that occur due to brake assembly components reaching very high temperatures such as brake fade, induction of
thermal stresses and chances of thermo-mechanical fatigue of components taking the braking loads. Hence analyzing the
brake components for thermal loads becomes very important. This paper deals with the theory behind thermal analysis of
the brake, the method used to calculate the conversion of the car’s kinetic energy to the brake’s heat energy, to find the
convection coefficient available due to the air flow on the car and to determine the overall temperature rise on the brake
disc. This paper shows simulations conducted in various software and the data as well as the graphs obtained from these
simulations. Similar type of data and graphs are obtained from the actual testing with the use of various sensors mounted
on the car. In the end there is a comparison made between the simulation and the data obtained from the car’s testing to
verify the method used for its accuracy and reliability.

Keywords: Formula Student Car; Operating Temperature; Brake Performance; ANSYS; Brake Fade; Convection Coefficient.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction formula style racing car designed and manufactured by the

students of the Manipal Insti tute of Technology, a
Overheating of brakes happens due to many reasons such as constituent institute of Manipal University, India. It is the
heavy braking, prolonged braking, insufficient cooling etc. team’s seventh car weighing 200 kg with a Honda CBR
[1]. Brake fade is the biggest problem that is associated with 600rr engine, 10 inch wheels, an aero package and stainless
rise in temperature which leads to boiling of the brake fluid, steel brake discs on front and the rear wheel with floating
gassing and glazing of brake pads and hence reducing brake discs. We used disc brake system in this car due to the
braking performance [2] Therefore, the brake components advantages such as effective cooling, less weight, self-
should be designed taking the thermal effects in mind. cleaning action etc. described by Er. N.B.Shinde, Prof.
Pradnya Kosbe and Chittaranjan More have described the B.R.Borkar [9] and Subhasis Sarkar, Prof. (Dr.) Pravin P.
characteristics of fade and the recovery behavior of the Rathod [10]. Fig. 1 shows the snapshot of this racing car. As
brakes [3]. Various studies have been made earlier to weight reduction was one the primary goals for this car,
determine the brake temperature rise for single braking there was a significant weight reduction in the brake disc.
[4][5][6] but this paper takes the analysis a step further by Due to the shift from 13 inch rims to 10 inch rims, the size
being able to analyze the temperature throughout a lap of a of the brake disc had to be reduced. As the brake disc acts as
track and for various such laps. The papers [7][8] only a heat sink, mass of the disc plays an important role in heat
shows the rise in temperature for single braking, whereas carrying capacity of the disc. There was a plan to include an
this paper analyzes the operating temperature that the brakes aero package in the car. Because of this, the air coming onto
would achieve once an equilibrium is established between the brakes was obstructed by the front wings. Due to all
the heat generation and dissipation hence will serve as a these factors combined, there was a high risk of our brakes
good basis for thermal optimization of brakes for a formula becoming too hot and the brake fluid boiling. This could not
student car. be allowed as it would affect the car’s performance
drastically during the endurance event. Hence we decided to
1.1 About Formula Student Racing Car find out the operating temperature of our brakes with the
‘Formula Manipal’ is the official Formula student team of help of thermal analysis. Endurance event is a race event in
Manipal University, India. The vehicle dynamics team of the Formula Student competition where the car has to run
this project works on the thermal of brake components as continuously for 22 kilometers without any failure with
well as performs tests of the race car. The car used for timed laps on a pre-determined race track.
testing is called FMX6. It is a single seater, open wheel,
______________ 1.2 The Brake Disc
E-mail address: [email protected] The important requirements of the brake disc are as
ISSN: 1791-2377 © 2017 Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Institute of Technology. All rights reserved. described by Mr. Sachin Subhashrao Pujari, Prof. Mr. K. M.
Narkar and Mr. Kishor T. Phalke [4]:
 Manthan Vidiya and Balbir Singh/Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Review 10 (1) (2017) 138 - 147

• It should provide a surface having well anti wear The brake disc used on the car was made from stainless
qualities. steel 410 and had a diameter of 170 mm and a PCD of 90
• It should allow the optimum rate of heat transfer. mm for mounting on the wheel hub. Stainless steel was used
• Heat is generated at every cycle of brake as disc material due to advantages described in [12].The
application and must be dissipated to the Disc weighed 360 grams and was of a drilled type to ensure
atmosphere. maximum heat dissipation by the air. It is completely
• Sufficient strength and minimum weight. designed and manufactured by the vehicle dynamics team of
• It must be accommodate within the minimum MIT, Manipal. Fig. 2 shows the 2D draft and 3D render of
space available. the designed brake disc. The brake disc has teeth on its
circumference to be used to measure the wheel RPM using
the Hall Effect sensor.

Fig. 1. The Formula Manipal Racing Car

Fig. 2. 2D draft and 3D render of the brake disc

2. Background Theory described an equation to calculate the heat input on the brake
disc. It states that heat flux on the rotor is equal to the
The equations used in this paper along with their relative friction force due to braking times the change in velocity of
theories are given below. For calculating the working the disc produced due to braking.
temperature of the brake, it is important to understand that the
basic function of brakes is to convert the kinetic energy of the 𝐻 = 𝐹! ×∆𝑣 (2)
car into heat energy through friction [5]. This kinetic energy
is not entirely sent to the brakes but also lost due to friction The friction force generated can be calculated using the
between parts, wear and tear of parts, drag etc. Since it is equation given by Saeed Abu Alyazeed Albatlan [12] and
difficult to calculate the kinetic energy loss in the vehicle and Swapnil R. Abhang, D.P.Bhaskar [13].
the actual energy being transmitted to the brakes, we can find
the heat generated at the brakes with another equation. Since 𝐹! = 𝜇! ×𝐴! ×𝑝𝑟×𝑛 (3)
we know
The heat is generated on the brake pad and disc contact.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒× 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (1) Faramarz Talati, Salman Jalalifar [8] have shown how the
heat is distributed on the pad surface.The heat distribution
We can use this principle on the rotor and pad contact between the brake pad and disc depends upon the surface
patch. L. Kowal, K. Turewicz and T. Kruczek [7] have area as well as the material properties of both the

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components. When the contact is taken into account the heat Temperature rise of the components depends directly on
partition coefficient is given by: the heat absorbed by the component. For brake disc, hence
the temperature rise (ΔT) is given by
!! !! !! ×!!
𝑝= (4) !! !!!"#$%!&'"# ! !!"#$"%$&'
!! !! !! ×!! ! !! !! !! ×!!
(𝛥𝑇)! = (9)
!! ×!!

Where 𝑘! is the thermal conductivity of the disc. The

For the brake pad, convection and radiation losses are
term 𝑘𝜌𝑐 is known as the thermal effussivity of the
very less since it is enclosed inside the caliper.
material. Hence the heat absorbed by the disc is given by:
!!
(𝐻! ) = 𝑝×𝐻 (5) (𝛥𝑇)! = (10)
!! ×!!

Heat absorbed by the brake pad is given by:

3. Methodology
𝐻! = (1 − 𝑝)×𝐻 (6)
3.1 Determination of brake force
After finding the heat input, it is important to find the To find the heat generated, we need to find the brake force
heat dissipation to determine the rise in temperature. acting on the brake disc. This can be calculated by knowing
Convection plays the most important role in cooling of the brake pressure. The brake pressure variation can be
brakes. Convection here is defined as the phenomena of heat found out from the data obtained by the brake pressure
being carried away by the air flowing over the brake sensor. Hence the force acting on the rotor is found by
components. Heat lost from a body due to convection multiplying it with the area of the caliper piston and the
depends on the surface area, specific heat and the convection friction force can be found by multiplying the coefficient of
coefficient of the body as described by Ali Belhocine and friction of the brake pad and the disc as shown in Equation
Mostefa Bouchetara [14]. Hence the heat lost in convection (3).
is given by:
3.2 Determination of heat generated
𝐻!"#$%!&'"# !!×!×∆! (7) To determine the heat generated due to the change in kinetic
energy of the car, the power generated on the disc and pad
The amount of surface area of the disc that can be contact can be calculated by using Equations (2). Change in
increased is limited by the wheel size and weight disc velocity can be calculated using the wheel rpm data.
restrictions. Hence it becomes very important to maximize The data is used only when the change in velocity is
convection coefficient which depends upon the boundary negative which signifies brake application as the heat is only
layer which is affected by the surface geometry, fluid motion generated during braking. For all the other time steps the
and thermodynamic as well as fluid transfer properties [15]. heat input is given as zero. This data is inputted as heat
Radiation adds to the cooling effect of the brakes by generated on the pad- rotor contact in ANSYS Thermal. The
dissipating the heat energy in the form of waves [16]. The heat input is balanced by the convection coefficient to
heat dissipated by radiation is given by: determine a working temperature of the brakes. The heat
input to be given was calculated using an excel sheet taking
𝐻!"#$"%$&' = 𝜎×𝐴×ΔT4 (8) all the necessary parameters into account. Fig. 3 shows the
excel sheet used for heat input calculation and Fig. 4 shows
the graph of the heat input to be given in ANSYS Thermal.

Fig. 3. Excel sheet of Heat Calculation

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subtracted from the fluid domain. All the Boolean subtracted

faces were assigned their respective named selections
namely car, wing, wheel and brake disc. Meshing was done
using meshing tool. A volume of influence was used to
refine the mesh around the car. Fig. 5 shows the CAD model
used for CFD simulation. Table. 1 shows the imputs given in
Star CCM+.

Table 1. Inputs given in Star CCM+

Parameters Inputs
Solver type Pressure based
Fig. 4. Heat input given in ANSYS Thermal
Model used K epsilon, realizable
Reference Computed from inlet
values
3.3 Modelling of CFD analysis for determination of
Fluid used Air
convection coefficient
Velocity inlet inlet air velocity was given as 13.89 m/s
Brake disc convective cooling has been historically studied
Pressure Outlet The outlet pressure was defined as 1 atm
by means of experimental and theoretical method and the
Wheel The wheel was defined as a wall rotating
optimization was only boosted with the advent of modern
at 60 rpm
computational resources in the late 1980s [17]. To analyze
Brake disc The brake rotor was defined as a rotating
the convection coefficient available due to the airflow on the
wall at the speed of 60 rpm
rotor, the car was simulated in Star CCM+. The fluid domain
size was defined as being 2 times the car length in front, 3
times the car length in the rear and 3 times the car width
laterally. The shape of the first half of the car was Boolean

Fig. 5. Model used for CFD simulation

terms, a mathematical net or "mesh" is required to carry out
The goal of meshing in Workbench is to provide robust, a finite element analysis [13]. The mesh had 1987512 nodes
easy to use meshing tools that will simplify the mesh and 95695637 elements. Inflation layer was given with
generation process. The model used must be divided into a transition ratio of 0.27 on body, wing, wheel, brake disc and
number of small pieces known as finite elements. Since the the boundaries of the fluid domain. Fig. 6 shows the mesh
model is divided into a number of discrete parts, in simple developed on the 3D model of the car.

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Fig. 6. Mesh used on the car model

Using these conditions, the flow of air near the rotor

mounting area was analyzed and the convection coefficient
available on the rotor was found out.

3.4 Modeling the brake disc in ANSYS Thermal for

finding the temperature rise
Thermal module of ANSYS was used to determine the
temperature rise of the components. Following are the types
of Thermal Analysis [18]:

• A Steady State Thermal Analysis determines the

temperature distribution and other thermal
quantities under steady state loading conditions. A
steady state loading condition is a situation where
heat storage effects varying over a period of time Fig. 7. Mesh used in ANSYS Thermal
can be ignored.
• A Transient thermal analysis determines the Table 2. Disc material properties inputted in ANSYS
temperature distribution and other thermal Thermal
quantities under conditions that vary over a period Property Value
of time Density (kg/m2) 7800
Thermal Conductivity ( 24.9
Referring to the definition mentioned above, we W/m.K)
concluded that transient analysis would be suitable for our Specific Heat (J/Kg.K) 460
simulation. The disc CAD model was uploaded in the Coefficient of Thermal 9.9
designer modular of ANSYS Transient Thermal. The Expansion (µm/°C)
materials were selected from the materials library. Table. 2
shows the material properties. A refined mesh was used to The heat input which is calculated is given on the disc in
ensure accurate results. The numbers of nodes in the mesh 254 time steps each of 0.1 second since the duration of run
were 1313588 and the numbers of elements were 632757. was 25.4 seconds. The convection coefficient calculated
Fig. 7 shows the snap of mesh used in ANSYS Thermal. using FLUENT, is entered on the rotor surface. The
convection coefficient is given as calculated from Fig. 17
according to changing vehicle velocity. Fig. 8 shows the
thermal loading on the brake disc.

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• Inertia & body force effects are negligible during

the analysis.
• No stress in brake disc before the application of
brake.
• Brake disc is of drilled type.
• Thermal conductivity of the material used for
analysis is constant.
• Only ambient air cooling is considered.
• Specific heat of brake disc material is constant &
does not change with temperature.

Fig. 8. Thermal loading on the Brake disc

3.5 Testing conducted on the car
The test was carried out using the car and a track with 2
The emissivity coefficient for radiation is given as 0.53 on acceleration and braking zones respectively and 2 circular
the rotor. The output is selected as temperature distribution turns. The data to be obtained from the testing are brake
and temperature rise due to the heat input considering the pressure, wheel speed, and rotor temperature. While the
heat losses is found. The assumptions which are made while brake pressure and the wheel speed would serve as the input
modeling the process are given below [19]. for the numeric calculation and simulation, the brake disc
temperature will be used to compare with the temperature
• The brake disc material is considered as obtained from the simulation to check for the accuracy of the
homogenous and isotropic. simulation method. Fig. 9 shows the layout and the car on
• The problem domain is considered as axis- the track that was used for testing.
symmetric.

Fig. 9. Test Track layout and car on the track

The brake assembly was fitted with three sensors namely Myrio data logger mounted on the car with motec ECU. Hall
Texense infrared temperature sensor on the disc to measure Effect sensors uses the teeth on the brake disc which creates
the brake disc temperature, Honeywell hall effect sensor to spikes in the output signal of the sensors. This is processed
measure wheel RPM and brake pressure sensors to log the by measuring the amount of spikes per unit time and the
changes in brake pressures. Fig. 10 shows the mounting of RPM is found out.
these sensors on the car. These sensors were logged using

Fig. 10. Sensors mounted on the car

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4. Results convection coefficient vs. velocity of the car was plotted for
the car running on the test track. Sofia Finnved and
4.1 Convection coefficient on the rotor Sebastian Nöbbelin [20] has shown that the convection
The flow around the wheels was simulated with the coeffiecient varies linearly with the car velocity.We
boundary conditions given in sub heading 3.3. The calculated the convection coefficient when the car is
convection coefficient is determined as a wall function. The standing still to be 5.15 W/m2K. Hence we could plot a
maximum convection coefficient of 243.5 W/m2K was straight line showing the variation of convection coefficient
observed on the disk at vehicle speed of 13.89 m/s. This was with velocity. Fig. 11 shows the airflow on the car and the
obtained from a plot on the rotor and will be used to disc and Fig. 12 shows the variation of convection
calculate the heat dissipated by the rotor. The plot of coefficient with car velocity.

Fig. 11. Flow of air on the car and the disc

4.2 Temperature of the brake assembly

The temperature of the brake assembly is determined by
giving the heat input calculated previously on the rotor pad
contact surface. The temperature is plotted on the disc using
ANSYS Transient Thermal module. The maximum
temperature reached by the brake disc is 61.281 degree
Celsius. A graph of variation of temperature with time is
also obtained. The graph shows increase in temperature with
each braking. This graph will be used to compare the disc
temperature obtained from simulation with that obtained
from the actual testing of the car. Fig. 13 shows the plot of
temperature on the brake disc and Fig. 14 shows the
Fig. 12. Variation of convection coefficient with velocity
predicted variation of brake disc temperature for 25.4
seconds.

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variation obtained from the simulation. It is observed that

the the variation is almost similar in nature with
aproximately same maximum temperature. The maximum
temperature shown by the simulation graph is 61.28 degree
celcius where as that obtained from the test graph is 62.3
degree celsius. The maximum difference in both the graps is
of aproximitely 5°C. Fig. 16 shows the comparison of the
temperature variation obtained from the simulation a well as
test run on the car.

Fig. 13. Plot of temperature on disc

Fig. 16. Comparison graph of experimental and simulation disc

temperature

6. Determination of working temperature for the

Fig. 14. Variation of temperature given by simulation endurance race track

4.3 Temperature obtained from Testing The car specification such as weight, power, torque, height
The temperature obtained from the testing with the sensors of center of gravity etc., are given as input in a lap time
on the car was carefully analyzed. The data was plotted as a simulation software called as Optimum Lap. This software
graph to see the variation of temperature during the test and simulates the car on the endurance race track and gives car
compare with the temperature graph obtained from velocity and deceleration as output in the required time
simulation in ANSYS. The maximum temperature reached steps. Fig. 17 shows the endurance track used in Formula
by the brake disc was 62.3 degree. The temperature went to student Germany event.
increase with every braking application. The variation was
bit rough as the brake disc was of drilled type and the sensor This data can be used to calculate the heat input on the
read the holes as drop in temperature. Fig. 15 shows the rotor using the method mentioned above in this paper and
variation of temperature during the testing of the car. the temperature variation can be obtained for 8 laps of the
endurance race track. The variation of temperature observed
from this simulation is given in Fig. 18. Hence it can be
deduced from Fig. 18 that the working temperature of the
brakes is 300 to 500 degree Celsius for the endurance race
track.

Fig. 15. Variation in Disc temperature obtained from experimentation

5. Comparison of simulation and experimental results

This is the most important step in the whole analysis as it

Fig. 17. Endurance race track in optimum lap
shows how reliable the simulation is. The variation of the
disk temperature observed is plotted with the temperature

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manufacture the brake component like brake disc, caliper

etc. as to withstand both thermal and mechanical loading. It
also helps to decide the brake fluid to be used as brake fluids
suitable for different working temperatures are available.
Manufacturing of brake pads require the knowledge of
operating temperature so that the peak of the coefficient of
friction vs Temperature graph can be achieved in that
temperature range using different combination of materials
and thus maximum brake performance can be extracted from
the brake pad.

Acknowledgement
Fig. 18. Variation of temperature for 8 laps of endurance track I would like to acknowledge Manipal Institute of
Technology for their constant support during this research. I
would also like to thank Formula Manipal for the
7. Conclusion and Application knowledge, motivation, prototype car and instruments they
have provided for this research. This research wouldn’t have
We have used the velocity of the car to determine the heat been complete without the help of my college and team
generated due to braking and taken into account various mates.
factors that affect the net heat generation and dissipation
from the brake disc. Thus we have determined the This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
temperature rise in the brake disc and have found a working Creative Commons Attribution Licence
temperature range of the brakes. This method of finding the
operating temperature of the brakes can be used for many
purposes. As by knowing the operating temperature of the
brakes in advance one can decide on the material used to
_____________________________
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Nomenclature
𝐻 Heat input to the brakes.
𝑝 Heat partition coefficient between the brake Disc and brake pad.
𝐻! Heat input to the pad.
𝑘! Thermal conductivity of the pad.
𝜌! Density of the disc.
𝜌! Density of the pad.
𝑐! Specific heat of the disc.
𝑐! Specific heat of the pad.
𝑆! Frictional contact area of the disc.
𝑆! Frictional contact area of the pad.
𝐻! Heat input to the disc.
𝐻!"#$%!&'"# Heat loss due to convection.
𝐻!"#$"%$&' Heat loss due to radiation.
𝐴 Surface area of the disc.
∆𝑇 Difference in temperature of the disc and surrounding air.
𝑚! Mass of the brake pad.
𝑚! Mass of the brake disc.
𝜎 Stefan Boltzmann constant.
∆𝑣 Change in tangential velocity of Disc
𝐹! Friction force on the Disc.
ℎ Convection Coefficient due to airflow
𝜇! Coefficient of friction between brake pad and disc
𝐴! Area of caliper piston
𝑝𝑟 Pressure developed in the brake line
𝑛 Number of pistons in brake caliper

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