DEPARTMENT OF MARINE ENGINEERING

NIGERIA MARITIME UNIVERSITY OKERENKOKO

LECTURE NOTE I: NAVAL ARCHITECTURE II
INTRODUCTION: SHIP HYDROSTATICS AND STABILITY

GM< 0 GM= 0 GM> 0

Unstable Neutrally stable Stable

THE FOUR CORNERSTONES OF SHIP STABILITY

GM BM

GM = KM-KG

KG KB

KM= KG + GM KM = KB +BM

LECTURER: ENGR. PROMISE WILLIAM

1
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROSTATICS AND STABILITY OF
SURFACE SHIPS
The concept of hydrostatics and stability is one of the important aspects to
critically look at in the design of ship and operation and not just the safety of
the ship, cargo, crew but to ensure proper conditions for the completion of all
of the processes involved in ship design.

1.1 Ship Hydrostatics

Some characteristic parameters calculated for a floating ship which can either
directly be used to comment on the nature of stability of the ship or be used
to evaluate other stability parameters, are called ship hydrostatics. For a
naval architect to develop a hull form, or a ship’s captain to understand the
stability parameters. It is important for both to be able to understand the
meaning and practical significance of each hydrostatic parameter of ship. The
hydrostatics parameters that describe the characteristics of the underwater
volume of the ship at a particular draft are: , Mass displacement (∆), Volume
displacement (𝛻), Vertical centre of buoyancy (KB), Longitudinal centre of
buoyancy (LCB), Waterplane area (Aw), BMT, Tonnes per cm Immersion (TPC),
Block coefficient ( CB),Prismatic coefficient (CP), Moment to Change Trim 1cm
(MCT), Metacentre, Metacentric Height, Metacentric Radius. If the ship is out
of water, and draught becomes zero, the particulars ceased to exist. As long
as draught and trim are maintained, the size and shape of the underwater
immersed parts of the ship remains the same. The volumes, areas and
moments of areas and volumes remain the same. Once draught or trim
changes, the particulars will also change.

To understand the hydrostatics, we need to acquaint ourselves with the few

basic ship terminologies often use in the process of evaluating hydrostatics
and stability parameters of a surface ship.

1. Forward Perpendicular: The perpendicular drawn at the point where the

bow of the ship meets the waterline while it floats at design draft, is called
FP.

2
2. Aft Perpendicular: This is the perpendicular drawn through the rudder
stock, AP

3. Length between Perpendiculars: This is the longitudinal distance between

the forward and aft perpendiculars, LPP or LBP

4. Length on Water Line: This is the length of the ship’s hull intersecting
the surface of the waterline, LWL
5. Length overall: This is the maximum length from the forward most point
of the ship’s hull to the aft-most Point, LOA.

6. Keel: The keel is the lowest part of the ship at any point of its length. The
baseline of a ship is the longitudinal line that runs along the keel.

1.2 Stations

A ship’s hull is longitudinally divided into stations, which are nothing but
specified positions along the length of the ship with reference to the aft
perpendicular which is numbered as zero station. Distance between each
station remains constant in the vicinity of midship where a significant parallel
midbody shape prevails. But as we move towards the aft or forward, the shape
of the hull attains a complex geometry, and hence for better results of
analyses, the distance between the stations is reduced

1.3 Offsets
In the process of building a vessel, some means are used for determining the
shapes of the frames with greater precision that can be obtained directly from
the usual lines’ drawings. It has been in practice in many ship yards to attain
the necessary accuracy to redraw the lines to full scale on a large wooden floor
located in a space called mold loft man are then provided with sufficient
information to enable certain portion or the whole of the vessel’s line to be
drawn to full size or scale. For laying off a mold loft men do not only consider
the lines drawing but importantly a list of the measurement that would be
used to locate points through which various curves are to be drawn. The
waterline in the half breadth plan and the supposed distance on each station
from the vessel’s centreline to the waterline are measured. These
measurements are called offsets or offsets table.

3
1.4 Centres of Gravity and Buoyancy

The condition of the vessel as regards stability is determined by location of

two points in a vessel. We need to define the terms before discussing their
relationship. The centre of gravity is the point in which all the vertically
downward forces of the weight of the vessel is considered to act. On the other
hand, the centre of buoyancy is the point in which all the vertically upward
forces are considered to act. This is the centre of volume of the immersed
portion of the vessel.

When a vessel is inclined due to external force like moving weights across
deck or by the action of the seas. The centre of gravity will remain fixed in its
location in the vessel. But if weights are free to move on the vessel, the centre
of gravity will move as well. For the time being, it is assumed that the centre
of gravity remains in its original position but if the vessel does not list, then
the original position is on the centre line. When a vessel is inclined, the centre
of buoyancy will move since it is the centre of volume of the immersed portion
of the vessel and a wedge of buoyancy has been transferred from one part of
the vessel to the other. It is this movement of the centre of buoyancy that
results in a tendency for the vessel to return to its original position. The
intensity of this tendency is a measure of the stability of the vessel.

1.5 Couple

A couple is formed when two equal forces are acting on a body in opposite
directions and along parallel lines.

4
 Fig.1: Transverse view of Hydrostatic Parameters
➢ Ange of Heel: A ship is said to be heeled when she is inclined by an
external force. e.g by the action of waves or winds and added weight
➢ Angle of List: This is the permanent angle of inclination. It is caused
by ship’s centre of gravity transversely shifted from centreline, negative
Metacentric Height (-GM) and combination of gravity off-centreline and
–GM. List occurs when the ship is inclined by forces within the ship
itself. e.g shifting a weight on board transversely. It’s a fixed angle of
heel.
➢ Angle of Loll: As the angle of heel increases, the CB moves out further
until it is directly under G. The capsizing moment disappears now and
this angle of heel at which this condition occurs is called the angle of
loll. The ship now moves around the angle of loll, but if the CB does not
move out far enough to move directly under G, then the vessel will cap-
size.

1.6 Metacentre

As the ship is inclined through small angles of heel, the lines of buoyant force
intersect at a point called the metacentre. When this happen, part of the lower
side is submerged and part of the hull from the upper side emerges out of the
water. From the Fig.1.2 below, the hull when was WL and when the WL
changed to W1L1. Due to this shift of submerged volume, there’s a
corresponding shift in the CB from the centreline to the side that is lower after
heeling. The new position of the CB is B1. If a vertical line is extrapolated from
the new CB, then the point at which this line meets the centreline of the ship
is the metacentre, M. Alternatively, Metacentre is the intersection of the
5
vertical lines through the centres of buoyancy in the initial and slightly
inclined positions.

Fig.1.2: Ship’s Transverse Metacentre

1.7 Centre of Flotation
When the ship floats at a particular draft, any trimming moment acting on
the ship would act about a particular point on the water plane. This point is
the centroid of the area of the water plane and is known as the centre of
flotation, LCF. T

distance of the centre of flotation is read with respect to either of the

perpendiculars or the midship.

1.8 Metacentric Radius, BM

This is the vertical distance between the CB and M. This particular parameter
can be seen as the length of the string of a swinging pendulum of the CG of
the pendulum coincides the CB of the ship. This is to say that the ship
behaves as a pendulum swinging about its M. it is important to know that the
M changes itself every moment because at every angle of heel, the transverse
shift in the CB will vary creating new M.

1.9 Metacentric Height, GM

This is the vertical distance from the CG to the M. The Naval Architect is
probably most concerned about the parameter during the design process. The
IMO codes of stability for ships have provided stability criteria for ships that
are mostly based on this parameter. The value of GM needs to be obtained at
various stages, from the initial design to hull design, during stability analysis

6
of a newly designed hull, after the construction of a ship, and during
operations at sea.

1.10 Moment to Change Trim by 1 cm

For a particular draft, it is the longitudinal moment about the LCF required
to bring about a trim of 1cm. This plays a key role especially when the crew
onboard requires to load cargo in any one hold or ballast or deballast, and
predict the resultant trim caused by the action. Since the expression of this
parameter does not play any significant role in understanding the concepts of
ship stability. MCT is important hydrostatic parameter required by stability
analysis software and crew operations.

1.11 Tonnes Per cm Immersion, TPC

For a particular draft the weight requires to be added onto the ship so as to
cause a parallel sinkage of 1 cm, is expressed as the TPC. This, similar to MCT
is used extensively by the crew to predict the new draft after any operation
that involves addition or removal of weights from the ship.

𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎× 𝜌
TPC in seawater = 1000
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
TPC in freshwater = 1000
1

The above equations give the following results

i. TPC of a ship floating in water of uniform density depends on the area
of waterplane

ii. The parallel sinkage resulting from a particular loading in fresh water
would be more if the same loading was done in sea water

iii. The crew must recalculate the predicted new drafts after loading or
unloading when the ship moves from fresh water to sea water to avoid
unexpected observations.

2.0 Transverse Statical Stability

The Stability of a ship depends on KB, BM, KG and GM. The GM is the most
important parameter. Statical stability is the ability of a vessel to return to
her initial position after being forcibly inclined. This study fosters on, what
happen when a ship is heeled? Initial stability is the stability of the vessel in
7
her initial position and is expressed by the metacentric height. Any reduction
in GM means a loss in the ship’s stability. When the weight of a ship in the
water is pushing straight down and the seawater that it displaces is pushing
straight up and no other forces are acting on the ship, all these forces cancel
each other out and equilibrium exists. However, when the centre of gravity
moves from directly above the centre of buoyancy, there is an inclining
moment. When this occurs, this force is considered to be at right angles to
the forces of gravity and buoyancy.

2.1.1 Moment of Statical Stability

Moment of statical stability or righting moment is a measure of the vessel’s
ability to return to her initial position Recall that the force of gravity acting
downwards is equal to the displacement weight of the vessel. The length of
the GZ depends on where the centre of gravity is, which depends on how the
vessel has been loaded eventually.

Figure 2.1: Moment of Statical Stability

Moment of statical stability = ∆ × GZ( tonnes-metres)
Also, GZ = Gmsin 𝜃
Example 3.1

A ship of 15,000t displacement has an initial metacentric height of 1.3m.

What is the moment of statical stability when the ship is heeled 5 degrees?

∆ = 15,000𝑡, Gm = 1.3m 𝜃 = 5, Gz = Gm𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃,

Where,

Gz = righting arm

Gz = 1.3 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 = 0.1133m

Moment of statical stability = ∆ × 𝐺𝑧

∴ Moment of statical stability = 15000× 0.1133 = 1699.5𝑡𝑚

8
2.1.2 Righting Arm (Lever)

When a vessel is heeled by an external force, the centre of gravity (G)

remains in position if all weights on board are well secured. The centre of
buoyancy (B) will change to the centre of the underwater volume that is to
B1. This will create moment. Now the force of gravity will act vertically
downwards, and the force of buoyancy will act vertically upwards. The
horizontal distance from the centre of gravity (G) to the vertical line from B1
is called the righting lever. The length of the righting lever can be measured,
and is often called GZ, or the GZ righting lever.

GZ =Gm𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
righting lever a lever that will bring a stable ship back to the upright after
being displaced by temporary external forces.
righting moment a moment that will bring a stable ship back to the upright.
Exercise 3.1
A ship of 10 000 tonnes displacement has GM 0.5 m. Calculate the moment
of statical stability when the ship is heeled 7(3/4) degrees (Ans 674.3t-m)
Exercise 3.2
Find the moment of statical stability when a ship of 10450tonnes
displacement is heeled 6 degrees if the GM is 0.5 m (Ans 546.2m)
Exercise 3.3
When a ship of 10000tonnes displacement is heeled 15 degrees, the righting
lever is 0.2 m, KM 6.8 m. Find the KG and the moment of statical stability
(Ans 6.027m & 2000t-m)

3.0 Statical Stability of Small angle of heel

Let a weight already on board be shifted transversely in such a way that G
will change to G1. A small angle of heel or list will form. In this case G1 will
also lie vertically under M as long as the angle of list or heel is small.

9
Therefore, if the final positions of the metacentre and the centre of gravity are
known, the final list can be determined from trigonometry identities.

Note:

1. When solving problems on List, first find out the GM of the vessel. if the
KG has to be calculated then do so if it hasn’t been stated.

2. If there are more than one shifting or loading or discharging involved then
tabulate the moments and get the final moment to either port or to starboard.

In < GG1M,
𝑤×𝑑
GG1 = ∆
𝐺𝐺1
tan𝜃 = 𝐺𝑀
𝑤×𝑑
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ∆×𝐺𝑀

The shift of G. This means GG1

When loading; G always moves towards the loaded weights
𝑊 ×𝑑
GG1 = ∆ +𝑤
; where ∆ = vessel’s displacement before loading the weight

w = weight loaded
d = distance of the loaded weight from the old centre
of gravity

When discharging; G always moves away from the discharged weights

𝑤 ×𝑑
GG1 = ∆ −𝑤
; where ∆ = vessel’s displacement before discharging the weight

w = weight discharged
d = distance of the discharged weight from the old centre of
gravity.

10
When shifting; G always moves in the same direction as, and parallel to the
shifted weight
𝑤 ××𝑑
GG1 = ∆
; where ∆ = vessel’s displacement (this includes the weight
shifted)
w = weight shifted
d = distance that the weight is shifted.

Example 3.1
A ship of 1,500tonnes displacement has KG 2.7 m, and KM 3.1 m and is
floating upright in salt water. Find the final list if a weight of 10tonnes is
shifted transversely across the deck through a distance of 10 metres.

Solution
∆ = 15000t, KG = 2.7m, KM = 3.1m, w = 10t, d = 10m

GM = KM- KG = 3.1 – 2.7 = 0.4m

𝑤×𝑑 10 ×10
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ∆×𝐺𝑀
= 1500 ×0.4
= 0.16

𝜃 = 9.50
Exercise 3.1
A weight of 12 tonnes when moved transversely across the deck through a
distance of 12 m, causes a ship of 4,000 tonnes displacement to list 3.80 to
starboard. If KM 6 m, find the KG. (Ans=5.46m)

Exercise 3.2

A ship of 4,515 tonnes displacement is upright and has KG 5.4 m and KM 5.8
m It is required to list the ship 20 to starboard and a weight of 15 tonnes is to
be shifted transversely for this purpose. Find the distance through which it
must be shifted. (Ans=4.2m)

Exercise 3.3
A ship of 6,500 tonnes displacement is floating upright and has GM 0.15 m.
A weight of 50 tonnes. already on board, is moved 1.5 m vertically downwards
and 5m transversely to starboard. Find the list. (Ans=130)

11
3.1.1 Stability at Large Angle
For a ship being acted upon by external moments for instance, the righting
moment will balance the external moment giving a steady angle of heel. If
there is inadequate righting moment, the vessel will capsize.

Righting moment = ∆ × 𝐺𝑍
Where,
∆ = displacement
𝐺𝑍 = righting arm or righting lever.

In any loading condition, displacement, does not change. Hence the righting
moment in any loading condition will only depend on the righting arm, GZ. If
we can get the GZ values in that particular loading condition, we can know
its righting moment and hence the stability of the vessel. Stability curve in
fig.1.5 is a curve drawn that shows the righting levers developed in different
conditions of load and angles of heel. GZ increases from zero when upright to
reach a maximum point and then decreases to become zero again at some
point. The ship will capsize if the applied moment is such that its lever is
greater than the value of GZ. It becomes unstable once the point has been
passed. OB is known as the range of stability. The curve of GZ against ∅ is
termed the GZ curve or curve of statical stability where ∅ is the angle of
inclination.

GZ curve When the vessel heels, the part of the vessel that is under water
changes behaviour. This means that the centre of buoyancy B keeps
changing, depending on the heel of the vessel. The GZ value changes alongside
with the heeling. The illustration below shows how the GZ value increases,
the more the vessel heels. At some point the GZ value reaches a maximum.
Here the vessel has the maximum righting force. After this point the GZ value
decreases. When the GZ value drops to 0, the vessel capsizes. GZ values at
different degrees of heeling can be plotted to form a curve as shown below -
called a GZ curve

12
 Point of maximum stability lever

B
Fig.1.5: 𝐺𝑍 against ∅

When the metacentre can no longer be considered fixed (it is known now as
the pro-metacentre). Methods other than using only the metacentric height
must be employed for calculating a vessel’s statical and dynamical stability.
Two of these methods are:
(i) use of the wall-sided formula.
(ii) use of Moseley’s formula.

Dynamical Stability

Dynamical stability is the measure of the work which is done when the vessel
is inclined by external forces. It may be found by multiplying the vertical
separation of B and G by the displacement . Alternatively, Dynamic stability
is the ability of a vessel to resist or overcome external heeling forces and is
directly proportional to the area underneath the curve of statical stability

Dynamic stability = Area under GZ curve × ∆

Area under GZ curve =h/3(y1 +4y2 + y3); h is the interval

Wall sided formula for GZ is

1
GZ= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(GM + 2 BMtan2𝜃 )

Example 3.2
A box-shaped vessel 55 m × 7.5 m × 6 m has KG 2.7 m, and floats in salt
water on an even keel at 4 m draft F and A. Calculate the moments of statical
stability at
(a) 6 degrees heel and
(b) 24 degrees heel.

13
 Solution
∆ = L × 𝐵 × 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 × 1.025 = 55 × 7.5 × 4 × 1.025
∆ = 1691.25tonnes
For a box shape;
B2 7.5 ×7.5
BM = = = 1.172m
12𝑇 12 ×4
1
KB = × 4 = 2m
2

KM = KB + BM = 2 + 1.172 = 3.172m
GM = KM -KG = 3.172 – 2.7
GM = 0.472m
a) for 6 degrees heel
GZ = GMsin 𝜃 = 0.472sin 6 = 0.049m
Moment of statical stability = ∆ × 𝐺𝑍
Moment of statical stability = 1691.25 × 0.049
Moment of statical stability = 83tonnes-m
b) for 24 degrees heel
1
GZ= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(GM + BMtan2𝜃 )
2

1
GZ= 𝑠𝑖𝑛24(0.472 + × 1.172 ×tan224 )
2

GZ= 𝑠𝑖𝑛24(0.472 + 0.116 )

GZ= 0.239𝑚

Moment of statical stability = 0.239 × 1691.25 = 404.48𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 − 𝑚

Example 3.2

A wall-sided vessel with the following parameters: GM 1.2m, BM 7.5m with

displacement of 6000T heeled at 20°. Determine the possible righting

moment.

Solution

Given Data: 𝜃 = 200, GM= 1.2𝑚, BM= 7.5𝑚, ∆ = 6000𝑇

Required: GZ and righting moment

Using the formula,

1
GZ= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(GM + BMtan2𝜃 )
2

14
 1
GZ = sin 20(1.2 + 2 × 7.5𝑡𝑎𝑛2 20)

GZ = 0.3420 × 1.6968 = 0.5803

Righting moment = ∆ × GZ

Righting moment = 6000 × 0.5803

Righting moment = 3481.6𝑇𝑀

Exercise 3.1

A box-shaped vessel floating at an even keel in salt water has the following
particulars: 83.00m×18:00m×10.50m, draft = 6.12m, KG =6.86m. An empty
midship watertight compartment 14.64 m long and extending the full breadth
of the vessel is bilged. Calculate each of the following: (a) the new draft;(b)
the GM in thee flooded condition; (c) the righting moment at an angle of 17
degrees.

4.0 Calculations of KM, KB, BM and Final KG

For any particular draft or displacement at low angle of heel, the keel and the
metacentre are fixed. Therefore, the values of KB, BM and KM are fixed, as
can be obtained from hydrostatic particulars. So that the metacentric height
will only depend on the height of centre of gravity. In other words, to ensure
a large GM, we can only ‘control’ KG. hence, to ascertain the GM for any
condition of loading it is necessary also to calculate the KB and BM for any
draft. The metacentric diagram, in which KB and KM are plotted against draft,
is a convenient way of defining the position of B and M for a range of
waterplanes parallel to the design or load waterplane. Consider a floating
upright vessel below.

15
 Figure4.1: Floating Upright Vessel
KM = KB + BM = KG +GM
KB = KG +GM - BM
KG depends on ship loading
KB & BM depend on ship geometric

➢ How to Determine KB for a Box/ Pontoon and Ship Shape Vessels

The centre of buoyancy is the centre of gravity of the underwater volume. For
a pontoon vessel on even keel as shown in figure 4.1 (a) the underwater
portion or volume is rectangular in shape and the centre of buoyancy will be
at half-length, on the centre line, and at half the draft.

Figure 4.1(a): Box Shape Vessel (b)Ship Like Shape Vessel

On even keel:

1
KB = 2
×draft

𝐼 LB^3
BM = 𝛻 = 12×𝛻

For a ship like shape, KB can be obtained using Simpson’s rule or the
approximate depth of the centre of buoyancy can be obtained using the
Morrish’s formula

1 𝑑 𝛻
Depth of CB below waterline = (
3 2
+ 𝐴𝑤
)
Where,
d = mean draft
Aw = waterplane area
𝛻 = displacement volume

16
Example 4.1
A pontoon floats upright on an even in fresh water of 1.000t/m3, and the
1
centre of buoyancy is 2
m above the keel. Calculate the height of the centre
of buoyancy, KB above the keel when the vessel is floating in sea water of
1.025t/m3.
Solution

1
In fresh water, KB= 2
m

In sea water,

𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡
= 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
New draft = 𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 × 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦

1.000
New draft = 1 × 1.025

New draft = 0.9756𝑚

1
New KB =2 × 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡

1
New KB= 2
× 0.9756 = 0.4878𝑚

Derivation of Metacentric Radius

With the aid of appropriate diagram, the metacentric radius can be derived

with respect to the movement of inertia about the longitudinal centre line to

the volume displacement. Consider the diagram below.

17
 b

1/3.b/2 M
g2
𝜃𝛼
g1 𝜃
h
1
B

BB1= Mass of water ×g1 g2

Displacement

BB1 = Mw g1 g2 4.1
∆
From < BMB1
BB1 = Bm tan 𝜃 4.2
Substituting (4.2) into (4.1)
BM = Mw g1 g2 4.3
∆ tan 𝜃

1 1
Area of the wedge g1 = g2 = 2
× 2
bh
𝑏ℎ
A= 4
4.4

From the figure

𝑏
h= 2
× tan 𝜃
𝑏 𝑏 b2
A= 4
×
2
× tan 𝜃 =
8
× tan 𝜃

V =A.L
b2
V= 8
× tan 𝜃 ×L
b2
Mw = 8
× tan 𝜃 ×L× 𝜌

From g1 to g2, we have

g1 – g2 = b – (2b/6) = 2b/3
Mw = 𝜌 V

18
 b2
Mw = 𝜌 × 8
× tan 𝜃 ×L

From equation 4.3

b2
𝜌× × tan 𝜃×L 2𝑏
BM= 8
∆
× 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
b3Lρ
BM= 12∆

Recall that,
∆ = 𝜌𝛻
And
b3L
12
= I (for transverse inclination)

BM = I/𝛻
For a box shape vessel:
B2
BM = 12𝑇
where T = draft

Example 4.2
A box-shaped vessel 75 m long, 12 m beam and 7 m deep, is floating on an
even keel at 6 m draft. Calculate the KM
Solution
L = 67m, B = 12m, H = 7m, draft = 6m
12×12
BM = 12 ×6
= 2m
1 1
KB = 2
×𝑇 =
2
× 6 = 3𝑚

KM = KB + BM
KM = 3+ 2 = 5m

Final KG
Whenever a shipbuilding is completed at shipyard by the shipbuilders,
stability information is usually delivered to the owner of the ship. which
includes details of the ship’s Lightweight, the Lightweight vertical centre of
gravity and Longitudinal centre of gravity and also the positions of the centres
of gravity of cargo and fuel oil spaces. This gives initial condition of the vessel
from which the displacement and KG for any condition of loading may be
calculated. The final KG is calculated by taking the moments of the weights
loaded or discharged, about the keel through the relationship,

Final moment = Final KG × Final displacement

Final moment
Final KG = Final displacement
19
Example 4.3
A ship has a displacement of 1,800 tonnes and KG = 3m. She loads 3,400
tonnes of cargo (KG = 2.5 m) and 400 tonnes of bunkers (KG = 5.0m). Find
the final KG
Solution

Weight KG Moment about the

keel
1800 3.0 5400
3400 2.5 8500
400 5 2000
TOTAL= = 15900
5600

Final moment 15900

Final KG = Final displacement
= 5600
= 2.84m

Example 4.4
A ship has displacement 2000 tonnes and KG = 4 m. She loads 1500 tonnes
of cargo (KG = 6 m), 3500 tonnes of cargo (KG = 5 m) and 1520 tonnes of
bunkers (KG = 1 m). She then discharges 2000 tonnes of cargo (KG =2.5 m)
and consumes 900 tonnes of oil fuel (KG = 0.5 m) during the voyage. Find the
final KG on arrival at the port of destination.
Solution

Weight KG Moment about the

Keel
2000 4 8000
1500 6 9000
3500 5 17500
1520 1 1520
= 8520 = 36020
-2000 2.5 -5000
-900 0.5 -450
= - 2900 = -5450

TOTAL = = 36020 -5450 =

8520 -2900 30570
= 5620

Final moment 30570

Final KG = Final displacement 5620
Final KG = 5.44m

20
Exercise 4.1
A ship of 6,000 tonnes displacement has KG = 6 m and KM = 7.33 m. The
following cargo is loaded: 1000 tonnes, Kg 2.5 m 500 tonnes, Kg 3.5 m 750
tonnes, Kg 9.0 m. The following cargo is then discharged: 450 tonnes of cargo
Kg 0.6m and 800 tonnes of cargo Kg 3.0m Find the final GM

Exercise 4.2
A ship arrives in port with displacement 6,000 tonnes and KG 6 m. She then
discharges and loads the following quantities: Discharge 1250 tonnes of cargo
KG 4.5m, 675 tonnes of cargo KG 3.5m, 420 tonnes of cargo KG 9.0m. And
Load 980 tonnes of cargo KG 4.25m, 550 tonnes of cargo KG 6.0m, 700 tonnes
of bunkers KG 1.0m, 70 tonnes of FW KG 12.0m. During the stay in port 30
tonnes of oil (KG 1m.) are consumed. If the final KM is 6.8 m., find the GM on
departure.

5.0 Intact and Damaged Stability of ships

The understanding of a surface ship’s stability can be grouped into two:
a. Intact stability and (b) Damaged stability

5.1 Intact stability

The Intact stability is so crucial and thus left the naval architects with the
question, what happen when a ship is tipped over? This of course increases
further research on ship stability. This field of study deals with the stability
of a surface ship when the intactness of its hull is maintained, and no
compartment or watertight tank is damaged or flooded by seawater. The
fundamental concept of intact stability of a ship is that of equilibrium. There
are three types of equilibrium situations that can occur for a sailing ship,
depending on the relation between the positions of centre of gravity and centre
of buoyancy.

5.2 Damage stability

How do ships get damaged?
➢ Compounded operator error
• Improper ship maintenance over time

21
 • Multiple improper procedures leading to collisions ships, rocks, reefs,
piers etc
➢ Storms, hurricanes,
• water on deck,
• physical damage to hull, communications, radar, rudder, propeller etc.
Damage stability can be defined as the minimum adequate stability of a ship
when some part of the ship is damaged or opened to the sea. All types of ships
and boats are subject to the risk of sinking if they lose their watertight
integrity whether by collision, grounding or internal accident such as an
explosion. The most effective protection is provided by internal subdivision by
means of watertight transverse and/or longitudinal bulkheads and by some
horizontal subdivision like double bottom in commercial ships and watertight
flats in naval vessels. Damaged stability also includes the identification of
compartments or tanks that are subjected to damage and flooded by seawater,
followed by a prediction of resulting trim and draft conditions. Ship sinks
through:
• foundering (occurs when run over something and it damages the vol. of
the hull)
• capsizing(submerged)
• plunging (occurs when the bow is damaged e,g Titanic)

In Practice: If any tank(s) appeared to have suffered damaged and ingress of

water is confirmed, make necessary arrangement to pump out the water. If
the pumps are not effective and cannot contain the ingress of water the whole
compartment can be sealed preventing other compartments from being
flooded. If a self-closing watertight door is provided, it should be operated from
the bridge itself. Also, check for oil spill. If any fuel tank or oil tank is damaged
and if there is imminent damaged of oil spill. The procedure mentioned in
SOPEP should be strictly followed to contain the spill. Reach the nearest port
if possible. If the captain attempt to correct the list or trim, he should consider
the effect of shear force, bending moments, free surface effect when transfer-
ring liquid, ballasting and deballasting. Take the sounding, access damaged,
record date, time of type of incident, name of vessel and IMO number, and
send signal. It is essential to have a standard of subdivision such that there

22
is a reasonable chance that the ship will remain afloat under such an emer-
gency. And the percentage volume of a space that can be flooded is known as
the permeability.

5.3 The Effects of Damaged Compartments

A damaged vessel could be lost in one of following ways:
i. A vessel may be lost even if stability is not compromised. It may simply
sink through foundering.
ii. If the ship is left with inadequate maximum righting moment or dynam-
ical stability, it could simply be overwhelmed by the seaway and the
weather.
iii. If the angle of list or trim is too great, placing non-watertight parts of
the ship underwater, then additional flooding will occur. In this case
the ship could lose transverse stability, roll over and capsize

Example 5.1
A damaged compartment has the following dimensions:
Length = 20m, Breadth = 20m, Height = 8m.
The compartment is now flooded with salt water to a depth of 6m.
calculate the volume of water that has been added to the compartment.

Solution
Volume = Length x Breadth x Depth of Flooding Water
Volume = 20 x 20 x 6 =2400m3
Second, multiply the volume of water by its specific gravity
Weight added(water) = 2400 × 1.025 = 2460𝑘𝑔

6.0 Permeability of Tanks and Compartments

The amount of volume that floods a compartment depends on the permeability
of the space. Permeability is the amount of a given spaces able to be flooded
by that water. A compartment, which has been opened to the sea, is said to
have been bilged. That is an empty compartment holed below the waterline
such that water can flow in and out is said to be bilged. It is necessary to
isolate the flooded volume in order to:
a. restrict loss of reserve buoyancy
b. restrict the damage to cargo. etc
23
The permeability of a compartment can be calculated from the following
formula
𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒
Permeability(μ) = 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑒
× 100%

6.0 Stable Equilibrium

A stable equilibrium is achieved when the vertical position of G is lower than
the position of the metacentre(M). So, when the ship heels to an angle, 𝜃, the
centre of buoyancy(B) now shifts to B1. The lateral distance or lever between
the weight and buoyancy in this condition results in a moment that brings
the ship back to the original upright position.

Figure 2.1: Stable Equilibrium

6.1 Unstable equilibrium

This is caused when the vertical position of G is higher than the position of
transverse metacentre (M). So, when the ship heels to an angle (say theta- Ɵ),
the centre of buoyancy (B) now shifts to B1. But the righting lever is now
negative, or in other words, the moment created would result in creating
further heel until a condition of stable equilibrium is reached. If the condition

24
of stable equilibrium is not reached by the time the deck is not immersed, the
ship is said to capsize.

Figure 2.2: Unstable Equilibrium

6.2 Neutral Equilibrium:

This is the most dangerous situation possible, for any surface ship, and all
precautions must be taken to avoid it. It occurs when the vertical position of
CG coincides with the transverse metacentre (M). As shown in the figure
below, in such a condition, no righting lever is generated at any angle of heel.
As a result, any heeling moment would not give rise to a righting moment,
and the ship would remain in the heeled position as long as neutral stability
prevails. The risk here is, at a larger angle of heel in a neutrally stable shift,
an unwanted weight shifts due to cargo shifting might give rise to a condition
of unstable equilibrium.

25
 Figure2.3: Neutral Equilibrium

6.3 How to correct unstable and neutral equilibrium

At any point in time the ship is found in an unstable or neutral equilibrium,
the effective CG should be lowered using any of the following methods:
i. Weights onboard may be lowered
ii. Weights may be loaded below the CG of the ship
iii. Weights may be discharged from positions above the CG
iv. Free surfaces within the ship may be removed.

7.0 Inclining Experiment/Stability Test

Incline test involves the moving of known weights transversely or
longitudinally across the deck of a ship and the resulting inclination
measured. It purpose is to determine the lightship parameters of a vessel,
from which the stability characteristics can be determined for each
condition of loading, principally:

• Lightship displacement of the vessel;

• Longitudinal centre of gravity; and

26
 • Vertical centre of gravity

7.1 Procedure of the Incline

7.1.1 Notification of the Incline

A written notification is to be submitted in due time before the test, stating

the intended procedures. This gives the opportunity for all parties involved
that the test later on can be carried out under best possible conditions.

7.1.2 Slack tanks should be kept to an absolute minimum.

The vessel must be inspected and notes made of the distribution and weight
of any temporary material or equipment on board that cannot be removed at
the time. All tanks should be inspected to ensure that they are empty. This
should not present the inspector with a problem if the vessel is a new vessel
at delivery stage. However, if the vessel is operational, if it is not possible to
empty the tanks, they should be topped up to ensure that there would be no
free surface effect during the experiment.

7.1.3 Mooring Arrangement

As the mooring arrangement is affecting the results of an inclining

experiment strongly, great importance has to be attached to this matter. While
the readings are taken during the inclining test, it has to be ensured that the
vessel can move freely. Basically, the ship has to be moored in a calm area,
with enough water depth and no passing ships during the test. In general the
ship should be moored with lines at both end of ship and the ropes shall be
fixed as close to the ships centreline as possible. When the ship is moored
only to one side long spring lines should be added. To guarantee that the ship
trims freely during the readings tug assistance is recommended if the vessel
has contact to the pier. If the weather conditions during the test are unstable
(e.g. gusty wind from varying directions) the impact on the heeling moments
may be too strong. In this case additional test points have to be included.

7.1.4 Freeboard/Draft Reading

To obtain exact results the draft readings should be taken immediately before
or after the inclining test on each side of the vessel at all draught marks (at
least aft, midship and forward). While the draft readings are taken all weights
should be onboard and in place and all personal who will be onboard the ship

27
during the inclining test should be onboard and in place. Normally the water
around a vessel is not that calm that an exact draft reading can be taken in
one observation. If the water is moved more readings should be made and the
average value used.

7.1.5 Pendulum Reading

In general, the use of three pendulums is recommended but a minimum of
two pendulums should be used to allow identification of bad readings at any
one pendulum stations. The pendulums should be long enough to give a
measured deflection, to each side of upright, of at least 15 cm. It is recom-
mended that pendulum length should be as long as possible, due to the fact
that the longer the pendulum the greater the accuracy of the test.

7.1.6 Number of Personnel be limited

It is a professional practice to ensure that personnel onboard during incline
are limited otherwise any addition be accounted for

7.1.7 Equal Weights

8 equal weights are be placed onboard. 4 at port/or aft and 4 at starboard/or
fore.

7.1.8 Incline Plot and Result Interpretation

Fig. A Fig. B Fig. C

Fig. A: Excessive free liquids. Re-check all tanks, voids and the tank top.
Pump out or top up as necessary. Re-do all weight movements and re-check
freeboard and draught readings.

28
Fig. B: Ship touching bottom or pier, alternatively restrained by mooring
lines. Take water soundings and check lines. Re-do weight movements 2 and
3.
Fig. C: Steady wind from port side came up after initial zero point taken. This
plot is acceptable.

Fig.D Fig.E Fig.F

Fig. D: Gusty wind from port side. Re-do movements 1 and 5

Fig. E: On one pendulum only: Measurement scaffolding or pendulum an-
choring-point shifted between movements 2 and 3. Use data from the other
pendulum(s) if a straight line was obtained there and the slopes of all lines
coincide. On both pendulums: Possibly wind as on Fig. C.
Fig. F: Random variances: If the deviations cannot be related to specific
causes, add extra movements to both sides until improved significance is ob-
tained. The slope for all pendulums must coincide

Example 7.1
A ship has a displacement of 3600tonnes and during incline experiment
4tonnes of ballast were moved transversely through 6m. This caused the end
of a pendulum 5m long to deflect by 75mm. Calculate the GM in this condi-
tion.
Solution
∆ = 3600t, 𝑏 = 75mm = 75 × 10-3m, w = 4𝑡, d = 6𝑚, l =5m
𝑤×𝑑
GM = ∆ × tan 𝜃
𝑏
tan 𝜃 = 𝑙
𝑤×𝑑×𝑙 4 ×6 ×5
GM = = = 0.44𝑚
∆×𝑏 3600 ×0.075

29
Example 7.2
A ship has KM 6.1m and displacement 3.50tonnes when a mass of 15tonnes
already onboard is moved horizontally across the deck through a distance of
10m. it causes 0.25m deflection in an 8m long plumb line. Calculate the ship’s
KG.
Solution
KM = 6.1m, ∆ = 3.50𝑡, w = 15𝑡, d = 10𝑚, 𝑏 = 0.25m, l =8m
𝑤×𝑑 𝑤×𝑑×𝑙
GM = =
∆ × tan 𝜃 ∆×𝑏
15 ×10 ×8
GM = 3.50 ×0.25 = 1.5𝑚

But,
KM = 𝐾𝐺 + 𝐺𝑀
6.1 = 𝐾𝐺 + 1.5
𝐾𝐺 = 4.6m
Note that KM is constant for a particular draft and can be obtained from the
vessel’s curves of form and GM is obtained from the experiment.

Exercise 7.1
A box-shaped vessel 60 m × 10 m × 3 m is floating upright in fresh water on
an even keel at 2 m draft. When a mass of 15 tonnes is moved 6 m transversely
across the deck a 6 m plumb line is deflected 20 cm. Find the ship’s KG (Ans:
2.92m)
Exercise 7.2
A ship of 8000tonnes has KM 7.3m and KG 6.1m. A mass of 25tonnes is
moved transversely across the deck through a distance of 1.5m. Determine
the deflection of a plumb line which is 4m long (Ans: 15.6cm)

Exercise 7.3
Prior to performing an inclining experiment, the Naval Architect found out
that the ship’s initial metacentric height was 1 m. And a weight of 10tonnes,
1
when shifted 12m transversely, had listed the ship 32 degrees and produced

a deflection of 0.25 m in the plumb line. Find the ship’s displacement and the
length of the plumb line (Ans: 1962tonnes & 4.087m)

30
Exercise 7.4
A ship has an initial GM=0.5 m. When a mass of 25 tonnes is shifted trans-
versely a distance of 10m across the deck, it causes a deflection of 0.4m in a
4m plumb line. Find the ship’s displacement (Ans: 5000t)

8.0 FREE SURFACE EFFECT

Whenever there is a surface of liquid which is free to move, there is a loss of
effective GM. This loss takes place irrespective of the position of the free sur-
face in the ship. Any loss in GM decreases the ship’s stability. What happen
when liquid sloshes around in a tank? Liquid that only partially fills a com-
partment is said to have a free surface that tends to remain horizontal (par-
allel to the waterline). When the ship is inclined, the liquid flows to the lower
side in the direction of inclination, increasing the inclining moment. This
would cause the ship to take up an angle of loll which may be dangerous and
in any case is undesirable.

8.1 FACTORS AFFECTING FREE SURFACE EFFECT

Pocketing Free Surface Effect can be reduced, to some extent, by creating

pocketing. Pocketing occurs when the surface of the liquid contacts the top or

bottom of the tank, reducing the breadth (B) of the free surface area. Since

the effects of pocketing cannot be calculated, it is an indeterminate safety

factor. The Free Surface correction will therefore indicate less overall stability

than actually exists.

Surface Permeability Impermeable objects engines, pumps, piping systems,

etc) inside a flooded space project through and above the liquid surface. These

objects inhibit the moving water and the shifting of the wedge may or may not

be complete, thus reducing Free Surface Effect. The impermeable objects also

occupy volume, reducing the amount of flooding water e.g movable weigh, that

can fill the space.

31
Swash Bulkheads (Baffle Plates) In addition to some structural support,

these bulkheads are designed to reduce Free Surface Effect. They are

longitudinal bulkheads that hinder, but do not prevent, the flow of liquid from

side to side as the ship rolls or heels. They are found in tanks, voids, double

bottoms, bilges, etc.

Sluice Valves Free flow (Sluice) valves on tankers allow opposing tanks to be

cross-connected. When large, partially filled tanks are connected, Free

Surface Effect increases, and the vessel becomes less stable.

32
8.2` Effect of Free Surface of Liquids on Stability

Free surface in a ship causes a reduction in GM, due to a change in the G,

and a consequent reduction in stability. The free surface effect is separate

from and independent of any effect that may result merely from the addition

of the weight of the liquid. FSE varies inversely with displacement. A

completely empty or full tank will have zero effect. When free surface exists,

a free surface correction must be included in stability calculations. However,

when a tank is completely filled so that there is no free surface, the liquid in

the tank may be treated as a solid; that is, the only effect of the liquid on

stability is the effect of its weight at its particular location. Also, free surfaces

of liquids inside a floating structure can have a large influence on its static

stability; they reduce the righting moment or stability lever arm.

8.3 Conditions of Free Surface Effect

i. FSE increases with increased length and width of compartment

ii. FSE increases when displacement decreases (de-ballasting)

iii. FSE is independent of the depth of the liquid

Free Surface Correction, FSC

When free surface exists onboard a ship the stability of that ship is
compromised. The free surface gives rise to free surface moment which in
effect reduces the GM. The reduction known as the free surface correction,
FSC. The FSC is calculated from the formula,

FSC = free surface moment

Ship displacement

Free surface moment = i × 𝜌

Where,
33
i = second moment of area of the surface of
the liquid
𝜌= density of liquid being considered.
once the FSC is known, the new reduced GM called GMliquid is reduced.
GMliquid = GMsolid – FSC
It is important to avoid free surface or at least minimised. For tank with a
regular surface, we have that:

1
FSC = 12 × tank length×(tank breadth)3×density of liquid
Ship displacement

1
FSC = 12∆ ×L× 𝐵3𝜌

8.0 Practical Considerations of Ship’s Drydocking

During drydocking operations, it is important to have the vessel trimmed by
the stern. This enables the stern to be set on the blocks, and then used as a
pivot to align the keel along the blocks. If the vessel is not trimmed by the
stern then experienced personnel are required to manipulate the mooring
tackles forward and aft. On entering the drydock the ship is lined up with her
centreline vertically over the centreline of the keel blocks and the shores are
placed loosely in position. The dock gates are then closed and pumping out
commences. At the time the vessel first touches the blocks, the whole of the
vessel’s weight is supported by the buoyancy of the water. As water is pumped
from the dock, part of the buoyancy of the water is transferred to the keel
blocks, referred to as the upthrust (P). It will be shown that this P causes a
loss of GM. Any loss in GM will of course be a loss in the ship’s stability.

To avoid the loss of GM causing instability:

a. The vessel should have an adequate GM.
b. Free surface in the tanks should be kept minimum.
c. The vessel should not be trimmed too much by the stern.
In practice, the trim prior to drydocking is about 0.30m to 1.00m by the
stern.

34
As the water level falls in the drydock there is no effect on the stability so long
as the ship is completely waterborne, but after the stern lands on the blocks
the draft aft will decrease and the trim will change by the head. This will con-
tinue until the ship takes the blocks overall throughout her length, when the
draft will then decrease uniformly fore and aft. The interval of time between
the stern post landing on the blocks and the ship taking the blocks overall is
referred to as the critical period. During this period part of the weight of the
ship is being borne by the blocks, and this creates an upthrust at the stern
which increases as the water level falls in the drydock. The upthrust causes
a virtual loss in metacentric height and it is essential that positive effective
metacentric height be maintained throughout the critical period, or the ship
will heel over and perhaps slip off the blocks with disastrous results. Consider
the longitudinal section of the ship below during the critical period.

Figure 7.1: Ship on Support Block

Moment caused = Trimming moment, t
P × 𝑙 = MCT× 𝑡
𝑀𝐶𝑇 ×𝑡
P= 𝑙

Where,
P = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 (tonnes)
𝑙 = distance of the centre of floatation from the aft (m)
𝑡 = trim (cm)
To determine the loss of GM.
we consider the heeled vessel at angle 𝜃

35
Taking moment about M
w× 𝐺𝑀 sin 𝜃 − 𝑃 × 𝐾𝑀 sin 𝜃 = 𝑤 × 𝐺 1Msin 𝜃
w× 𝐺𝑀 sin 𝜃 − 𝑤 × 𝐺1𝑀 sin 𝜃 = 𝑃 × 𝐾𝑀 sin 𝜃
w (𝐺𝑀 − 𝐺1𝑀) = 𝑃 × 𝐾𝑀
𝑃×𝐾𝑀
𝐺𝑀 − 𝐺1𝑀 = 𝑤

But loss of GM = 𝐺𝑀 − 𝐺1𝑀

and w = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, ∆
𝑃 × 𝐾𝑀
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑀 = ∆

Example 7.1
A vessel of 3000t displacement, KM 4.5m MCT 1 cm 80tm is trimmed 50cm
by the stern. The sternpost is 40m abaft the centre of flotation. Calculate the
loss of GM at the instant the stern takes the blocks.
Solution
∆= 3000t, KM =4.5m, MCT1cm = 80tm, t = 50cm, l =40m

𝑀𝐶𝑇 ×𝑡 80 ×50
P= 𝑙
= 40
= 100𝑡
𝑃 × 𝐾𝑀 100 ×4.5
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑀 = ∆
= 3000
= 0.15m

36
37