Organisms – D 2.

1 Cell and nuclear division (HL)

Syllabus Overview & Objectives

Guiding Questions:

“How can large numbers of genetically identical cells be produced? ”

“How do eukaryotes produce genetically varied cells that can develop into gametes?"

Include proliferation for growth within plant meristems and

early-stage animal embryos as examples. Include skin as an
D2.1.12 Cell proliferation for growth, cell
example of cell proliferation during routine cell replacement and
AHL replacement and tissue repair
of wound healing. Students are not required to know details of
the structure of skin.
Students should understand that cell proliferation is achieved
D2.1.13 using the cell cycle. Students should understand the sequence of
Phases of the cell cycle
AHL events including G1, S and G2 as the stages of interphase,
followed by mitosis and then cytokinesis.
Students should appreciate that interphase is a metabolically
active period and that growth involves biosynthesis of cell
D2.1.14
Cell growth during interphase components including proteins and DNA. Numbers of
AHL
mitochondria and chloroplasts are increased by growth and
division of these organelles.
Limit to the concentration of different cyclins increasing and
D2.1.15 decreasing during the cell cycle and a threshold level of a specific
Control of the cell cycle using cyclins
AHL cyclin required to pass each checkpoint in the cycle. Students are
not required to know details of the roles of specific cyclins.
Include mutations in proto-oncogenes that convert them to
D2.1.16 Consequences of mutations in genes
oncogenes and mutations in tumour suppressor genes, resulting
AHL that control the cell cycle
in uncontrolled cell division.
Differences between tumours in
Include the terms “benign”, “malignant”, “primary tumour” and
D2.1.17 rates of cell division and growth and
“secondary tumour”, and distinguish between tumours that do
AHL in the capacity for metastasis and
and do not cause cancer.
invasion of neighbouring tissues

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Cell proliferation for growth, cell replacement and tissue repair

Cell proliferation is a rapid increase in the

number of cells by mitosis.

What is cell proliferation needed for in

multicellular organisms?

Growth in animals:

In animals, during
embryonic development
there is cell proliferation
throughout the animal
embryo. In some areas
of the human body cells
still proliferate during
the juvenile years (e.g.
growth zones near end
of bones).

Growth in plants:

Explain where proliferation in plants takes place:

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Cell replacement:

In which layer of the skin does cell division

in preparation for cell replacement happen?

Cells produced in this layer are displaced

towards the skin surface by continued cell
division. What helps the process of skin
“flaking” off?

Tissue repair:

Tissue repair after a wound involves proliferation. Stem cells in the dermis can repair the damage unless
the wounds are very deep. These stem cells are undifferentiated. When dividing and differentiating these
cells can replace lost cells. The numbers of stem cells vary in different tissues and some tissues are more
able to repair themselves than others.

Research on other examples of cell proliferation and note them down:

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The phases of the cell cycle:

Every cell has a cell cycle which basically represents the cell`s
lifespan and which accounts for a variable number of time,
depending on the type of cell. To make new cells the DNA must
be replicated itself during interphase. This means the cell must
prepare for cell division by doubling the DNA content of the cell
in a process called cell replication. The cell cycle consists of 2
main phases – cell division and interphase. Both phases can be
divided again into several stages:

Interphase: Cell division:

• G1 - Phase • Prophase
• S – Phase • Metaphase
• G2 - Phase • Anaphase
• Telophase
• Cytokinesis

The longest phase of the cell cycle is•theProphase

interphase, during which the DNA is duplicated:
• Metaphase
Watch the animation and annotate the
• stages of the cell cycle in the diagram below:
Anaphase
• Telophase

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 Not all cells continue straight from mitosis and
cytokinesis on to G1 again. Look at the diagram on
the right – what seems to happen at G0 and why?

Production of organelles and proteins during interphase:

Interphase is a metabolically active period. Growth involves biosynthesis of cell components including
proteins and DNA. Numbers of mitochondria and chloroplasts are increased by growth and division of
these organelles. Other organelles (e.g. Golgi apparatus) bud off from existing ones. Other organelles are
assembled de novo (e.g. ribosomes in the nucleolus of the nucleus). Protein synthesis is very active during
that stage of the cell cycle.

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Controls of the cell cycle using cyclins:

For the cell cycle to progress and move forward, proteins with a specific function are responsible.
What is the name of these proteins.

To be fully active, the Cdk/cyclin complex must be phosphorylated, which allows it to phosphorylate other
proteins that advance the cell cycle by carrying out tasks specific to one of the phases of the cell cycle.

How is the cell cycle controlled by cyclins? Study the

diagram on the left and describe:

The mitotic cyclin stays at

low levels for most of the
cell cycle. When the cell
approaches the G2 start, it
builds up and binds to Cdks
present in the cell, forming
a complex. This complex
adds phosphate tags to
different proteins in the
nuclear membrane,
resulting in its breakdown,
and activates chromosome
condensation and other M-
phase events.
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The concentrations of the 4 main types of cyclin proteins change throughout the cell cycle. Unless the
cyclins reach a threshold concentration, the cell does not progress to the next stage of the cell cycle.

The sharp decline of cyclin levels following each checkpoint (the transition between phases of the cell
cycle) shows that cyclin is degraded by cytoplasmic enzymes.

The cylin-cdk
complexes can be
inhibited to prevent
the cell cycle to
continue. This might
be the case if the
DNA of a cell is
damaged (e.g. due to
UV rays from the
sun). An important
protein responsible
for this protection
mechanism is p53.

Can you explain how the cyclin – cyclin dependent kinase complex regulates the cell cycle in case of a
damage in the DNA?

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Consequences of mutations in genes that control the cell cycle:

Cancer happens because the cell cycle occurs uncontrollably. This can be the result of mutations in two
types of genes:
Tumor suppressor genes
1. Tumor suppressor genes

2. Proto-oncogenes: Oncogenes

When the cell cycle grows out of control as a result of

an uncontrolled cell cycle (mutations in tumor
suppressor genes and oncogenes), cells can develop
into cancer cells, forming tumors. Tumors are
abnormal groups of cells that develop at any stage of
life in any part of the body.

Cancer cells can develop into benign or malignant tumors:

When is a cancer considered to be benign?

When is it said to be malignant?

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Metastasis: Mutations are random changes to the base sequence of genes. The mutations result in
abnormal cell growth which develops into a tumor. When a tumor invades underlaying tissue it is said to
metastasize.

Once a cell has mutated and divides uncontrollably it

starts the formation of a tumour. If cells invade
neighbouring tissue, or if a transport route such as a
blood vessel or lymph is available the tumour cells
may spread. This process is called metastasis.

The primary tumor is where the cancer started. If some of the cancer cells break away from the primary
cancer and settle in another part of the body this cancer is then called a secondary tumor.

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The mitotic index:

Mitotic index is a measure for the proliferation status of a cell population. It is defined as the ratio
between the number of cells in mitosis and the total number of cells.

Explain the medical significance of determination

of the mitotic index:

Write down the formula to show how the mitotic index is calculated:

Use the microscope image below to calculate the mitotic index, i.e. the fraction of cells undergoing mitosis.

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