PHYSICAL OPTICS

The branch of optic that deals with the production, emission and propagation of light, its nature
and the study of the phenomena of interfrence, diffraction and polarisation is called physical
optics.

Properties of light.
(a) Electromagnetic Spectum
(b) Wave theory
(c) Particle Theory

(a) ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Visible spectrum includes those wavelengths which can stimulate the sense of sight. But there is
no basic difference between light waves and the electromagnetic waves produced by electrical
oscillating circuit. The term electromagnetic spectrum is used for the range of wavelengths from
10 4 metres to 1 Å (10-8 cm). There is an fact no limit to the production of electromagnetic waves
of very long wavelengths. The frenquency of an alternating current generator can be made as low
as possible by decreasing the speeds of the generator. The wavelength of waves transmitted by a
50 hertz transmission line is 6 x 10 8 cm. Waves of shorter wavelength can be produced by
electrical oscillators. X-ray and gamma rays represent the waves of very short lengths. The
complete electromagnetic spectrum is shown in the table.
It is interesting to note that the visible range of the spectrum comprises only a small range of
the electromagnetic spectrum extending approximately from 4000 Å in the extreme violet region
to 8000 Å in the extreme red. Beyond the violet region of the visible spectrum is the ultraviolet,
X-ray and y –rays. Beyond the red of the visible spectrum are the infra-red, short radio waves and
broadcast waves.

(b) WAVE THEORY

The test and complteness of any theory consists in its ability to explain the known experimental
fact, with minimum number of hypotheses. From this point of view, the corpuslar theory is above
all prejudices and with its halp rectilinear propagation, refraction could be explained.

By about the middle of the seventeenth century, while the corpuscular theory was accepted, the
idea that light be some sort of wave motion had begun to gain ground. In 1670, Christian
Huygens proposed the wave theory of light. According to this, a luminous body is a source of
disturbance in a hypothetical medium called ether. This medium pervades all space. The
disturbance from the source is propagated in the form of waves through space and the energy is
distributed equally, in all direction. When these waves carrying energy are incident on the eye,
the retina excited and the sensation of vision is produced. These vibration in the hypothetical
ether medium according to Huygens are similar to those produced in solids and liquids. They are
of a mechanical nature. The hypothetical ether medium is attributed the property of transmitting
elastic waves, which we perceive as light. Huygens assumed these to be longitudinal, in which
the vibration of the particles is parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.

Assuming that energy is transmitted in the form of waves, Huygens could satisfactorily explain
reflection, refraction and double refraction noticed in cystal like quartz or calcite. However. The
phenomenon of polarization discovered by him could not be explained. It was difficult to
conceive unsymmetrical behavior of longitudinal waves about the axis of propagation. Rectilinear
propagation of light also could not be explained on the basis of waves theory, which otherwise
seems to be obvious according to corpuscular theory. The difficulties mentioned above were
overcome, when Frensnel and Young suggested that light waves are transverse and not
longitudinal as suggested by Huygens. In a transverse wave, the vibration of the ether particles
take place in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Frensal could also explain
successfully the rectilinear propagation of light by combing the effect of all the secondary waves
starting from the different points of a primary wave front.

(c) Particle Theory or Corpuscular

The originator of the Corpuscular Theory was Sir Isaac Newton. According to this theory, a
luminous body continuously emits tiny, light and elastic particles called in all directions. These
particles or corpuscles are so small that they can readily travel through the interstices or the
particles of matter with the velocity of light and they posses the property of reflection from a
polished surface or transmission through a transparent medium. When these particles fall on the
retina of the eye, they produce the sensation of vision. On the basis of this theory, phenomena
like rectilinear propagation, reflection and refraction could be accounted for, satisfactorily. Since
the particles are emitted with high speed from a luminous body, they, in the absence of the forces,
t
ravel in straight lines according to Newton’s second law of motion. This explains rectilinear
propagation of light.

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

General terms light travel in straight lines. At the adges of the wave-front , the waves tend to
spread out from the main body. As the waves spread they eventually interfere with each other so
that at the edge of the wave-front a series of maxima and minima of intensity is produced,
representing zones where the waves reinforce and neutralize each other. The edges of an image
are therefore never sharp, and on the outside of a shadow there is a series of alternating maxime
and manima of gradually fading intensity.
The amount of diffraction will increase with the distance which the beam has to travel, It will
also vary with the wavelength of the light. The narrower the beam of light the greater will be the
proportion diffracted.

INTERFERNCE

When two or more trains act simultaneouly on any particle in a medium, The displacement of
the particle at any instant is due to the superposition of all the wave trains. Also, after the
superposition, at the region of cross over, the wave trains emerge as if they have not interfered
at all. Each wave train retains its individual characteristics. Each wave train behaves as if other
are absent. The phenomenon of interference of light is due to the superposition of two trains
within the region of cross over. Let us consider the waves produced on the surface of water. In
the diagram Points A and B are the two source which produce waves of equal amplitude and
constant phase difference. At any instant, the particle will be under the action of the
displacement due to both the waves. The points shown by circles in the diagram will have
minimum displacement because the crest of one wave falls on the through of the other and the
resultant displacement is zero. The points shown by crosses in the diagram will have maximum
displacement because, either the crest of one will combine with the crest of the other or the
trough of one will combine with the trough of the other. In such a case, the amplitude of the
displacement is twice the amplitude of either of the waves. Therefore, at these points the waves
reinforce with each other. As the intensity (energy) is directly proportional to the square of the
amplitude(I  A2) the intensity at these points is four times the intensity due to one wave. It
should be remembered that there is no loss of energy due to interference. The energy is only
transferred from the points of minimum displacement to the points of maximum displacement.
 RESOLUTION

It is generally accepted that the foveal cones are the end-organs of vision in the central area of
the retina. It was said that if two luminous points were to be distinguished separately two cones
must be stimulated while an intermediate one remains unstimulated, so that the smallest
resolvable image must have a diameter just greater than that of a macular cone. Anatomical
measurements show that this distance on the retina is about 0.002 mm.

POLARIZATION

Light is a form of wave motion. The phenomenon of polarization has helped to establish
beyond doubt that light waves are transverse waves.

POLAZITION OF TRANSVERSE WAVES

Let a rope AB be passed through two parallel slits S 1 and S 2. The rope is attached to a fixed
point at B. Hold the end A and move the rope up and down perpendicular to AB. A wave emerges
along CD and it is due to transverse vibrations parallel to the slit S 1. The slit S 2 does not allow
the wave to pass through it when it is at right angles to the slit S 1. If the end A is moved in a
circular manner, the rope will show circular motion up to the slit S 1. Beyond S 1, it will show
only linear vibrations parallel to the slit S 1, because the slit S 1 will stop the other components. If
S 1 and S 2 are at right angles to each other the rope will not show any vibration beyond S 2.

If longitudinal waves are set up by moving the rope forward and backward along the string, the
waves will pass through S 1 and S 2 irrespective of their position. A similar phenomenon has
been observed in light when it passes through a tourmaline crystal. Let light from a source S fall
on a tourmaline crystal A which is cut parallel to its axis. The crystal A will act as the slit S 1. The
light is slightly coloured due to the colour of the crystal. On rotating the crystal A, no remarkable
change is noticed. Now place the crystal B parallel to A.

(1) Rotate both the crystals together so that their axes are always parallel. No change is
observed in the light coming out of B.
(2) Keep the crystal A fixed and rotate the crystal B. The light transmitted through B becomes
dimmer and dimmer. When B is at right angles to A, no light emerges out of B.

If the crystal B is further rotated, the intensity of light coming out of it gradually increases and
is maximum again when the two crystals are parallel.

This experiment shows conclusively that light is not propagated as longitudinal or

compressional waves. If we consider the propagation of light as a longitudinal wave motion then
no extinction of light should occur when the crystal B is rotated. It is clear that after passing
through the crystal A, the light waves vibrate only in one direction. Therefore light coning out of
the crystal A is said to be polarized because it has acquired the property of one sidedness with
regard to the direction of the rays.
This experiment proves that light waves are transverse waves, otherwise light coming out of B
could never be extinguished by simply rotating the crystal B.

PLANE OF POLARIZATION

When ordinary light passed through a tourmaline crystal, the light is polarized and vibrations are
confined to only one direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light. This is plane
polarizad light and it has acquired the property of one sidedness. The plane of polarization is that
plane in which no vibrations occur. The vibrations occur at right angles to the plane of
polarization and the plane in which vibration occur is known as plane of vibration.

PHOTOMETRY

Photometry is the branch that deals with the measurement of light (photo = light, metry =
measurement).
Light is either reflected by the object or is emitted by it. Most of the objects are seen by light
reflected from them, but objects like electric lamps, star, sun, etc., are seen by light emitted by
them. Now a days, to safeguard against eye strain, standards of illumination have been set up.
Therefore, in order to achieve the correct illumination it is necessary, not only to measure the
quantity of light emitted by a source but also the amount of light falling on the surface. It has
been found that the illumination in a class room should be about 15 lumens per sq ft whereas in
an operation theretre in a hospital it should be of the order of 300 lumens per sq ft.

LASER

‘Laser’ stands for ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation’. Laser works on
the principle of quantum theory of radiation. When an electron in a orbit absorbs energy, it goes
to an orbit of higher energy level. When the electron in an orbit absorbs energy, it goes to an
orbit, it emits radiations in the form of electro-magnetic waves.

Basically there are 2 types of laser energy continuous wave energy, and pulse laser.

1. Continous wave energy

a. Continous Wave Energy commonly used in opthalmology are Argon and Krypton and these
produce ‘hot’ laser which is photo coagulation.
b. Anywhere within the spectrum, visible or invisible, we may create lasers.

2. Pulse laser

2a. Pulse laser, which is the ‘cold’ laser is either photo-disruptive or photo-ablative, e.g. excimer.

2c The feature of the disruptive laser that it is pulsed- this means that we deliver a serier of rapid
pulses of rapid pulses rather than a continuous beam.

It works like a search light when you turn the light on, and a continuous beam of light comes out
and depending on the colour of the light and the colour of the target tissue, eventually it will heat
it up.

2c. By contrast, the cold laser, the disruptive lasers, are a rapid sequence of pulses. The more
rapid the pulses, the shorter and faster, the disruption can be achieved. This goes right on to the
photo-ablative laser which is very, very short pulses indeed.

c. With continuous wave laser like Argon, there is a linear absorption into the target tissue- the
melanin. The melanin is heated up and this what creates photo coagulation. Important to know the
colour of the laser and the target tissue, it is their interaction which creates the burn.

Under other circumstance, if you have a continuous wave laser, and it is not absorbed, then
there is no reaction, e.g. argon laser on hard exudates or scar tissue.

d. Laser reaction with continuous wave lasers is tissue dependent and wave-length dependent.
 Absorption spectrum-blue, green, yellow light.
For all practical purposes, the absorption in blood is very much the same for the 3 colours
while with melanin, the absorption tails off, i.e. maximum at blue, minimum with yellow.

With xanthophyII pigment, there is substantial difference between absorption, maximal

absorption occurs with blue wave-lengths. Therefore, when using argon blue laser, one need
to be exceedingly careful in the region of the fovea. Rick of accidental damaged is great.

However with yellow, red wave-lengths- absorption is very weak.

Dye laser- the only real indication for a dye laser is for treating lesions very close to fovea
because absorption in xanthophyll is minimal.

2b. The YAG is the infrared. Normally, we use it as a photo-disruptive pulse laser. If you have a
continuous wave, you will have an infrared photo coagution.

Easy principle to remember:

3a. The longer the wave-length, the deeper the penetration into the ocular tissues.

Principles of ocular penetration if lasers.

There is substantial difference between between blue and red or yellow when it comes to
dealing with macula and the melanin absorption decreases as the wave-length increases. This
has some significance when we get to dye lasers.

Remember:

3b. Lengthen wave-length, get less burn, but less risk to fovea. Argon blue has very shallow
penetration, but potential of damaging the nerve layer is greater. If using yellow, it will pass
through without absorption.

Diode laser is an infrared laser and therefore has a longer wave-length.

PHYSICAL OPTICS

The branch of optic that deals with the production, emission and propagation of light, its
nature and the study of the phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation is
called physical optics.

Properties of light.
(d) Electromagnetic Spectrum
(e) Wave theory
(f) Particle Theory

(a) ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Visible spectrum includes those wavelengths which can stimulate the sense of sight. But
there is no basic difference between light waves and the electromagnetic waves produced
by electrical oscillating circuit. The term electromagnetic spectrum is used for the range
of wavelengths from 10 4 metres to 1 Å (10-8 cm). There is an fact no limit to the
production of electromagnetic waves of very long wavelengths. The frequency of an
alternating current generator can be made as low as possible by decreasing the speeds of
the generator. The wavelength of waves transmitted by a 50 hertz transmission line is 6 x
10 8 cm. Waves of shorter wavelength can be produced by electrical oscillators. X-ray
and gamma rays represent the waves of very short lengths. The complete electromagnetic
spectrum is shown in the table.
It is interesting to note that the visible range of the spectrum comprises only a small
range of the electromagnetic spectrum extending approximately from 4000 Å in the
extreme violet region to 8000 Å in the extreme red. Beyond the violet region of the
visible spectrum is the ultraviolet, X-ray and y –rays. Beyond the red of the visible
spectrum are the infra-red, short radio waves and broadcast waves.

(b) WAVE THEORY

The test and completeness of any theory consists in its ability to explain the known
experimental fact, with minimum number of hypotheses. From this point of view, the
corpuscular theory is above all prejudices and with its help rectilinear propagation,
refraction could be explained.

By about the middle of the seventeenth century, while the corpuscular theory was
accepted, the idea that light be some sort of wave motion had begun to gain ground. In
1670, Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light. According to this, a
luminous body is a source of disturbance in a hypothetical medium called ether. This
medium pervades all space. The disturbance from the source is propagated in the form of
waves through space and the energy is distributed equally, in all direction. When these
waves carrying energy are incident on the eye, the retina excited and the sensation of
vision is produced. These vibration in the hypothetical ether medium according to
Huygens are similar to those produced in solids and liquids. They are of a mechanical
nature. The hypothetical ether medium is attributed the property of transmitting elastic
waves, which we perceive as light. Huygens assumed these to be longitudinal, in which
the vibration of the particles is parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.

Assuming that energy is transmitted in the form of waves, Huygens could satisfactorily
explain reflection, refraction and double refraction noticed in crystal like quartz or
calcite. However. The phenomenon of polarization discovered by him could not be
explained. It was difficult to conceive unsymmetrical behavior of longitudinal waves
about the axis of propagation. Rectilinear propagation of light also could not be explained
on the basis of waves theory, which otherwise seems to be obvious according to
corpuscular theory. The difficulties mentioned above were overcome, when Frensnel and
Young suggested that light waves are transverse and not longitudinal as suggested by
Huygens. In a transverse wave, the vibration of the ether particles take place in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Frensal could also explain
successfully the rectilinear propagation of light by combing the effect of all the secondary
waves starting from the different points of a primary wave front.

(c) Particle Theory or Corpuscular

 The originator of the Corpuscular Theory was Sir Isaac Newton. According to this
theory, a luminous body continuously emits tiny, light and elastic particles called in all
directions. These particles or corpuscles are so small that they can readily travel through
the interstices or the particles of matter with the velocity of light and they posses the
property of reflection from a polished surface or transmission through a transparent
medium. When these particles fall on the retina of the eye, they produce the sensation of
vision. On the basis of this theory, phenomena like rectilinear propagation, reflection and
refraction could be accounted for, satisfactorily. Since the particles are emitted with high
speed from a luminous body, they, in the absence of the forces, t
ravel in straight lines according to Newton’s second law of motion. This explains
rectilinear propagation of light.

PHYSICAL OPTICS AND REFRACTION by Chelvi

Physical optics - describes those phenomena that are most readily understood in terms of the wave
properties.

Geometrical optics - treats light as rays and deals with the imaging properties of lenses and mirrors.

Quantum optics - deals with the interaction of light and matter, light is treated as having both wave and
particle (photon) characteristics.

1.Properties of Light

Light is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the so called visible region.

a)Electromagnetic spectrum

Optical radiation lies between X-rays and microwaves in the electromagnetic spectrum and is
subdivided into 7 wavebands.. Each of these 7 wavebands group together wavelengths which elicit
similar biological reactions. These 7 domains are:
a) Ultraviolet C (UV-C), 200-280 nm
b) Ultraviolet B (UV-B), 280-315 nm.
c) Ultraviolet A (UV-A) , 315-400 nm
d) Visible radiation 400-780 nm
e) Infrared A (IRA) 780-1400 nm.
f) Infrared B (IRB) 1400-3000 nm.
g) Infrared C (IRC) 3000-10000 nm.

The electromagnetic radiation of longer wavelength consists of infrared radiation , microwaves

and radio waves. Radiation of shorter wavelengths and radio waves. Radiation of shorter
wavelengths include UV rays, X rays and gamma rays.
The shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy of the individual quanta , or photons of optical
radiation.
The cornea and sclera absorb essentially all the incident optical radiation at very short wavelengths in
the ultraviolet (UV-B and UV-C) and long wavelengths in the infrared (IR-B and IR-C)
The incident UV-A is strongly absorbed by the crystalline lens while wavelengths in the range 400-1400
nm ( visible light and near infrared) , pass through the ocular media to fall on the retina. The visible
wavelengths stimulate the retinal photoreceptors giving the sensation of light while the near infrared
may give rise to thermal effects.
Because the refractive surfaces of the eye focus the incident infrared radiation on the retina, it can
cause retinal damage e.g eclipse burns.

The normal eye is able to discriminate between light of shorter or longer wavelength within the visible
spectrum by means of colour sense originating from 3 different classes of cone cells.
 When viewing a band of light composed of the whole visible spectrum arranged in order of decreasing
wavelength the familiar rainbow colour pattern is seen. Light of the longest wavelength is seen as red,
progressing through orange, yellow, green, blue and indigo to the violet of the shortest visible
wavelengths.

The retinal photoreceptors are also sensitive to wave-lengths between 400 nm and 350 nm in the near
ultraviolet ( UV-A). These wavelengths are normally absorbed by the lens of the eye. In aphakic eyes
or pseudophakic eyes with intraocular implants without UV filter such UV radiation gives rise to the
sensation of blue or violet colours. Newly aphakic patients frequently remark that everything looks bluer
than before the operation.

There is recent evidence that wavebands between 350 nm in the UV and 441 nm in the visible are
potentially the most dangerous for causing retinal damage under normal environmental conditions.
IOL's are made of polymethylmethacrylate, which only absorbs UV light below 320nm. The retina of the
aphakic or pseudophakic eye is therefore deprived of the natural protection afforded by the crystalline
lens. IOL's are therefore being produced which incorporate a UV-A absorbing substance and in future
may also be made to contain a yellow pigment, like the natural lens, and thus also block light between
400 nm and 441 nm.

b)Wave theory: when a wave travels along a water surface, particles at the water surface move up
and down as the wave passes, but they do not move along with the wave.
In the case of light, no material substance moves as the light wave propagates; rather at each point the
electric field increases, decreases and reverses direction as the wave passes. The electrical field is always
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Two principal characteristics of wave are its wavelength and amplitude.

Wavelength is determined by the distance between crests of the wave or is the distance between 2
symmetrical parts of the wave motion. One complete oscillation is called a cycle.

Amplitude is the maximum value attained by the electric field as the wave propagates; it determines the
intensity of the wave, and is the maximum displacement of an imaginary particle on the wave from the base
. Any portion of a cycle is called a phase. If two waves of equal wavelengths are travelling in the same
direction but are out of step with each other, the fraction of a cycle or wavelength by which one leads the
other is known as the phase difference. Light waves that are out of phase are called incoherent, while light
composed of waves exactly in phase is termed coherent.

Frequency is the number of crests that pass a fixed point per second as the wave passes.
c)Particle theory—it states that the energy of the atom assumes a certain definite spectrum of
values characteristic for that species of atom . Usually the atom is in its lowest energy level ,or
ground state. When the atom is exposed to light of a frequency such that energy of the photon
equals the energy difference between the excited and ground states , the photon is absorbed,
producing an excited state.
Photon (particle aspects of light) : when light interacts with matter it is individual quants of energy
(photons) that are emitted or absorbed. The amount of energy (E) per photon is given by :
- 34
E=hv h=Planck's constant , 6.62x 10 joule sec.
V= frequency of light wave

Since the frequency of blue light is greater than that of red light, a photon of blue light has greater energy
than a photon of red light.

In the absorption of light by fluorescein, for example a photon of blue light is absorbed by an individual
molecule. When the molecule re-emits light (fluoresces), the emitted photon has a lower energy, lying in the
yellow-green portion of the spectrum. The remaining energy is converted into heat or chemical energy
material.
As a general rule, fluorescence emission is a longer wavelength than the excitation light.

2)DIFFRACTION - produces a change of direction of the wave; in the case of light this corresponds to a
bending of the light ray. The shorter the wavelength, the less the change of direction.
When a wave front encounters a narrow opening or the edge of an obstruction the wave motion spreads
out on the far side of the obstruction. It is as the edge of the obstruction acts as a new centre from which
secondary wave fronts are produced which are out of phase with the primary waves.

When light pass through a circular aperture, a circular diffraction pattern is produced. This consists of a
bright central disc surrounded by alternate dark and light rings. The central bright zone is known as Airy
disc.
It is seldom seen alone; rather it is usually combined with other effects such as interference or refraction.
Diffraction sets a limit on visual acuity when the pupil size is less than about 2.5 mm (for the emmetrope)).
The image formed on the retina from a distant small source has the form of a circular blur circle, the Airy
disc. The diameter, d of the central disc increases as the pupil size decreases according to the equation:

d= 2.44 fx x = wavelength
a a = diameter of the aperture (pupil)
f = focal length of the optical system (the eye)

This equation illustrates another property of diffraction, that longer wavelengths (red) diffract more
strongly than shorter wavelengths (blue) and therefore form a larger diameter Airy disc.
In case of the eye, diffraction is the main source of image imperfection when the pupil is small. However ,
the advantage of a large pupil in reducing diffraction is outweighed by the increased effect of the
aberrations of the refractive elements of the eye.

3)INTERFERENCE
-occurs when 2 light waves originating from the same source are brought together.
The effect produced depends upon whether or not the waves are in phase with one another. If they are in
phase the resultant wave will be a summation of the two and this is called constructive interference.
If the two waves of equal amplitude are out of phase by half a cycle, they will cancel each other out,
destructive interference.
The final effect in each case is as if the waves are superimposed and added ( in the algebraic sense) to
each other.
Phase differences of less than half a cycle thus results in a wave of intermediate amplitude and phase.
Destructive interference occurs within the stroma of the cornea. The collagen bundles of the stroma are so
spaced that any light deviated by them

Interference phenomenon are also utilised in optical instruments.

E.g., low reflection coatings which are applied to lens surfaces. The coating consists of a thin layer of
transparent material of appropriate thickness. Light reflected from the superficial surface of the layer and
light reflected from the deep layer eliminate each other by destructive interference.
Effect is maximal with monochromatic light, although it is also occurs with each component of
white light.

COHERENCE
- is the measure of the ability of two light beams to produce interference.

Spatial coherence defines the ability of 2 separated portions of the wave to produce interference.
Temporal coherence is a measure of ability of a beam to interfere with another portion of itself.

A large white source of light has a coherence close to zero. However if the light is then passed through a
narrow slit, the spatial coherence improves.
Temporal coherence is improved by using a filter to select a narrow band of
wavelengths.
Most gas lasers approach perfect temporal coherence, meaning a portion of the beam can be made to
interfere with a much later portion of the beam.

The high degree of coherence of the laser makes possible a device for evaluating retinal function in the
presence of a cataractous lens. The laser beam is split into 2 beams which then pass through opposite sides
of the pupil. Where the beams again overlap on the retina, interference fringes are formed, even if the
beams have been diffused by the cataract.

One of the most important applications of interference is in antireflection films and interference filters.
The interference filter is designed so that successive rays transmitted through the filter are exactly in phase
and therefore interfere constructively.
The barrier filter used in the fundus camera transmits only the long wavelengths, above about 500 nm.
Therefore the fluorescent emission is received by the film, but all excitation light is excluded.

4)Resolution
Resolution is defined as an optical system’s ability to distinguish two separate points lying adjacent to each
other. Its limit occurs when two Airy discs are formed and the dark edge of one coincides with the center of
the other. This diffraction phenomenon eventually prevents further improvement of an optical system
despite reduction of optical aberration, since resolution is ultimately dependent on the wavelength of light.

5)POLARIZATION

Plane polarised ( or linearly polarised) light consists of waves, all of which have the electric field in the same
plane.
Polarised light is produced from ordinary light by an encounter with a polarising substance or agent.
Polarising substance like polaroid plastic only transmits light rays which are vibrating in one particular plane.
Thus only a proportion of incident light is transmitted onward and the emerging light is polarised. Light
(plan or linearly ) polarised when passing through a polarising medium which only allows light of
one orientation to pass ensuring that transmitted light wave are aligned in the same direction.

Unpolarized light consists of a random mixture of various plane polarised beams.

Partial polarisation is a mixture of Unpolarized light and polarised light ( plane, circular, or elliptical). Partial
polarisation may occur when light is reflected at a plane surface and the degree of polarisation
depends on the angle of incidence . Brewater’s angle is the angle of incidence at which light
polarised in only one plane is reflected.

The Haidinger brush phenomenon is seen clinically by rotating a polarizer continuously in front of a uniform
blue field. A normal subject will see a rotating structure that looks like a double-ended brush, or simply like
a rotating propeller. This phenomenon is useful in localising the fovea during sensory testing and in testing
the viability of the nerve fibre layer of Henle at the macula. Human eye is not sensitive to polarised
light except Haidinger’s brushes.

In some ophthalmic instruments polarised light has been used to eliminate the strong reflex from the
cornea. The viewer looks through a polarizer that is 90 degrees to the polarisation of the light incident on
the examined eye. This eliminates the light specularly reflected from the cornea. But light diffusely reflected
from the retina is partially transmitted by the viewing polarizer.

Polarising projection charts are especially useful because they can be made to test one eye at a time while
the patient is viewing binocularly through a pair of special polarising glasses.

Applications of polarised light in ophthalmology include :

a) its use in instruments such as the slit-lamp and opthalmoscope,
b) to reduce reflected glare from the cornea;
c) in the assessment of binocular vision polarising glasses may be used to dissociate the eyes e.g. in the
Titmus test
d) in pleoptics to produce Haidinger's brushes
e) in optical lens making to examine lenses for stress.

6)Scattering

Scattering of light occurs at irregularities in the light path such as particles or inclusions in an otherwise
homogenous medium.
The sky is blue because blue light from the sun is scattered more strongly than sunlight of longer
wavelengths.

Scattering of light in ocular tissues can result from a number of pathological conditions. Corneal haze is
caused by excess water in the stroma, which disrupts the very regular close-packed collagen structure of
the stroma.
The appearance of an early cataract is due to scattering by large molecules in the lens structure.
Flare in the anterior chamber is caused by protein in the aqueous humor.

Such scattering material interferes with vision in 2 ways.

The primary effect is that of glare.
The second effect, particularly important when the scattering is strong, is a reduction in the light available
to form the image on the retina.

Reflection:--
An air-glass interface reflects approximately 4% (at normal incidence).
The air-cornea interface reflects about 2%
Cornea -aqueous interface reflects only about 0.02%.

Reflection from an interface also depends strongly on the angle of incidence.

The polarisation becomes important for oblique incidence.
At one particular angle for every interface only one polarisation is reflected. This is the Brewater angle.

Total reflection can occur when the light is incident at an oblique angle from a medium of high index of
refraction into a medium of lower index. The basis for transmission of light in fibreoptics is total reflection at
the internal surface of the fiber.

The physical dimensions of light and matter can also explain light scattering.
If light strikes a structure larger than 1000 nm, the light is absorbed. If the structure is less than 1
nm, the light passes by unaffected.
However, if the object has a size between 1 and 1000 nm, light will be absorbed and re-emitted as
a ray of similar wavelength, but in a different direction. This phenomenon of light scattering takes place
among the water particles of a cloud and is responsible for the clouds' opaque appearance.

INTRAOCULAR LIGHT SCATTERING

DEFINITION - Picture a shaft of light piercing a dusty room. The physicist sees each dust particle as an
agglomerate of many atoms and molecules.
These, in turn, are composed of negatively charged electrons and positively charged, heavy nuclei.
When a stream of photons is absorbed by a dust particle, the electric field in the light beam can be
pictured as exerting an oscillating force on both the nuclei and the electrons.
The heavy nuclei remain unmoved, but the electrons are displaced from their normal orbits and
move rapidly back and forth in synchrony with the driving electric field of the light beam. In so doing, light
waves are radiated in all directions. The observer sees the shaft of light because his eye detects the
sidewise-scattered light from each particle. If the room were clean of all dust or scattering particles, the
beam would be invisible to the observer.
The situation becomes a bit more complicated when the scattering particles are spaced closer
together than dust in a room. Certainly, each scattering element radiates light waves in all directions, and
the total scattering is the sum of all the waves.
Waves may add constructively or destructively (Interference). At any one observation outpost, the
net amount of light reaching that point is determined by the sum of the constructive and destructive
interference of all waves crossing that point.
The quantity that describes what point each wave is in its oscillation cycle is called the phase of the
wave. The key concept in this definition is that the difference in phase between waves depends, in part, on
the spacings of the scattering particles in comparison to the wavelength of light.
 If, for example, two scattering particles are spaced by distances comparable to one half the
wavelength of light, the two scattered waves will be 180° out of phase and the waves will then cancel each
other, giving no electric field at the observation point. If, however, two particles are spaced at distances
that are small in comparison to the light wavelength, the phases will nearly be the same, and the scattered
field will have an amplitude twice as large as each wave individually. Therefore, the final summation of all
scattered waves will give a result that depends both on the relative positions of each scattering particle in
comparison to the wavelength of light and on the direction of the scattered waves. For example, light is
completely transmitted through a transparent medium such as water because the water molecules are
tightly packed. This means that all the waves scattered sideways from each of the molecules travel a longer
distance and are out of phase with each other and thus interfere destructively with one another in all
directions, except the forward direction. In water, side-scatter is eliminated, but forward-directed light
waves reinforce each other because their straight-ahead paths have similar lengths.
Another factor important in scattering is the overall regular arrangement of the scatterers. For
example, the lens of the normal eye is made up of protein and physiologic fluid. The lens proteins are
tightly packed in an orderly fashion, and there is very little change in the density of the scattering particles
from point to point in the lens. Thus, the lens is transparent.
If a clear lens homogenate is mixed with water, the proteins are dispersed and the density of the proteins
fluctuates markedly, producing a random pattern. The result is a great deal of scattering and a milky-
appearing solution.
In summary, the relationship between the size of the wavelength of light involved, the spacing of
the scatterers, the size of the scatterers, and their arrangement determines the total scattering from a
medium.
This interaction is analogous to running one's finger over a smoothly polished surface. The
surface feels smooth if the irregularities are small in amplitude and are spaced by distances that are small in
comparison to the spacing between the pressure-sensitive receptors on the fingertips. The sense of touch
has a certain resolving power and cannot respond to small-scale fluctuations. In the case of light and
scattering, if the scattering medium has periodic fluctuations in arrangements of scattering components
larger than the wavelength of light, then these can be sensed by light waves and scattering can occur. If
the spacings of the scattering components of the media are shorter than one half the light wavelength, little
scattering can occur.
In order to explain some natural phenomena, we will need to cover one more theoretic point. Lord
Rayleigh showed that when light strikes atmospheric particles (particles smaller than the wavelength of
light), the amount of light scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength. Since
the blue end of the spectrum is half the wavelength of the red end, the blue end is scattered by a factor of
24 or 16 times the amount of the red end. This seems logical, since small particles should interact more
completely with smaller wavelengths.
At high noon, the sun's rays pierce the atmosphere in a perpendicular fashion (Figure).
 Thus the shorter wavelengths of the sun's spectrum are more heavily scattered by the atmospheric
particles, which splash the colour blue all over the sky. This takes some of the blue away from the sun's
own appearance, and it looks yellowish.
At sunset, the light strikes the atmosphere at an angle and thus must travel a longer distance
through the atmosphere. The additional particles scatter not only blue but also a significant amount of the
longer wavelengths, and the sun's colour goes from yellow to orange to deep red and also the sky does
change its colour from blue.

Now you can have the privilege of to contemplate the for of the Sunset in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
from Guanabara Bay. Look at the colours ...

When you look at the lens of an elderly patient through the slit lamp, you will notice that the
reflection from the anterior capsule is blue-white, whereas the reflection from the posterior capsule is a
golden yellow. The double passage of light through the lens has resulted in a loss of blue light due to light
scattering, producing the yellow reflection. The more nuclear sclerosis present, the yellower is the reflection.
Thus we can think of the crystalline lens as a minus blue filter, because of both its yellow pigment and its
preferential scattering of blue light.
This concept of the lens as a minus blue filter was suggested by Dr. Aran Safir and helps to explain
why the optic nerve looks more yellow in the phakic eye than in the aphakic eye . In fact, to the medical
student, the blue-white appearance of the optic nerve in the aphakic eye may be confused with optic
atrophy. (This is a nice pearl)
In sclera tissue, we note that the collagen fibers are much larger than those in the cornea. Both
the collagen diameters and the spacing between fibers are comparable to a light wavelength. Much
scattering occurs in the sclera, resulting in an opaque (white) appearance.
 It might be helpful to return to nature for a moment and review what happens when a sunbeam
strikes a cloud. Clouds are made up of air and water droplets, both of which are transparent; however,
they differ in their optical indices of refraction.
Air has a refractive index of 1 and water of 1.333. Thus, these two components, each clear by
themselves, produce substantial scattering when the droplets of water are large enough to interact with the
light waves and when the droplets are spaced more than one half of a wavelength apart.
Light scattering, then, is what makes clouds look cloudy, scleras look white, and cataracts look
gray.

NORMAL CORNEAL SCATTERING

In the normal state, the cornea is essentially transparent. Experiments show that the corneal
stroma scatters approximately 10% of all light incident upon it.
It is this small amount of scattering that allows us to see the corneal structures under the slit lamp.
But how can the cornea be so clear if it is made of structures as diverse as epithelial cells, collagen
fibers (refractive index, 1.47), and a ground substance whose refractive index is close to that of water
(1.333) ???
The epithelial cell layer may be considered as homogeneous units of a protein solution, with each
cell so tightly packed against the next that almost no extracellular water accumulates and there is virtually
no fluctuation in refractive index throughout the layers. In the stroma, the collagen fibers are
approximately 25 nm in diameter, and the spacing between each pair of fibrils is 60 nm. These dimensions
are much smaller than a wavelength of yellow light (600 nm). Thus, the tiny dimensions and regular
arrangement of these fibrils (Fig. ) account for the minimal scattering.

CORNEAL STROMAL EDEMA

In cases of endothelial dystrophy, endothelial trauma, or endothelial incapacitation due to
inflammation (i.e., iritis), the pumping action of the endothelium diminishes and the stroma takes on
additional fluid and thickens. As interfibrillar fluid increases, the collagen fibers are pushed farther and
farther apart. As the lakes of such fluid exceed one half of a wavelength of light in dimension, light
scattering increases and the cornea takes on a gray appearance.

CORNEAL EPITHELIAL EDEMA

In cases of advanced endothelial impairment or acute glaucoma, fluid collects between the
epithelial cells (FIGURE). Fluctuations in the refractive index develop, and as the spaces between the cells
grow, the intensity of the scattering, or haze, grows. Potts and Friedman have shown that in total corneal
oedema, the epithelial component accounts for the greatest share of light scattering.
CORNEAL SCARS
When discontinuities in Bowman's membrane in ulceration, trauma, or refractive surgery induces
scar formation close to the pupillary center, visual acuity decreases.
Scars interfere with vision in two basic ways:
(1) they cause an irregularity of the corneal surface, producing irregular astigmatism;

(2) stromal scars contain either randomly arranged collagen fibers, the diameters of which
are five times the diameter of normal corneal fibrils, or unusual material such as hyaluronic acid,
which pushes the collagen fibers far apart. This results in backscatter of light, which yields a white
appearance to the observer and foggy vision to the patient.

SCATTERING IN THE NORMAL LENS

The normal lens is not as transparent as the normal cornea. This is partially caused by the faint
yellow pigment, which absorbs 10% to 40% of all visible blue light. This hint of yellow is augmented by
normal Rayleigh scattering, present in the healthy lens. The normal clear lens, composed of tightly packed
high-protein-content lens fibers, scatters a small amount of light. With aging, however, large protein
aggregates form within the lens fibers, reaching molecular weights of approximately 50 ×´ 106 g/mol.

CATARACT
As a cataract develops, a normally uniform background of proteins is disturbed by large lumps of
protein aggregates. If these large lumps are uncorrelated in position, and if the aggregates are large
enough, significant scattering will produce a turbid appearance. As the protein continues to clump, fluid
pools develop between lens fibers, and scattering increases further. At some point in this progression, the
clinician decides to describe the patient's lens as cataractous.

SCATTERING IN THE NORMAL VITREOUS

The vitreous, a composite of a 1% hyaluronic acid solution, is interspersed with collagen fibers of
approximately 10 nm in diameter.
These fibers are almost three times smaller than the normal corneal collagen fibers.
Since the scattering from each fiber is proportional to the fourth power of the collagen diameter,
we can expect the scattering per fiber to be 80 times weaker for vitreous collagen than for corneal collagen.
Thus, the effect of the collagen in the vitreous is quite small, and the vitreous will scatter only
0.1% of incident light.
 With age, vitreous collagen fibrils coalesce, fluid pockets form, and localised scattering develops to
the point where the patient notices floating specks and threads.

RETINAL SCATTERING
Because the ubiquitous Muller cells seem to squeeze tightly within the spacings between the retinal
cells, the tissue is homogeneous from a refractive index standpoint and scatters about as much light as the
cornea.
If, however, the blood supply to a retinal area is interrupted and infarction takes place, the area
fed by the occluded vessel becomes milky gray.
With infarction, oedema fluid accumulates in the nerve fiber layer. Because the refractive index of oedema
fluid differs from that of the nerve fiber axons, the area loses transparency.

GLARE
The term "glare" is often used to describe the contrast-lowering effect of stray light on a visual
scene. The outfielder is said to lose a fly ball into the sun because of glare. Extra light thrown onto the
retina tends to wash out the contrast of the event we are viewing. For example, every student is aware of
the importance of pulling down all the shades and darkening the room if all the details of a slide projected
on a screen are to be appreciated. Because of the nature of the light-detecting mechanism at the retina
and in the brain, we cannot see intensity differences efficiently in the presence of a high background of light
intensity.
This sensitivity to glare is amplified as lens (or corneal) scattering is increased. For example, the
older surgeon cannot see the details within a deep surgical wound in the presence of white surgical
sponges. These sponges act as extraneous light sources, which are scattered by the aging crystalline lens
onto the macula of the surgeon's retina.
Again, the patient with a poorly fitted contact lens who develops epithelial corneal oedema reports
unusual glare from automobile headlights at night. In cases of cataract or marked corneal oedema, the
patient has difficulty reading in a bright environment, where all the elements of normal light become
sources of glare. This phenomenon is illustrated in the next Figure.

Contrast started to drop slightly when almost half the lens was "covered with cataract," contrast
dropped suddenly when 80% of the lens became cataractous.
Thus, light scattering, glare, and visual performance are all tightly bound together.
CLINICAL GLARE TESTING
In 1926, the industrial scientist L.L. Holladay first described the relationship between glare and
contrast sensitivity.
Holladay developed a mathematical relationship between the glare source (its brightness and
angular distance from the target) and contrast sensitivity.

In the 1960s, Ernst Wolf a Boston visual physiologist, built a laboratory glare tester and showed in
a normal population that glare sensitivity increased with age.
He also showed that this increase in glare sensitivity was related to the increased light scattering of
the normal, aging lens. In the 1970s and early 1980s, Miller, Wolf, Nadler, and others built and tested the
first clinical glare tester. With this device, they demonstrated a connection between cataract progress and
increased glare sensitivity.
GLARE TESTER CHARACTERISTICS
Glare testers offer two types of targets: a standard Snellen visual acuity chart and a variable
contrast sensitivity target. The variable contrast targets may be presented as:
(1) sinusoidal contrast gratings;
(2) the Snellen chart printed in different contrasts; or
(3) the Landolt ring presented in different contrasts.

To determine whether a variable contrast target or a standard visual acuity target would be more valuable
in cataract testing, we designed an experiment using scattering filters of progressive severity (simulated
cataracts).
These laboratory experiments suggested that a variable contrast target in the face of a glare source follows
cataract progression more smoothly than a conventional visual acuity target.

7)Transmission and absorption

Transmission is the passing of radiant energy through a medium of space. It is measured in terms of
transmittance, the percent of energy that can pass thorough a particular medium. For absorbing materials,
the transmittance is often a function of wavelength.

Absorption is usually expressed as an optical density [OD]. An optical density of 1 means a transmittance of
10%. Other values are 2 [0.10] = 1% and 3 [0.001] = 0.1%.
In general the expression of optical density is OD = log 1/T, where T is the transmittance.
 Various types of absorbing lenses like, improvement of contrast sensitivity, darkadaption, reduction
of glare sensitivity, improvement of colour contrast and ultraviolet –absorbing lenses are available.
LENS TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS IN IOL (INTRA OCULAR LENS)
Transmission characteristics of the lens material are another factor to be considered in the
design of IOLs.
The natural crystalline lens absorbs nearly half of the incident daylight entering the eye.
The amount of absorption increases as the lens yellows with age, particularly in the blue and violet
regions of the spectrum.
Transmission characteristics of an IOL differ markedly. Owing to its thinner shape and the
material of which it is made, its absorption in much of the visible spectrum is negligible. The only
loss of light is that due to reflection at each surface, and the light transmission of the IOL is in the
region of 99.4% (Graphic).

A plastic IOL that allows transmission of wavelengths as short as 300 nm produces almost
a doubling of chromatic aberration of the image reaching the retina compared with the chromatic
aberration in a phakic eye. This increase in chromatic aberration may tend to produce a haze
around the retinal image and may be related to the complaints of increased glare sensitivity noted
by patients with implants.

8)Photometry
Photometry is a measurement of light by the human eye using psychophysical methods. In contrast
radiometry quantifies electromagnetic radiation in physical terms. The total quantity of light leaving a source
or passing through a space is known as the luminous intensity and is measured per unit solid angle.
Illumination, the measure of the light arriving at a surface, is dependent upon the distance between the
surface and the light source as well as the angle of incidence.1 luminance is a measure of light reflected or
emitted from a surface.

Each photometric unit [2] has a radiometric equivalent that may be directionally derived using a factor
known as the photopic luminosity coefficient. The spectral characteristics of each radiometric quantity must
be known since the calculation requires the integration of these across the spectrum. Abney’s law states
that the total illuminace is equal to the sum of the illuminance of its constituent wavelengths. Thus the
photometric measure of brightness is not a simple function of light energy but is also dependent upon
wavelength, due to differing cone sensitivity to light. Green light is the brightest perceived colour, but the
exact wavelength depends on the ambient light conditions. A light-adapted eye is said to have photopic
vision, whilst a dark-adapted one has scotopic vision. The difference between the wavelengths detected
with maximal efficiency under photopic [555 nm] and scotopic [510 nm] conditions is the Purkinje shift and
represents the different peak wavelengths of rod and cone photopigments.
Since colour perception varies between individuals, colours have been standardised by the CIE [Commission
International de I’Eclairage] using the mean response of a group of normal trichomats. The technique that
allows comparison of the relative efficiency of different lights is known as heterochromatic brightness
matching. A subject’s field of view is divided into two halves, one illuminated by a standard known light
source, the other by a test adjusted until both lights subjectively appear equal. However, if the lights of
different spectral colours are compared using this method. Abney’s law not is obeyed. This apparent
difference may be overcome by adjusting the heterochromatic brightness fields so that there is a maximally
distinct border or by flickering the lights at a frequency of 15-20 Hz. The CIE photopic luminous efficiency
curve is established using the heterochromatic flicker technique and Abney’s law of additivity is maintained.

 Luminous flux. Quantity of light emitted. Lumen.

 Luminous intensity. Light emitted per unit of angle. Candelas.

 Illuminace. Incident light per unit area. Lux or foot candles.

 Luminance. Light reflected or emitted from a surface per unit area per unit angle. Apositb or
footlambert.

 Retinal luminance. Retinal illuminance for an eye viewing a surface adjusted for pupil size. Troland.

9)Lasers
Laser light.
Lasers produce high intensity that is coherent, highly collimated and virtually monochromatic. No laser is
entirely monochromatic as they all emit light at a small combination of wavelengths. Nevertheless their
relative monochromacity prevents significant degrees of chromatic aberration occurring. Laser light is also
collimated, and these two features enable the light to be focused to a small point than white light. In
addition laser coherence, with photons of equal wavelengths, phase and polarisation, permits exceedingly
high focal irradiances to be generated.

Laser light results from the emission of energy as atoms in a medium decay from a high to low energy level.
A variety of lashing media are used including a liquid organic dye [dye laser], gas [argon and excimer
lasers] and solid crystal [Nd: YAG and diode lasers]. Lasers require an energy source to keep atoms in the
higher energy state, and arc lamps, flash lamps and other lasers are used, depending on the medium.
During the production of laser light atoms cycle through at least three energy levels: the ground state and
the upper and lower laser levels. When the majority of the atoms are in the highest energy state, population
inversion said to have occurred. As particles pass from the upper to lower energy levels, a photon is emitted
whose energy determines the wavelength of the laser light. This occurs spontaneously [decay] or by
stimulation by a photon whose energy is equal to the energy emitted by a decaying photon. Light
production is amplified as the beam travels repeatedly between two parallel mirrors within the laser cavity.
With each round trip further stimulated emission of radiation occurs. This is called resonance and generates
intense light with the qualities described above. Light leaves the laser cavity through one of the mirrors,
which is semi-transparent.

Three models of output are available with lasers: continuous, Q-switched and mode locked. In continuous
mode, laser light is constantly produced and a steady beam passes through the semi-transparent mirror at
the end of the laser cavity. Q-switching provides brief pulses [10-50ns] of power by temporary blockade of
one mirror promoting population inversion and blocking resonance. Upon opening the shutter, resonance
occurs and a larger population of high-energy atoms undergoes stimulated emission of radiation.

Q-switches include saturatable dye cells, electro-optic switches and rapidly rotating mirrors. A number of
wavelengths can resonate independently within a laser cavity. Mode locked lasers employ a longer tube with
a bleachable dye to synchronise these independent wavelengths, compelling them to travel in phase. The
light pulses formed are briefer and considerably more intense than Q-switched pulses.

Argon laser.

Factors determining the success of laser treatment include the properties of the laser and the absorption of
laser light by the eye. The presence of cataract or vitreous haemorrhage will alter the transmission of laser
light to the retina. It is therefore important to select wavelengths that are both adequately transmitted by
ocular media and absorbed sufficiently by the fundus to achieve desired effect. A number of
photocoagulating laser exits whose common feature is their ability to cause a burn. Lasers used for this
purpose are the argon, krypton, dye and frequency-doubled Nd: YAG lasers.

The argon laser, powered by an electric current, emits at least nine wavelengths of which only two are used
clinically. The blue-green laser emits both 488 nm and 514.5-nm light while the green laser only emits at
514.5nm and a choice of continuous or pulsed light is available. Blue-green laser light is mainly absorbed by
pigments such as melanin in the RPE and choriocapillaries [absorption 400-700 [+] nm], macular
xanthophyll [400-500 NM] and haemoglobin. Thus the blue-green laser has been extensively used for retinal
photocoagulation, iridotomies and laser trabeculoplasties.

The shorter wavelengths of blue-green laser light are damaging to the inner retinal layers because they are
absorbed by macular xanthophyll. The longer wavelengths of green laser light has good transmission
through xanthophyll with thermal effects confined to pigmentary epithelial and subretinal structures. In
addition, since light scattering is higher for shorter wavelengths, blue light is scattered more than green
light and for these reasons green laser light is virtually used. Argon laser radiation is absorbed by
haemoglobin and can be used for direct coagulation of retinal blood vessels, although such treatment of
new vessel is rarely performed these days. Absorption by vascular lesions is enhanced if patients are
pretreated with intravenous fluorescein. The laser may be adapted for delivery by the indirect
ophthalmoscope to improve penetration of cloudy ocular media and provide a wider fundal view to treat
more peripheral lesions.

The argon laser has a low wall-plug efficiency [0.001-0.01%] and the waste heat that is consequently
generated requires water-cooling. A second disadvantage is the expense of the laser. Gradual destruction by
the gas limits the lifetime of the laser tube [1000- 10 000 hours], requiring its periodic replacement.

Nd: YAG laser.

The lasing material in a Nd: YAG laser consists of neodymium ions incorporated with an yttrium-aluminium-
garnet crystal. Energy is supplied to the laser by a flash or continuous arc lamp and is absorbed by the
neodymium ions, which are exited to a higher energy level. As they decay to a lower level, invisible infrared
radiation [1064 nm] is emitted. A low power helium-neon laser is widely used as an aiming beam.

The Nd: YAG laser is used in continuous wave mode for a thermal effect or in Q-switched mode to cause
photodisruption. In continuous wave mode the laser generates pulse energies 100 times greater than the
argon laser and this can be used for trans-scleral ablation of the ciliary body. The sclera is highly
transparent to Nd: YAG laser light and the laser relies on light absorption by melanin in the ciliary body for
its effect.

In Q-switched mode short pulses [5-20ns] of very high power are generated. Temperatures at the focal
point exceed 15 000 degree centigrade, stripping outer electrons from atoms to produce a rapidly
expanding plasma of ions and electrons that subsequently cavitate causing tissue disruption.
Photodisruption is less dependant on light absorption than photocaogulation and enables incisions in semi-
transparent membranes to be performed [e.g. the posterior lens capsule]. Although the Nd: YAG laser is
used in a number of anterior segment procedures, its effect is less predictable in posterior segment
procedures and carries a small risk of secondary retinal damage from the plasma s shock wave.

Frequency-doubled Nd: YAG lasers are now available. They offer an alternative to the argon laser as a
source of continuous wave laser energy. A krypton arc lamp provides the energy for the Nd: YAG crystal
and a potassium-titanium-phosphate [KTP] crystal halves the wavelength of the emitted light to 532 nm
[pea-green] doubling the frequency. This offers several advantages over the argon laser including high
efficiency, minimal cooling and less maintaince. Its output may be delivered endoscopically to retinal
structures or be coupled with a diamond blade to perform bloodless incisions.

Diode laser.

The semiconductor diode laser has exceptional electrical to optical efficiency [~50%]. The highest power
diode laser uses a gallium-aluminium-arsenic semiconductor alloy as the lasing medium and emits light in
the infrared part of the spectrum [780-950]. Further diode laser may become available to extend this range.
The laser is compact, potable and air cooled, running from either mains or battery electrical supplies. Power
output is limited by optical damage to the diode crystal produced by the high intensity of the laser beam,
which exceeds several megavolts per square centimetre. Diode lasers are commonly employed in audio and
communication systems and in the future may replace the flash lamp as an energy source for the Nd: YAG
laser.

The comparatively long wavelengths of the diode laser facilitates transmission through media opacities, and
being minimally adsorbed by water also penetrates non-pigmented tissues. The sclera is effectively
transparent to these emissions, permitting trans-scleral photocoagulation of the ciliary body to reduce
aqueous humour production. The technique is surprisingly effective and appears to offer a gentler
alternative to cycloablation with the Nd: YAG laser. Furthermore, as diode laser emissions are markedly
different from the peak absorption of xanthophyll [400-475], they may also be used to treat macular
disorders.

The ability to deliver diode laser energy with the indirect ophthalmoscope has made laser treatment of
retinopathy of prematurity [ROP] an alternative to cryotheraphy. It avoids the need for conjunctival incisions
and a general anaesthetic as well as permitting treatment by the bedside. It has been suggested that
photocoagulation may cause fewer complication than cryotherapy for ROP, although this is unproven at
present.

Indocyaninie green [ICG] is a dye that may augment diode laser treatment. Its absorption peak [805 NM]
matches the wavelength of the diode laser and by accumulating in subretinal neovascular membranes, for
instance, acts as a chromophore for diode photocoagulation. Early studies suggest that dye-enhanced diode
laser photodestruction of subfoveal neovascular membranes may selectively destroy abnormal vessels
without compromising foveal function.

Dye laser.

Dye lasers provide a wide range of wavelengths for photocoagulation of ocular structures. They employ
liquid fluorescent organic dyes as the lasing medium and argon laser as the energy source. A prescribed jet
of liquid of the argon emission, and population inversion occurs. The desired emission wavelengths are
selected by a birefringent mirror, rotating on a microwave setting, which restricts resonance to specific
wavelengths. A broad spectrum of wavelengths [360-960 nm] can be generated by varying the dye and its
concentration, although the wavelengths generated by single dye is narrow. [~ 100 nm].

Laser light between 560 and 630 nm is not absorbed by macular xanthophyll [absorption 400-475 nm] and
is used for fundal photocoagulation. Yellow laser light [560-580 nm] is scattered less by cataractous lenses
than argon laser light and is absorbed by melanin and haemoglobin, permitting photocoagulation of
microaneurysms and neovascular membranes. Organic laser light [580-610 nm] is absorbed by melanin but
haemoglobin absorption diminishes markedly between 590 600 nm. Hence the depth of the laser burn
varies within this narrow range, depending on melanin concentration in the RPE and choroid. Red laser light
[610-640 nm] is poorly absorbed by haemoglobin, but absorption by melanin permits deep penetration into
the choroid and photocoagulation through vitreous haemorrhage. Treatment of subretinal neovascularisation
is also possible where the RPE melanin concentration is normal.

The absorption of selected wavelengths can be enhanced by a chromophore. For example absorption at 610
nm and 668 nm is enhanced by a methylene blue, and dye laser light at 666 nm increases absorption and
reduces the threshold energy for photocoagulation. Hence the application of methylene blue to the sclera
limbus permits photocoagulation of the drainage angle with a gonioscopy lens to create drainage fistulae.
These may be effective in maintaining prolonged reduction of intraocular pressure.

Although the dye laser offers a degree of flexibility compared with other instruments, it has a similar tissue
effect as treatment with other lasers. Therefore until it offers advantages that outweigh its higher running
costs, the dye laser is unlikely to become widely used.

Excimer laser.

The Excimer laser uses a mixture of rare gas and a halogen as the lasing medium. Excimer is an
abbreviation of excited dimer and refers to a diatomic molecule that exists only when the lasing medium in
its excited [upper energy] state. Examples are argon fluoride, krypton fluoride and xenon fluoride. When the
dimer decays to the lower energy level it dissociates into its constituent atoms and emits radiation between
193 and 351 nm. These UV light portions are used clinically because the Excimer photon has sufficient
energy [6.4eV] to cleave intramolecular bonds [3.5eV], resulting in photoablation of tissue. This differs from
photocoagulation and photodisruption which rely on thermal effects [argon laser] and ionisation [Nd: YAG
laser] respectively. The

Excimer laser photon is absorbed by organic polymers in the superficial corneal layers, which are broken
into small volatile fragments. The edges of these incisions are parallel, straight and smoother than
conventional diamond blade incisions.

Theodore Maiman built the first successful laser with a ruby crystal medium in 1960.
The energy input that makes possible population inversion is known as pumping.
All ophthalmic laser currently in use require three basic elements; [1] an active medium to emit coherent
radiation, [2] energy input, known as pumping, and [3] optical feedback, to reflect and amplify the
appropriate wavelengths.
Laser light projected onto a rough surface produces a characteristic sparkling quality known as laser
speckle.
Laser spreads very slowly.
Laser is an acronym for Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
The unique property of laser is monochromaticity, directionality, coherence, polarisation, and intensity.
The emission line can be as narrow as 0.01 nm.
It not affected by chromatic aberration in lens systems.
In laser application the four radiometric terms are energy [J], power [W], radiant energy [J/cm2], and
irradiance [W/CM2]
Continuous beam light, such as argon and krypton, the control panel meter gives the power in watts;
whereas in a pulsed laser, such as the Nd: YAG, the meter reading gives the energy per pulse in joules.

Photocoagulation. The selective absorption of light energy and conversion of that energy to heat, with the
subsequent thermally induced structural changes in the target.
Photodisruption. Utilises the laser light as virtual microsurgical scissors, reaching through the ocular media
to open tissues such as lens capsule, iris, inflammatory membranes, and vitreous strands without damaging
the surrounding ocular structures.
Photoablation. That high-powered ultraviolet laser pulses can precisely etch the cornea in the same manner
that they can etch synthetic polymers. It removes a submicron layer of cornea without opacifying adjacent
tissue.

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