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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. General
Traffic engineering is a branch of civil engineering that uses engineering
techniques to achieve the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on
roadways. It focuses mainly on research for safe and efficient traffic flow, such as
road geometry sidewalks and crosswalks, cycling infrastructure, traffic signs, road
surface markings and traffic lights. Traffic engineering includes the analysis of traffic
characteristics, planning of regulatory measures, geometric design and functional
planning of routes, design and application of control devices. The basic function of
most arterial streets and highways is to move traffic safely and efficiently with
minimum delay. The main source of delay and congestion along most streets and
highways are traffic control devices such as traffic signals.
Traffic control devices are used in nowadays to reduce the amount of
congestion problems and accidents. Engineers are desired to plan the devices in such a
way that accidents do not occur. The traffic characteristics and traffic flow theories
are necessary to study to get good knowledge in the traffic system. This chapter deals
with traffic studies and various traffic control devices.
In the context of traffic control, a lane is part of a roadway that is designated
to be used by a single line of vehicles, to control and guide drivers and reduce traffic
conflicts. Most public roads have at least two lanes, one for traffic in each direction,
separated by lane markings. The standard lane width is 12 feet.
2.2. Traffic Study
The traffic studies are important to analyse the traffic characteristics. Traffic
system is usually carried out by different methods,
i. Traffic volume study
ii. Traffic flow characteristics
iii. Speed study
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iv. Speed and delay study

v. Origin and Destination Survey (OD survey)
vi. Parking study and
vii. Accidents study
2.2.1. Traffic Volume Study
The number of vehicles that passed through the road or lane within the unit of
time is regarded as the traffic volume study. It is used as a quality measure of flow. It
is expressed as vehicles per day and per hour. The purposes of the traffic volume
study are-
i. To determine the importance of roads
ii. To plan new facilities.
iii. To evaluate the existing traffic control devices.
iv. To analyse the road patterns, traffic patterns and existing of tends of
flow traffic.
v. To know the number of heavy vehicles.
vi. To design intersections and plan the signal timings and various traffic
control devices to be provided.
vii. To plan sidewalks, crosswalks, and barriers signals for pedestrians.

2.2.2. Traffic Flow Characteristics

In a highway, there is flow of traffic and counter flow of traffic unless traffic
flow is separated into a pair of flows by proper planning. Traffic movements are
classified as diverging, merging, crossing and weaving.
The study of traffic flow characteristics is useful;
i. In planning various geometric design features.
ii. In deciding traffic regulatory measure.
iii. In deciding traffic control methods.
2.2.3. Speed and Delay Study
Speed and delay studies give overall speeds, running speeds, speed
fluctuations and delay between two situations. They also provide the information such
as the amount, location, duration frequency and causes of delay in the traffic stream.
The result is useful in detecting the spots of congestion, the crosses and in arriving
remedial measures.
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This study helps the engineer in such ways,

i. In deciding the changes in the traffic signals provided at road
intersections.
ii. In evaluating the highway efficiency.
iii. In studying the causes of accidents, traffic congestion and in
suggesting the remedial measures.
iv. In getting information for planning new techniques for smooth flow of
traffic.
v. In implementing the traffic laws by changing the two-way traffic in to
one way traffic.
2.2.4 Accident Study
Accidents occur on highways and may involve property damages, personal
injuries or even deaths. Their rate can be reduced by adopting certain control devices.
Proper record must be maintained for solving traffic problems. Accident study
includes;
i. Evaluating existing designs.
ii. Causes of accidents.
iii. Evaluating the cost of accidents
iv. Obtaining general information such as persons involved, time, date,
cause and so on.
v. Location of accident.
vi. Nature of accident.
vii. Condition of road where accident occurred.
viii. Supporting the proposed designs and to give financial justification for
the improvements.
Road Traffic Injuries are the major cause of death and disability
among the young population worldwide. According to the WHO data published in
2017, Road Traffic Accidents Deaths in Myanmar reached 10527 deaths. In 2017,
there were 283 traffic accidents in Mandalay, leaving 163 people dead and 284
injured. There were 203 motorcycle related accidents and 80 car accidents.
2.3. Methods of Collection of Volume Count Data
The methods of collecting volume count data are;
i. Mechanical Counter Method
ii. Manually Counting Method
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From these two methods, Manually Counting Method is the most common
method of collecting traffic volume data. It involves a group of people recording
number of vehicles.
2.3.1. Manually Counting Method
Manually counting method uses field observers to obtain volume data which
cannot be collected by mechanical counters. For light volumes, observations are
recorded by tally marks on prepared field data sheets and for heavier volumes
mechanical hand counters are used. Manual counts are used to determine;
i. Turning movements
ii. Vehicle classification
iii. Pedestrian counts
2.3.1.1. Scheduling Counting Period
The counting period at a specific location depends upon the method uses to
obtain data and the purpose or planned use of the data. The counting period should
avoid special event conditions such as holidays sporting events, exhibitions or fairs
transit, special sales, unusual weather, or temporary street closures. Mechanical
counts are usually made for periods of 24 hours or longer. Manual counts, including
turning movements and vehicle classifications, and possibly pedestrians are made for
the following periods.
i. 12:00 hours; 7:00 AM to 7:00 PM
ii. 8:00 hours; 7:00 AM to 11:00 AM and 2:00 PM to 6:00 PM
iii. 4:00 hours: 7:00 AM to 9:00 AM and 4:00 PM to 6:00 PM
A three-hour count is a typical duration to capture the period is needed, it is
more practical to collect a 16-hour count. Count durations less than three hours make
it difficult to capture the peak hour and should be avoided.
2.4. Traffic Control Devices
The various aids and devices used to control, regulate and guide traffic is
called traffic control devices. The general requirements of traffic control devices are
attention, meaning, time for response and respect of road users. The most common
among these are;
i. Traffic signs
ii. Traffic markings
iii. Traffic signals
iv. Traffic islands
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2.4.1.Traffic Signs
Warning, directing and guiding the road users are provided by using traffic
signs. They are in the form of symbols or inscriptions. They are mounted on fixed or
portable supports and placed on the side of roads. The various traffic signs are
classified as-
i. Regulatory or mandatory signs
ii. Warning or cautionary signs
iii. Informatory or guiding signs
Regulatory signs are for intersection controls, no parking areas and one
way etc. Warning signs are in triangle shapes such as no crossing, schools ahead,
curves warnings and intersection signs, etc. The purpose of the regular signs is to
obligate the drivers for their safety. And, the warning signs are to alert the drivers
which situation is ahead. These signs are often used in combination. The warning
signs are mostly in triangle shapes with red colour symbols. Warning signs are used
where caution is required. They are placed under the following conditions to indicate
changes in horizontal alignment of road.
i. Intersections
ii. Converging traffic streets
iii. Narrow road ways
iv. Unusual grades
v. Sudden changes in road condition
vi. Poor pavements
vii. At grade rail crossing
viii. Unexpected crossings
ix. Animal crossings, clearance limits
x. Narrow bridge
xi. Dead end
xii. Left turn, right turn.
Everyone needs to know traffic signs. Thus, the driver may decide or know to
make a decision such as; slowing down the vehicle, making gear changes by getting
an eye on the traffic signs. Apart from the signs that intends for vehicles, everyone
has to know the signs on pedestrian such as pedestrian crossing and pedestrian
precinct. The purpose of pedestrian traffic signs is to alert drivers the foot traffic.
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The last type, the guiding signs are used to inform the drivers the path of
roadways and it helps them to get their destination easily. There are also a lot of
devices that are used to help the drivers' need with their respective tasks. The
following are the some of the traffic signs.

Figure 2.1.The Regulatory Signs

Figure 2.2.The Informatory Signs

Figure 2.3.The Warning Signs

2.4.2. Traffic Signals

Traffic signals are provided at road intersection to guide the drivers for their
safety. The traffic signals are used to control the traffic system. The traffic signals are
provided with three colours as red, yellow and green. The green light guides to move
the vehicles. The red light represents stop and the yellow light also known as amber
light is to slow down before the red light comes.
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Green Time: The amount of time within a cycle for which a movement or
combination of movements receives a green indication (the illumination of signal
lens). This is expressed in seconds and given the symbol G.
Yellow Time: The amount of time within a cycle for which a movement or
combination of movements receives a yellow indication. This is expressed in seconds
and given the symbol Y. This time is referred to as the change interval, as it alerts
drivers that the signal indication is about to change from green to red.
Red Time: The amount of time within a cycle for which a movement or combination
of movements receives a red indication. This is expressed in seconds and given the
symbol R.
The standard shape of the traffic signals is circular having 200 mm visible
diameter. The height at which the signals are usually installed varies from 2.4 to 3 m.
The following figure shows the normal sequence of the traffic signals. The time
lapsed from the beginning of getting red to a particular side to the beginning of the
next red to the same side is called a cycle.

Figure 2.3 The sequence of the traffic signal

The traffic control devices (traffic signals) must meet five fundamental requirements.
i. Fulfil a need
ii. Command attention
iii. Convey a clear, simple meaning
iv. Command respect from road users
v. Give adequate response
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The traffic signs and signals should be placed where commanded by the facts
of engineering studies. They should be placed as necessary for safety and proper
regulations of traffic. The different types of road signals are-
i. Manual signals
ii. Fixed time signals
iii. Traffic actuated signals
iv. Flashing signals
v. Pedestrians signals
In our data collection, the total volume of car is ¼ of the total volume of
motorcycle. So, we considered design speed for motorcycle only. That’s why, the
minimum speed of motorcycle is 30mph. For phase A and C, design speed is 30mph
and phase B is 20mph.
2.5. Webster's Method (UK Method)
The Webster method is used to determine the cycle time and signal timing for
the traffic lights system. With the use of Webster method, the effective green time can
be evaluated.
2.5.1. Vehicle Clearance Interval
The objective of the amber signal indication following each green interval is to
warm moving traffic facing the signals to come to a stop. It should be provided
enough time for vehicles to clear the intersections before cross traffic starts to move.
If it is too short, it may constitute a hazard and increases rear-end collisions. The safe
stopping distance can be calculated by the following formula. The standard minimum
road width for one lane is 12ft. So, we termed our traffic design road as 4 lanes.

Y = clearance interval, in second

t = perception reaction time, in second, suggest value = 1s

v = approach speed of clearing vehicle, feet per second
a = deceleration rate of clearing vehicle, in feet per second square, suggest
value = 15ft/s2
W = intersection width (curb to curb), in feet = 48ft
L = length of vehicle, in feet, suggest value = 20ft
2.5.2. Drew Model for Minimum Cycle Length
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The minimum cycle time may be calculated by Drew Model, for a two phase
signal cycle. In calculating minimum cycle length, the largest number vehicles in a
signal lane entering the intersection on major street must be considered during peak
and off-peak hour. The number of vehicles changes the collected peak hourly traffic
volumes to passenger car units (PCU). Average values of the Peak-Hour-Factor are
shown in Table 2.1. And then, approximate average headway between vehicles
entering the intersection is also considered.

Cmin= (2.2)

Where, N1 = Major street critical lane volume, the number of vehicles in a single
lane entering the intersection on the major street during the peak hour,
and the largest of all single lane volumes of the major street
approaches

N2 = Minor street critical lane volume, the number of vehicles entering the
intersection in a single lane on the minor street in the same period as
N1, N2 is the largest of all the single-lane volumes of the two minor
street approaches

C = Cycle length, in seconds

S1 = approximate average headway between vehicles entering the

intersection among N1

S2 = approximate average headway between vehicles entering the

intersection among N2

S3 =approximate average headway between vehicles entering the

intersection among N3

Y1 = vehicle clearance interval (amber), in second, for the N1direction

Y2 = vehicle clearance interval (amber), in second, for the N2direction

Y3 = vehicle clearance interval (amber), in second, for the N3direction

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2.5.3. Cycle Time Determination or Cycle Length

The total cycle length is simple. The subtraction of the amber time from all the
red and green periods is equal to the total cycle length. The cycle length should be
long enough to make the movement of the vehicles. The phase changes can occur if
the cycle length is too short to serve. The delay length will be long if the cycle length
is long. The lost time during the changes will be higher than the usable green time.
The cycle length equation according to the Webster's method,

(2.3)
where,
C0 = optimum cycle length, sec
Y = flow ratio
L = lost time = nl + R (2.4)
And L = Σ (I – A) + ΣI (2.5)
n = number of phases
l = lost time per phase
I = intergreen period
R = lost time per cycle while simultaneously showing the red lights
Then,

(2.6)

(2.7)
Where,
Yi = flow ratio
qi = design flow (approach flow) in PCU/hr
si = saturation flow in PCU/hr
(PCU means passenger car unit or vehicles)
Saturation flow: is the maximum flow which can pass through the intersection from
one point to another approach without disturbing by the signals.
The minimum cycle length is;

Cmin =
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PHF = peak hour factor

S = 2 (from Appendix A1)
Then the green time is estimated.

GU = GA + GC ; GA = GU

or
GU + GB = C ( YA + YB ) (2.9)

GA =

GB = C ( YA + YB ) GA (2.11)

The red time,

The required green time for pedestrians,

Gi = Ti Yi (2.13)
Where,
Ti = the time required to cross the road
It is assumed that 5 seconds is pedestrian start-up time and 3.5 feet per second is the
pedestrian walk speed. Then,

(2.14)

It is needed to check the total green time during the peak 15 minutes period. The
required green time during 15 minutes is

(2.15)

Where, Ni = critical lane volume of approach i

Si = approximate average headway between vehicles entering the intersection

among Ni
The provided green time during 15 minutes is calculated by the equation.
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If the provided green time is greater than the required time, the selected cycle length
and green time are suitable for the designed junctions.

2.6. Passengers Car Equivalent (PCU)

A passenger car equivalent is essentially the impact that a mode of transport
has on traffic variables (such as headway, speed, density) compared to a single car.
The different class of vehicles such as cars, vans, buses, trucks, motor cycles, pedals
cycles, bullock carts, etc. is found to use common roadway facilities without
segregation on most of the roads in developing countries like India. Different
vehicles have different dimension like speed, length, acceleration and apart this it has
different driver behavior. Common practice of considering the passenger car as the
standard vehicle unit to convert the other vehicle classes and this unit is called as
PCU. The suggested PCU values for urban roads are shown in Table 2.1 with various
types of vehicles class like car, bus, truck, auto rickshaw and carts, etc. It also shows
PCU values in various situations such as urban roads, signalized intersections and
curbs parking. Therefore, the numbers of vehicles are calculated into PCU values
according to the types of vehicles and its situations.
Table 2.1. Suggested PCU Values for Urban Roads
Urban roads
Signalized
No. Vehicle class mid-block Curb parking
intersections
sections

1. Car 1.0 1.0 1.0

2. Bus and truck 2.2 2.8 3.4

3. Auto rickshaw 0.5 0.4 0.4

Two-wheeler
4. 0.4 0.3 0.2
automobiles
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5. Pedal cycles 0.7 0.4 0.1

6. Bullock cart 4.6 3.2 1.2

7. Hand cart 4.6 3.2 0.3

Table 2.2. Average Values of the Peak-Hour-Factor

Population Peak-Hour-Factor (PHF)

Under 500,000 0.77

500,000-1,000,000 0.83

Over 1,000,000 0.91