Module 3

Problem Solving
and
Reasoning
 MODULE 3
The Nature of Mathematics: Problem Solving and Reasoning

3.1 Introduction
Central to the study of mathematics is its ability to solve problems even
outside the field. Different professions deal with different problems. Most
professionals are required to have good problem solving skills. In the
previous module, you built a clear understanding of mathematics as a
language and improved your skills in translating mathematical sentences to
symbols. This skill is so important for you to become a better problem
solver.
In this module, our main focus is on how you solve a problem in a
systematic manner.
3.2 Learning Outcomes
After finishing this module, you are expected to

1. discuss ways to solve a problem;

2. solve problems using inductive and deductive reasoning; and
3. solve problems using Polya’s strategy.

3.3 What You Need to Know

A mathematical problem is a situation that you may confront for which
the
method and solution is not immediately known to you. There are different
ways to come up with the solution of a problem. Good comprehension and
reasoning are necessary.
3.3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
We start by describing two processes of reaching a conclusion:
inductive and deductive reasoning.
3.3.1.1 Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that comes up to a conclusion by examining
specific examples is called inductive reasoning. A conclusion that is made
by applying inductive reasoning is called a conjecture. Conjectures may or
may not be correct.
An example of this type of reasoning is applied when we want to find
the next number in a list of numbers which follows a pattern.
Example 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the lists.
 1, 3, 6, 8, 11, ?
Solution.
The first two numbers differ by 2, the second and the third by 3, the
third and fourth by 2 again. It appears that when two numbers differ by 2,
the next difference would be 3, followed again by 2, then by 3. Since the
difference between 8 and 11 is 3, we predict the number next to 11 to be a
number 2 more than 11, which is 13.
We used inductive reasoning when we predicted the number next to 11.
Example 2. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture.
Perform the following steps:
Pick a number. Multiply it by 4. Add 6 to the product. Divide the sum
by 2. Subtract 3.
Use this procedure in different numbers and conjecture on the resulting
number.
Solution.
We may construct a table to examine the results.
Original number Result
5 10
6 12
7 14
10 20
100 200

If you pick the number 5, the procedure will give a result of 10. For 6, it
will give 12; for 7, 14; for 10, 20; and for 100, 200. We observe that the
resulting numbers are twice the original number. Thus, we conjecture that
the process will produce a number which is twice the original.
We used inductive reasoning in making a conjecture in the previous
example. We must take note that though it can be helpful to use inductive
reasoning to arrive at a conclusion, extra care must be observed when
performing procedure. Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not
be correct. The following example illustrates this instance.
Example 3. Consider the polynomial 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19 where 𝑛 is a counting
number.

If we conjecture on the results for 𝑛 ≥ 2, we first check on several

values of 𝑛.

𝑛 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19
2 23
3 47
4 73
5 101
6 131
7 163

We notice that the results are prime numbers. Thus, we conjecture

that for 𝑛 ≥ 2, then 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19 is a prime number.

To test our conjecture, we need to check results for other values. We

have

𝑛 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19
8 23
9 47
10 73
11 101
12 131

We see that the results are consistent and that our conjecture
seems correct. If we continue checking on the next results, we get 397,
443, 491, 541, 593, and 647. All these numbers are prime. However, if
𝑛 = 19, we get 703 which is the product of 19 and 37. This makes us
conclude that our conjecture is incorrect.
Example 4. Consider a circle and dots on the circle. What we do is
connect each dot to all other dots so that we draw all possible line
segments. After this, we count the number of regions formed inside the
circle. The first five results are given in Figure 3.1.
 Figure 3.1
Maximum number of regions formed by connecting dots on a circle

Results may be summarized in the following table.

Number of dots 1 23 4 5 6
Maximum number of regions 1 24 8 16 ?

Using the information in the table, we see that as the number of

dots increase, the number of regions inside the circle is doubled. Thus,
we expect that for 6 dots, there will be 16 ∙ 2 = 32 regions. However, if we
perform the procedure, we find out the only 31 regions are formed as
shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2
Maximum number of regions formed by connecting 6 dots on a circle
 In itself, inductive reasoning is not a valid method of proof.
Observing that a pattern exists in a number of situations does not mean
that the pattern is true for all situations. However, the inductive way is
still valuable because it allows us to form ideas on what we observed
which leads us to come up with a hypothesis.

Observed patterns and formed ideas are better understood when

one knows how to communicate these ideas into meaningful statements.
The ability to analyze and convey the ideas formed is an essential part of
the problem solving process. In the succeeding discussion, we recall
concepts on truth of statements and familiarize with how we can justify
the truth or falsity of a statement.

A statement is true if it is true for all cases. If you can find one case
where the statement is not true, then it is considered a false statement.
The instance for which the statement becomes false is called a counter-
example. One can verify that a statement is false by using a counter-
example. This is illustrated in the next example.

Example 5. If 𝑛 is an integer, then the absolute value of 𝑛 is greater than 0.

Solution.

Since 0 is an integer, we let 𝑛 = 0. Now, |𝑛| = |0| = 0 ≯ 0. We have

found a counter-example. Thus, the statement “If 𝑛 is an integer, then
the absolute value of 𝑛 is greater than 0.” is a false statement.

3.3.1.2 Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form

used in proving observations and arriving at conclusions. It is a process
by which one makes conclusions based on previously accepted general
assumptions, procedures, and principles.

To illustrate how deductive reasoning works, we will use the same

procedure we had in Example 2 and this time we use a deductive process.

Example 6. Use deductive reasoning to make a conclusion.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 4. Add 6 to the

product. Divide the sum by 2 then subtract 3.

Solution.

Procedure Symbolic representation

Pick a number 𝑛
 Multiply by 4 4𝑛

Add 6 to the product 4𝑛 + 6

4𝑛 + 6
Divide the sum by 2 = 2𝑛 + 3
2
Subtract 3 2𝑛 + 3 − 3 = 2𝑛

If we let 𝑛 be the number, the procedure will give a result of 2𝑛.

Thus, we conclude that the procedure produces a number which is twice
the original number.

Some problems make use of the deductive process to arrive at a

solution. Logic puzzles, for example, are best solved by deductive
reasoning using a chart to display the given information.

Example 7. Solve this puzzle using deductive reasoning.

John, Jenny, Sheila, and Jason were recently elected as new class
officers (president, vice president, secretary, treasurer) in a National
High School. From the following clues, determine which position each
holds.

1. Jason is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.

2. John and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the
youngest members of the group.

3. Sheila and the secretary are next-door neighbors.

Solution.

From clue 1, Jason is neither the president nor the treasurer. We put a
mark “X” on positions Jason do not hold.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X X
Jenny
Sheila
John
 From clue 2, John is not the secretary. And since he is one of the
youngest in the group, he cannot be the president. From here, we also
conclude that Jason is not the secretary since he is older than the
treasurer. Thus, Jason must be the vice president and John must be the
treasurer.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X  X X
Jenny X X
Sheila X X
John X X X 

From clue 3, Sheila is not the secretary which leads us to conclude

that Jenny is the secretary. Since there are no other options, we
conclude that Sheila is the president.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X  X X
Jenny X X  X
Sheila  X X X
John X X X 

Therefore, Sheila is the president, Jason is vice president, Jenny is the

secretary, and John is the treasurer.
In this section, we will study another way of drawing a conclusion. To base
the conclusion on a series of observations, we will use deductive reasoning
instead.As opposed to inductive reasoning , deductive reasoning moves
from the general case to the specific case. For example , commutative
Property of Addition in Basic Rules of Algebra states that if x and y
represent any two numbers, then

X+Y=Y+X

From this property, we use deductive reasoning to conclude that these

specific cases are true
721+62 = 62+721
And
5,869 + 4,279 = 4,279 + 5,869

Without actually doing the calculations.Suppose if we know the spelling rule

that says
The letter Q is always followed by letter u.

There is no doubt as to the second letter of the words quarter and

quiet, or about the fourth letter of the word inquire. Whenever we apply a
general principle to a particular instance, we are using deductive reasoning.
Statement
In the study of mathematics or in some real life situations, we always
need to judge whether a sentence is true or false.

Study these sentences:

a. Human beings are special kinds of animals.
b. Bears have no wings.
c. There is no sand in a dessert
d. Clouds in the sky
e. 7 is an odd number
f. Do you like geometry?
g. Any triangle must contain right angle.
h. No entry
Which of the above sentences
1. Is true
2. Is false
3. Just says something but cannot be classified as true or false

We should see from example 1 that sentences are true, such as “ Human
beings are special kinds of animals” or some sentences are false , such as “
There is no sand in a dessert.”
There are also sentences which cannot be classified as true or false,
such as “ Do you like geometry?”Sentences (d), (f), and (h) are not
statements.

Basic Knowledge of Deductive Reasoning

When using deductive reasoning, we begin with giver conditions which are true statements,
and then arrive at a conclusion (which is also a true statement) through deduction reasoning.
The process of deduction can be expressed diagrammatically as follows:
 Deductive
Reasoning
Given conditions
from components Conclusion

Deductive
Given Conditions Reasoning Conclusion

i. All animals need water.

Human beings need water
1. ii. Human beings are animals

2. Deductive
Given Conditions Reasoning Conclusion

i. No school on Sundays. There wuill be no school

ii. Tomorrow is Sunday. tomorrow

Below are some examples involving mathematical statements:

Deductive
Given Conditions Reasoning Conclusion

8 is divisible by 2.
1.

2. Deductive
Given Conditions Reasoning Conclusion
i. Any triangle with 2 equal
sides is isosceles. ABC is isosceles
ii. In ABC, AB=AC

3. Deductive
Given Conditions Reasoning Conclusion
i. Any triangle with 2 equal
An Equiateral triangle is
sides is isosceles. isosceles
ii. An Equilateral triangle has
three equal sides.
In this section, our main concern is to learn how to prove mathematical statements using the deductive
approach. It is important that we learn how to identify the given conditions, the conclusion (the statement
to be proven and the tools we can use in reasoning, such as related theorems or formulas.

Deductive Reasoning is the process of using facts, definitions, rules, or previously proven principle, until
we reach a conclusion.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 4
Write down the conclusion to each statement using the deductive reasoning.(Note: There may be
different ways to express the conclusion in some expressions.

1.Given Conditions;
i. Mirage is a kind of optical illusion created by refraction of sunlight.
ii. There is no sunlight at night.
Conclusion;_________________________________________________

2. Given conditions:
i. On a horizontal number line, the larger a number is, the further to the right it will be.
ii. -700 is less than -7
Conclusion:____________________________________________________

3.Given conditions:
i. The two diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other.
ii. A square is a kind of rhombus.
Conclusion:____________________________________________________

4.Given conditions:
i. A reduced figure has a scale factor less than 1.
ii. An elephant shown on a computer monitor is reduced in size.
Conclusion:____________________________________________________
3.3.2 Problem Solving with Patterns
3.3.2.1 Terms of a Sequence

An ordered list of numbers such as

5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …
is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are separated by
commas are the terms of the sequence. In the given sequence, 5 is the
first term, 14 is the second, and so on. The three dots indicate that the
sequence continues beyond 65, which is the last term written. The use of
subscript notation is a convention to designate the nth term of a
sequence. That is,

𝑎1 represents the first term of a sequence.

𝑎2 represents the second term of a sequence.

𝑎3 represents the third term of a sequence.

𝑎𝑛 represents the nth term of a sequence.

When we examine a sequence, the following questions are often asked:

• What is the next term?

• What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?
Before we proceed to the types of sequences, we will study the basic
sequences and find the next term of a sequence using a difference table.
A difference table is often used to show differences between
successive terms of the sequence. The following table is the difference
table for the sequence
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …
Sequence 2 5 8 11 14
First difference 3 3 3 3

Looking at the sequence, we see that the difference between 5 and 2 is

3; 8 and 5 is also 3; and so on.
In this case, the first differences are all the same. Thus, if we use
the difference table above to predict the next number in the sequence,
we shall be working upward by adding 3 to 14. Thus, 14 + 3 = 17 is the
next term of the sequence. The following table shows how this is done.
Sequence 2 5 8 11 14 17
First difference 3 3 3 3 3
Consider the sequence below with its difference table.
5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …
Sequence 5 14 27 44 65
First difference 9 13 17 21
Second difference 4 4 4

From the table, we see that the first differences are not the same
since 14 − 5 = 9, 27 − 14 = 13, 44 − 27 = 17, and 65 − 44 = 21. Thus, we
check on the second differences and observe if we see a pattern. In this
case, the second differences are all the same. We have 13 − 9 = 4, 17 − 13
= 4, and 21 − 17 = 4. The common second difference is 4.
Since we have found a common second difference, we shall be
working upward to get 4 + 21 = 25 and then 25 + 65 = 90. The following
table provides the illustration on how we get the next term of the
sequence. Thus, in this example, the next term is 90.

Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 90
First difference 9 13 17 21 25
Second difference 4 4 4 4

Example 8. Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …
Solution.
Sequence 2 7 24 59 118 207 332
First differences 5 17 35 59 89 125
Second differences 12 18 24 30 36
Third differences 6 6 6 6

In this case, we found common third difference of 6. Working

upward, we have 6 + 30 + 89 + 207 = 332. This is the next in the given
sequence.

Learning Activity 5
 Direction. Figure out the next number in the sequence using a difference
table as your guide.

Start Here:

1. 1, 7, 17, 31,49,71, …
2. 10, 10, 12, 16, 22, 30,…
3. −1, 4, 21, 56, 115,204, …
4. 9, 4, 3,12,37, 84, …
5. 17, 15, 25, 53, 105,187, …

3.3.2.2 nth-Term Formula for a Sequence

Consider the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 𝑛. This formula defines a sequence

and provides a method for finding any term of the sequence. In
particular, if we want to find the first, second, and third terms, we only
need to substitute the values 1,2, and 3 to 𝑛. So,

𝑎1 = 3(1)2 + 1 = 4,

𝑎2 = 3(2)2 + 2 = 14,

𝑎3 = 3(3)2 + 3 = 30,

which means that the first term is 4; second term is 14; and third term is
30.

The next example illustrates how the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula can be

determined.
Example 9. Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following
figure continues.

a. What is the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for the number of tiles in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ figure
of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist exactly 320 tiles?
Solution.

a. If we count the tiles in each term, we get the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, …

which has a common difference of 3. Thus, we may consider 3𝑛
such that 𝑛 = 1, 2, …. However, using this would give 3 as the first
term.

From 3, we subtract 1 to get 2. Hence, we may consider the

formula 3𝑛 − 1, where 𝑛 = 1,2, …. Evaluating this formula for the
first 4 terms will give us 2, 5, 8, and 11, which are the terms of the
sequence based on the figure.

Thus, the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for this sequence is 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 1.

b. Using the formula we derived from (a), we can get the number of
tiles in the eighth term of the sequence. In this case, 𝑛 = 8 and 𝑎8
= 3(8) − 1 = 24 − 1 = 23 tiles.

c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we

will use the formula we derived in (a) and solve for 𝑛. Here, we ex-
pect the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term to have 320 tiles. Thus, we solve 3𝑛 − 1 = 320.

3𝑛 − 1 = 320
3𝑛 = 321
𝑛 = 107

Therefore, the 107th figure has 320 tiles.

Do you have your own way of solving this problem? It will help if you
write your own solution and compare the results.

3.3.2.3 Types of Sequences

There are different types of sequences in mathematics. The succeeding
discussion will illustrate some of these sequences.

Arithmetic Sequence

An arithmetic sequence is made by adding the same value each

time. This value is referred to as the ‘’common difference’’. A sequence
with this property is also called arithmetic progression.

The general form is given by

 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑, 𝑎 + 4𝑑, …

where 𝑎 is the first term and 𝑑 is the common difference.

Here are some examples of arithmetic progressions with their common

difference.
Example Common difference
1, 5, 9, 13,17, 21, 25, 29, 33, . .. 4
4, 7, 10, 13,16,19, 22, 25, . .. 3
29, 27, 25, 23, 21, 19,. .. −2

The sequences used in the previous examples are arithmetic

progressions.

Geometric Sequence

We shall now move on to the other type of sequence we want to explore.

Consider the sequence

2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, …

Here, each term in the sequence is 2 times the previous term. A

sequence such as this is called a geometric sequence.

There is a general notation for geometric sequences. The first term

we shall denote by 𝑎. But here, there is no common difference. Instead
there is a common ratio, as the ratio of successive terms is always
constant. So we shall let 𝑟 be this common ratio.

With this notation, the general geometric sequence can be expressed as

𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟2 , 𝑎𝑟3 , …

The 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term can be calculated using 𝑎𝑟𝑛−1 , where the power (𝑛 − 1) is

always one less than the position 𝑛 of the term in the sequence.
Thus, the sequence

2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, …

can be expressed as

Triangular Number Sequence

1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, ...

The Triangular Number Sequence is generated from a pattern of dots

which form a triangle:
 By adding another row of dots and counting all the dots we can find the
next number of the sequence. Thus, the 5th term in this sequence is:

Learning Activity 5

Direction. Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for the sequence with the given
representation below.

How many squares will there be in the fifteenth figure?

3.3.3 Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy

A great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem. Your
problem may be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it
by your own means, you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.
George Polya
 For a mathematician, the answer to a mathematical problem is
important. Equally important is the study of methods and rules for
discovery and invention. This is called heuristics.
One highly acceptable method to problem solving is designed by
George Polya (1887-1985). The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya
advocated consisted of four steps: understand the problem; devise a
plan; carry out the plan; and review the solution.
We will discuss each step by giving some guide on how we can complete
the problem solving process devised by George Polya.
3.3.3.1 Understand the Problem
We must have a clear understanding of the problem. In this part,
we may list the given information. Essential to this part is the ability to
identify what is asked and have a clear understanding of the properties
of the final answer. 3.3.3.2 Devise a Plan
Different problems can be solved using a variety of solutions. Some
of these procedures include making a list of the known information,
making a list of information that is needed, sketching a diagram, making
an organized list that shows all possibilities, making a table or a chart,
working backwards, trying to solve a similar but simpler problem,
looking for a pattern, writing an equation, performing an experiment,
guessing at a solution and then check our result.
3.3.3.3 Carry Out the Plan
Once we devised a plan, we must carry it out. Careful execution of
the plan is important and a record of the process and results obtained
shall be in place. If the first plan is not successful, we can always use
another plan and start all over.
3.3.3.4 Review the Solution
Once we have found a solution, we check the solution and make
sure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem. We
must interpret the solution in the context of the problem and figure out
whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply to
other problems.

Example 10. Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.

Determine the digit places to the right of the decimal point in the
decimal representation .
Solution.
Understand What are the given • The number
the Problem information? • places to the right of the decimal point

What is asked?  number to the right of the decimal point in the

decimal representation of .

What is/are the

property/ies of the  One of the numbers in the set
final answer?
Devise a Plan What steps are
1. Express in decimal form.
needed to solve the
2. Make a list of the digits to the right of the decimal nota-
problem?
tion.
3. Look for a pattern.

Carry Out the What are the

1. The number in decimal notation is given by
Plan results after we
take the steps in . which has a repeating and nonterminating
solving the pattern.
problem? 2.
Location Digit Location Digit Location Digit

3. Since the decimal representation repeats

over and over, we know that the
digit located places to the right of the
decimal point is either , or .

Only in column is each of the decimal digit locations

evenly divisible by . From this pattern
we can tell that the decimal digit must be .
Since a 1 always follows an in
the pattern, the decimal digit
must be a .

Review the Are we sure that  As an alternative solution, we see that the above table
Solution our answer is illustrates additional patterns. For
correct? instance, if each of the location
numbers in column is divided by , a remainder is
produced. If each of the location numbers
in column is divided by , a remainder of is produced. Thus,
we can find the decimal digit in any location by
dividing the location number by and examining the
th
remainder. Thus, to find the digit in the decimal place
of , we merely divide by and
examine the remainder, which is .
Thus, the
digit places to the right of the decimal point is a .
Example 11. Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
A paper fan and a visor together cost ₱100.00. The visor costs ₱
90.00 more than the paper fan. What are the individual costs of the
visor and the fan?
Solution.
Understand What are the given  The price of a paper fan and a visor together is ₱100.00.
the Problem information?  The visor costs ₱90.00 more than the paper fan.

What is asked?  Cost of the visor

 Cost of the fan

What is/are the  Visor’s price must be higher than the price of the paper
property/ies of the fan.
final answer?  Both prices must be less than ₱100.00.
 Unit of cost is in ₱.

Devise a What steps are 1. Represent the cost of visor and paper fan using a variable.
Plan needed to solve the 2. Translate the statement to mathematical equation.
problem? 3. Solve for the cost of the visor and the paper fan.
Carry Out What are the 1. We let ℎ be the cost of the paper fan. Since the visor costs
the Plan results after we ₱90.00 more than the visor, we represent its cost by ℎ +
take the steps in 90.
solving the 2. The cost of paper fan and visor altogether is ₱100.00. This
problem? can be expressed ℎ + ℎ + 90 = 100.
3. Solving this equation, we have

ℎ + ℎ + 90 = 100
2ℎ + 90 = 100
2ℎ = 100 − 90
2ℎ = 10
ℎ=5
The cost of the paper fan is ₱5.00 and the cost of the visor
is
₱ 5.00 + ₱ 90.00 = ₱ 95.00.

Review the Are we sure that • Checking the sum of the costs we get ₱ 5.00 + ₱ 95.00 = ₱
Solution our answer is 100.00
correct? • The difference of the costs of the visor and the paper fan
is ₱95.00 − ₱5.00 = ₱90.00.
Learning Activity 6

Direction. Use Polya’s four steps to problem solving in solving the

following problems.

A true or false quiz contains 10 questions. In how many ways can a

student answer the questions if the student answers two of the
questions with false and the rest with true?

Understand the
problem

Devise a plan

Carry out the

plan

Review the
solution

Determine the units digit of 4320.

Understand the
problem

Devise a plan

Carry out the

plan

Review the
solution
3.4 Recommended learning materials and resources

• Can You Solve “Einstein’s Riddle”? – Dan Van der Vieren

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1rDVz_Fb6HQ

• Recreational game: Tower of Hanoi

https://www.mathsisfun.com/games/towerofhanoi.html

• Recreational game: KenKen puzzle

• http://www.kenkenpuzzle.com/#

3.5 Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM)

Remote (asynchronous)

 module, exercises, problems sets, powerpoint lessons

3.6 Assessment Task

A. Determine whether the given argument is an example of inductive

reasoning (IR) or deductive reasoning(DR). Write your answer on the
blank after each item.

1. Emma enjoyed reading the novel Under the Dome by Stephen

King, so she will enjoy reading his next novel.

2. All pentagons have exactly five sides. Figure is a

pentagon. Therefore, Figure has exactly five sides.

3. Cats do not eat tomatoes. Tigger is a cat.

Therefore, Tigger does not eat tomatoes.

4. A number is a neat number if the sum of the cubes of

its digits equals the number. Therefore, 153 is a
neat number.

5. The Mengals have won five games in a row.

Therefore, the Mengals will win their next game.
B. Write the answer to the questions on the space provided after each
item.

1. What is the next number in the list?

2. What is the next number in the list?

3. Find a pair of numbers to show that

the given statement is false.
“If the sum of two counting numbers is an even
counting number, then the product of the two
counting numbers is an even counting number.”

4. Find a pair of numbers to show that

the given statement is false.
“If the product of two counting numbers is an
even counting number, then both of the counting
numbers are even counting numbers.”

5. Use deductive reasoning to give the

result of the given procedure:

Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6 and add

8. Divide the sum by 2, subtract twice the
original number, and subtract 4.

C. Problem Solving. Solve the following problems using Polya’s four

steps to problem solving or your alternative(systematic) process.

1. What is the th- term formula for the figure below?

 2. The bacteria in a petri dish grow in a manner such that
each day the number of bacteria doubles. On what day will
the number of bacteria be half of the number present on the
12th day?

3. The number of ducks and pigs in a field total 35. The total
number of legs among them is 98. Assuming each duck has
exactly two legs and each pig has exactly four legs, determ-
ine how many ducks and how many pigs are in the field?

4. A room measures 12 feet by 15 feet. How many 3-foot by 3-

foot squares of carpet are needed to cover the floor of this
room?

5. There was a jar of chocolate chip cookies on the table.

James and Monica were very hungry because they hadn’t
had anything to eat since breakfast, so they ate half the
cookies. Then Victor came along and noticed the cookies.
He ate a third of what was left in the jar. Sharon, who was
waiting around nearby, decided to take a fourth of the cook-
ies left in the jar. Then Tifanny came rushing up and took
one cookie to munch on in her class. When Valerie looked
at the cookie jar, she saw there were two cookies left. How
many cookies were in the jar to begin with?

Your answers in Problem Solving will be graded according to the given

standards/basis for grading:
Score Criteria
0 You did not make any attempt to solve the problem.
1 You identified what is asked in the problem.
You identified what is asked in the problem as well as other needed
2
information.
You identified what is asked in the problem, the needed information, and
3
used a correct process. However, you did not obtain the correct answer.
You were able to completely solve the problem using a correct process.
4 However, you did not give a justification that your solution is indeed
correct.
You were able to completely solve the problem using a correct process and
5
with a review of your solution.
3.7 References

Books:
Aufmann, et. al. 2013. Mathematical Excursions. Third Edition. Cengage
Learning, USA
Hammack, Richard. 2013 Book of Proof. Department of Mathematics and
Applied Mathematics. Virginia Commonwealth University
Stewart, I. 2008. Professor Stewarts’s Cabinet of Mathematical Curiosities.
Basic Books. USA

Four Basic Concepts

The four basic concepts to be discussed include sets, relations,

functions, and binary operations. It is important to be familiar with these
basic concepts and understand how they are used.

Sets

A set is a collection of objects, mostly mathematical objects such as

numbers, points in space or other sets. We denote a set using capital letters
of the English alphabet and the symbol ϵ for set membership. Thus, if 𝐴 is a
set and 3 is an element of this set, we may write it in symbol as 3 ϵ 𝐴 which
is read 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 or 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐴.

A is the set of counting numbers

A = { 1,2,3,4,5,6…}

B is the set of whole numbers

B= { 0,1,2,3,4,5,6…}

C is the set even whole numbers greater than 2 but less than 10
C = { 4,6,8}

Types of Set
1. Finite Set – is a set whose elements can be counted.
Examples
{2,4,6,8}

English Alphabet

2. Infinite set- is a set whose elements cannot be counted.

 Examples
The set of stars in the sky
The set of counting numbers {1,2,3,4,5,6…}
The set of whole numbers (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,…}

3. Empty Set or Null Set – is a set with no elements.May be written as { }

or ∅.

Example
The set of counting numbers between 8 and 9.
The set of whole numbers less than 0

There are three common ways to denote a specific set.

1. Roster method. Some sets have few elements which makes it possible
to provide a list of its members. One way of denoting a set is by the
roster method where we list its elements inside curly brackets: {2, 3, 5,
7, 11, 13, 17, 19}, for example, is the set whose elements are the eight
numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, and 19.

Examples

1. A is the set of whole numbers less than 6 (Rule)

A = { 0,1,2,3,4,5} (roster)

2. C is the set of letters in the word “excellent” (rule)

C = {e,x,c,l,n,t} (Roster)

2. Use of dots. Most sets are too large and they are often infinite. A
second way to denote sets is to use three dots to imply a list that is
too long to write down: for example, the expressions {1, 2, 3, … , 100} and
{2, 4, 6, 8, … } represent the set of all positive integers up to 100 and the
set of all positive even numbers, respectively. The three dots are col-
lectively called ellipsis.

3. Rule method. A third way is to define a set using a property or a de-

scription. An example that shows how this is done is the expression {𝑥
∶ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 < 20}. To read this expression, we first say, The set of,
because of the curly brackets. Next, we read the symbol that occurs
before the colon. The colon itself we read as such that. Finally, we read
what comes after the colon, which is the property that determines the
 elements of the set. In this example, we say, The set of all x such that
x is prime and x is less than 20, which is equal to the set
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}.

2 = 2.1
3 = 3.1
5 = 5.1
7 = 7.1
11=11.1

Composite
4= 4.1
2.2

6 = 6.1
3.2

8= 8.1
4.2

9= 9.1
3.3

So set builder notation will be

A = { x | x is an even natural number, x ≤ 12}

A = { 2,4,6,8,10,12}

Many sentences of mathematics can be written in set-theoretic terms.

For example, the sentence 5 < 10 could be written as 5 ϵ {𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 < 10}. Why is there a need for such if it is easier to understand

5 < 10? In some instances, doing so would be convenient.

 An example of this is when we translate geometry to algebra using
Cartesian coordinates. Geometric objects were defined as sets of points,
where points were expressed as pairs or triples of numbers. For example,
the set {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∶ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1} represents a circle of radius 1 about the origin (0,
0). This was based on Pythagorean theorem which says that the square of
the distance from (0, 0) to (𝑥, 𝑦) is 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 so the sentence 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1 can be re-

expressed geometrically as the distance from (0, 0) to (𝑥, 𝑦) is √1 = 1.

Sets allow one to reduce the number of parts of speech that one needs,
turning almost all of them into nouns. For example, with the help of the
membership symbol ϵ one can do without adjectives. The translation of 5 is
a prime number (where “prime” functions as an adjective) will simply be 5 ϵ 𝑃.

Given two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, it is possible to “multiply” them to produce a

new set denoted as 𝐴 × 𝐵. This operation is called the Cartesian product. To
understand it, we must first understand the idea of an ordered pair.

The Universal Set is the totality of elements under a consideration and is

denoted by the capital letter U. A is a subset of a Universal set U if all the
elements of A belong to U. This relationship is denoted by A U, and is
read as “ A is a subset of U”.

The Union of sets A and B , denoted by A U B and read as “ A Union B” is

the set of all elements that belongs to set A or set B.

A = { 1,2,4,5,7,8}
B = { 2,4,6,8,10,12,14}

AUB = { 1,2,4,5,6,7,8,10,12,14}

The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, and read as “A

intersection B” , is the set of all elements common to set A and set B. Two
sets that have no common elements are called disjoint sets.

A = { 1,2,4,5,7,8}
B = { 2,4,6,8,10,12,14}

A ∩ B = { 2,4,8}
The complement of a set A, denote by A’ or Ac , is the set of all elements
that belong to the universal set but do not belong to A.

U = { 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

A = { 1,4,6,8,10}
Ac = { 2,3,5,7,9}

U = ( a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l}

A = ( b,e,g,i}

Ac = { a,c,d,f,h,j,k,l}

Two sets A and B are equal , denoted by A=B, if they have exactly the same
elements.

A = { 2,4,6,8)
B = { 3,6,9,12}

Two sets A and B are equal are equivalent , denoted by A ↔B , if there exists
a one-to-one correspondence between their elements.

A = { 1,3,6,7}
B = { 3,1,7,6}

DEFINITION 2.3 (ordered pair)

An ordered pair is a list (𝑥, 𝑦) of two things 𝑥 and 𝑦, enclosed in parentheses and
separated by a comma.

We take note that (2,4) is an ordered pair different from another ordered
pair (4,2). We write (2,4) ≠ (4,2). Right away you can see that ordered pairs
can be used to describe points on the plane, as was done in calculus, but
they are not limited to just that. Letters, for example, may be expressed as
ordered pairs like (𝑚, 𝑙). Now we are ready to define the Cartesian product.
Cartesian Product

A = { 1,3,5,6}
B = { 2,4,6,8}

A x B = { (1,2), (1,4),(1,6),(1,8), (3,2),(3,4), (3,6,),(3,8), (5,2),(5,4),(5,6),(5,8),

(6,2),(6,4),(6,6),(6,8)}

B x A = { (2,1), (2,3),…………………………….

DEFINITION 2.4 (Cartesian product)

The Cartesian product of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is another set, denoted as 𝐴 × 𝐵 and defined
as 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎,𝑏) ∶ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵} .

The set 𝐴 × 𝐵 is a set of ordered pairs of elements from 𝐴 and 𝐵. For

example, if 𝐴 = {𝑘, 𝑙, 𝑚} and 𝐵 = {1,2},then

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑘, 1), (𝑘, 2), (𝑙, 1), (𝑙, 2), (𝑚, 1), (𝑚, 2)}

B x A = { (1,k), (1,l), (1,m), (2,k),(2,l),(2,m)}

Learning Activity 6

Direction. Write the following sets using the rule method.

Example

{2,4,6,8,10} {2𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ϵ

Start Here:

1. The first 12 natural numbers.

2. {3,6,9,12,15, … }
3. {1,4,9,16,25,36, … }
4. {… , −15, −10, −5,0,5,10,15, …}
5. {… , −45, −30, −15,0,15,30,45, … }
 Sets have other properties. It can happen that all elements of some set
𝐴 are also elements of another set 𝐵. For example, each element of 𝐴 = {1,3,4}
is also an element of 𝐵 = {0,1,2,3,4}. When 𝐴 and 𝐵 are related this way we
say that 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵.

DEFINITION 2.5 (subset)

Suppose 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets. If every element of 𝐴 is also an element of 𝐵, then we say 𝐴
is a subset of 𝐵, and we denote this as 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵.

We write 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 if 𝐴 is not a subset of 𝐵, that is, if it is not true that every element of 𝐴
is also an element of 𝐵. Thus 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 means that there is at least one element of 𝐴 that
is not an element of 𝐵.

Just as numbers are combined with operations such as addition,

subtraction and multiplication, there are various operations that can be
applied to sets. The Cartesian product is one such operation; given sets 𝐴
and 𝐵, we can combine them with × to get a new set 𝐴 × 𝐵. Here are three
operations called union, intersection and difference.

DEFINITION 2.6 (set union, intersection, and difference)

Suppose 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets.

• The union of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = { 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }.

• The intersection of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = { 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }.
• The difference of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set 𝐴 − 𝐵 = { 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵} .

In words, the union 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the set of all things that are in 𝐴 or in 𝐵 (or in both).
The intersection 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is the set of all things in both 𝐴 and 𝐵. The difference 𝐴 − 𝐵
is the set of all things that are in 𝐴 but not in 𝐵.
A relation is a set of ordered pairs . The set of all the first
elements on the ordered pairs is called the domain of the
relation., while the set of all the second elements of the ordered
pairs is called the range of the relation.

(1,2), (1,4),(1,6),(1,8), (3,2),(3,4), (3,6,),(3,8), (5,2),(5,4),(5,6),(5,8), (6,2),(6,4),

(6,6),(6,8)}

Domain-
Range -

A function is a relation in which no two ordered pairs have the

same ordered pairs have the same first element. It is also a rule
or relationship that associates with each element X at one set X
exactly one element Y of another set Y. Set X is the domain of the
function , while set y is the range of the function.

( 2,5),(3,7), (9,8), (8,4) Function

(1,2), (1,4),(1,6),(1,8), (3,2),(3,4), (3,6,),(3,8), (5,2),(5,4),(5,6),(5,8), (6,2),(6,4),

(6,6),(6,8)} Not Functiom

(3,5), (2,5),(-7,5), (0,5) Function

A set of ordered pairs is said to have a one-to-one

correspondence if every element in the domain is paired to
exactly one element in the range.
A set of ordered pairs is said to have a many-to-one
correspondence if at least two elements in the domain are all
paired to exactly one element in the range.

A set of ordered pairs is said to have a one-to-many

correspondence if an element in the domain is paired to at least
two elements in the range.
A function involves two sets, namely, the domain and the range,
and the rule of correspondence the two sets. The rule of
correspondence may be denoted by the notation y = f(x) , which is
read as “ f of x is equal to y” and indicates that the value of he
function f at x is equal to y.

Try this
A. Determine whether each of the following represents a
relation or not. If it represents a relation, determine
whether the relation is a function or not.
1. { (5,5), (-5,6), (6,-6) , (6,6)}
2. { (3,4), (4,5), (5,1), (6,1)}
3. {( 1,1), ( 1,2), (2,2), (3,1)}
4. { ( 2,-2), (3,-2), (4,-2),(5,-2)}
5. { (x,y)/ y + 2x =5

B. State the domain and the range of the function described in

the tables below.Give the equation y = f(x) for each table.
1.
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 0 1 2 3 4 5
Domain:(0,1,2,3,4,5 ) Range: (0,1,2,3,4,5)
Equation: y= x

2.
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
Domain:______________ Range:_______________
Equation:_____________________________
3.
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 0 2 4 6 8 10
Domain:______________ Range:_______________
Equation:_____________________________

4.
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 2 1 4 9 16 25
Domain:______________ Range:_______________
Equation:_____________________________

MODULE 3
The Nature of Mathematics: Problem Solving and Reasoning

3.1 Introduction
Central to the study of mathematics is its ability to solve problems even
outside the field. Different professions deal with different problems. Most
professionals are required to have good problem solving skills. In the
previous module, you built a clear understanding of mathematics as a
language and improved your skills in translating mathematical sentences to
symbols. This skill is so important for you to become a better problem
solver.
In this module, our main focus is on how you solve a problem in a
systematic manner.
3.2 Learning Outcomes
After finishing this module, you are expected to

1. discuss ways to solve a problem;

2. solve problems using inductive and deductive reasoning; and
3. solve problems using Polya’s strategy.
3.3 What You Need to Know
A mathematical problem is a situation that you may confront for which
the
method and solution is not immediately known to you. There are different
ways to come up with the solution of a problem. Good comprehension and
reasoning are necessary.
3.3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
We start by describing two processes of reaching a conclusion:
inductive and deductive reasoning.
3.3.1.1 Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that comes up to a conclusion by examining
specific examples is called inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning also
involve observing and looking for a pattern and the make an educated guest
based on the pattern. The educated guess bases on the pattern is called
inductive reasoning.A conclusion that is made by applying inductive
reasoning is called a conjecture. A conjecture is a conclusion you reached
based on inductive reasoning.Conjectures may or may not be correct.
An example of this type of reasoning is applied when we want to find
the next number in a list of numbers which follows a pattern.
Example 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the lists.
1, 3, 6, 8, 11, ?
Solution.
The first two numbers differ by 2, the second and the third by 3, the
third and fourth by 2 again. It appears that when two numbers differ by 2,
the next difference would be 3, followed again by 2, then by 3. Since the
difference between 8 and 11 is 3, we predict the number next to 11 to be a
number 2 more than 11, which is 13.
We used inductive reasoning when we predicted the number next to 11.
Example 2. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture.
Perform the following steps:
Pick a number. Multiply it by 4. Add 6 to the product. Divide the sum
by 2. Subtract 3.
Use this procedure in different numbers and conjecture on the resulting
number.
Solution.
 We may construct a table to examine the results.
Original number Result
5 10
6 12
7 14
10 20
100 200

If you pick the number 5, the procedure will give a result of 10. For 6, it
will give 12; for 7, 14; for 10, 20; and for 100, 200. We observe that the
resulting numbers are twice the original number. Thus, we conjecture that
the process will produce a number which is twice the original.
We used inductive reasoning in making a conjecture in the previous
example. We must take note that though it can be helpful to use inductive
reasoning to arrive at a conclusion, extra care must be observed when
performing procedure. Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not
be correct. The following example illustrates this instance.
Example 3. Consider the polynomial 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19 where 𝑛 is a counting
number.

If we conjecture on the results for 𝑛 ≥ 2, we first check on several

values of 𝑛.

𝑛 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19
2 23
3 47
4 73
5 101
6 131
7 163

We notice that the results are prime numbers. Thus, we conjecture

that for 𝑛 ≥ 2, then 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19 is a prime number. To test our
conjecture, we need to check results for other values. We have

𝑛 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19
8 23
9 47
10 73
11 101
12 131

We see that the results are consistent and that our conjecture
seems correct. If we continue checking on the next results, we get 397,
443, 491, 541, 593, and 647. All these numbers are prime. However, if
𝑛 = 19, we get 703 which is the product of 19 and 37. This makes us
conclude that our conjecture is incorrect.
Example 4.
Find the next three terms of the sequences 17,25,33…

Not all conjecture are true. When we find example showing that
conjecture is false, this example is called a counterexample.

A counterexample is a single example that shows a generalization to be

false. When making a conjecture, remember that it is an educated guess.
Sometimes it may be true or sometimes it may be false.

Example. Suggest a possible counterexamples for each conclusion.

1. All birds can fly.
Possible counterexample. An ostrich is a bird that cannot
fly.

2. All numbers are less than zero

 Possible counterexample. 3 is a number that is not less
than zero

Try this.

1. If a quadrilateral has four equal sides , it has four equal angles.

2. If a quadrilateral has a pair of parallel sides, it has a pair of equal
sides.
3. All roses are red.
4. All rectangle are squares
5. All triangle are equiangular.
6. All corn is yellow.
7. All triangle are isosceles.

8. Jacky made the following conjecture about the information in the

table. If the first number is negative , the sum is always negative.

Sum
Addends
-5 3 -2
-3 2 -1
-8 4 -4
-10 6 -4

9.
Learning Activity 1

Direction. Use inductive reasoning to figure out the next number in

the list.

3 5 7 9 11 13
, , , ,
5 7 9 11 13 15
,

Start Here:

1. 4, 8, 12, 16,20, 24, ____ ,_____,_____

2. 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, ___ ,_____,_____
3. 80, 70, 61,53, 46, 40, ____ ,____,____
4. 2, 7, −3,2,−8, −3, −13, −8, −18, ____ ,____,____
5. 64,56,48,40,___,____,_____
6. 17,21,25,29,____,____,_____
7. 15,23,31,39,_____,_____,____
8. 98,90,82,74,66,58,50,42.___,______,______