1.

LEVEL MEASUREMENTS INFO NOTES:

http://www.iceweb.com.au/Technical/level_measurements_info_notes.htm

1. Basics.
Level is measured at the position of the interface between phases, where the phases are
liquid/gas, solid/gas, or immiscible liquid/liquid. Level is simply a measure of height. It
defines the position of the interface, that is, the surface where the two phases meet with
respect to a reference point. This measurement is often converted to a volumetric or
gravimetric quantity.

· Direct Level Measurement

Direct methods employ physical properties such as fluid motion and buoyancy, as well as
optical, thermal, and electrical properties. Direct level measurement does not require
compensation for changes in level caused by changes in temperature. Direct level
measurements show the actual level of the interface.

· Indirect Level Measurement

Indirect level measurement involves converting measurements of some other quantity,

such as pressure to level by determining how much pressure is exerted over a given area
at a specific measuring point, the height of the substance above that measuring point can
also be determined. For example, the formula used to determine the height of water in an
open tank is:

h = P / .433 psi

where:

h = height,

p = pressure indicated on a gage,

.433 psi = pressure exerted by one square inch of water, one foot high.

For substances other than water, the liquid's specific gravity (the ratio of the liquid's
density to water's density) must be factored into the level calculation:

h = P / .433 psi (G)

where:

G = specific gravity
Temperature can also affect the accuracy of indirect level measurement. Substances have
a tendency to expand when heated and contract when cooled. Gases are greatly affected
by changes in temperature, while solids are affected very little. Because indirect level
measurement is sensitive to specific gravity and the effects of temperature, it is necessary
to compensate for these factors to ensure accurate measurement.

· Continuous Level Measurement

In many processes, continuous level measurement is required because it is necessary to

know at all times the exact position of the interface in relation to one or more specific
reference points. A gage or sight glass, can be used to continuously observe the position
of the interface.

2. · Point-to-Point Level Measurement

Certain processes require only that the level of a substance be maintained between two
points. Frequently these two points are a high level and a low level. When this is
required, a point-to-point level measurement system is used. Such a system activates
control devices only when predetermined levels are reached.

3. · Selecting Measurement Devices

Some level measurement methods and devices are better suited to point measurement.
When selecting a measuring device, it is important to consider the operating parameters
and the physical and chemical properties of the process materials.

4. Visual sensors.
5. · Dip Sticks and Lead Lines
A dip stick is essentially a stick or rod that is calibrated to indicate level. The dip stick is
lowered vertically into a tank or vessel until it reaches a reference point. Usually the
bottom of the tank is used to ensure that the dip stick is inserted to the correct depth. The
dip stick is then withdrawn and the level is ready by determining where the interface last
made contact with the dip stick. Reading the scale on the dip stick indicates the level
measurement. A lead line acts in the same way as a dip stick. A steel measuring tape with
a weight attached, the lead line can be used in most places that the dip stick can. Since the
lead line can be rolled up into a smaller, compact unit, it is often easier to handle than a
dip stick.

6. · Sight Glasses and Gage Glasses

The sight glass is an important method for visually determining level. The sight glass is a
transparent tube of glass or plastic mounted outside the vessel and connected to the vessel
with pipes. The liquid level in the sight glass matches the level of liquid in the process
tank.

In process systems that contain a liquid under high pressure a reflex sight glass is used.
This device is armored, to permit it to tolerate higher temperatures and higher pressures.
Gage glasses are typically glass covered ports in a vessel that make it possible to observe
the level of the substance in the vessel. Many gage glasses will have a scale mounted on
the tank that allows the level to be read.

7. · Float Devices
These devices operate by float movement with a change in level. This movement is then
used to convey a level measurement. An object of lower density than the process liquid is
placed in the vessel, causing it to float on the surface. The float rises and falls with the
level, and its position is sensed outside the vessel to indicate level measurement.

8. · Magnetic-Type Float Devices

Floats can also be used with magnets to detect and indicate level. This type of
measurement system uses the attraction between two magnets to follow the level of a
process liquid.

9. Variable displacement sensors.

When a body is immersed or partly immersed in a liquid, it loses weight equal to the
liquid weight displaced. Variable displacement level devices utilize this principle by
measuring the weight of the immersed displacer.

10. · Archimedes' Principle

Archimedes' Principle states that a body immersed in a liquid will be buoyed up by a
force equal to the weight of the liquid it displaces. This upward pressure acting on the
area of the displacer creates the force called buoyancy.

11. · Principles of Variable Displacement

The float displaces its own weight in the liquid in which it floats. It will sink into the
liquid until a volume of liquid is displaced that is equal in weight to that of the float.
When the specific gravity of the liquid and the cross-sectional area of the float remain
constant, the float rises and falls with the level. So, the float will assume a constant
relative position with the level and its position is a direct indication of level. The amount
of liquid displaced by variable displacers depends on how deeply the device is submerged
in the liquid. With variable displacement devices, the amount of displacement varies with
the level of the liquid.

The span of the displacer is the distance that the displacer will respond to the forces of
buoyancy. Buoyant force depends on the amount of liquid displaced and the density of
the liquid. It is important to note the relationship of specific gravity to the change in
weight of the displacer as the level changes. Displacers used in liquids with lower
specific gravity will not change weight as dramatically as those used in liquids with
higher specific gravity. This is why displacer level measuring systems are not used in
applications where they could be immersed in liquids of varying specific gravities.

12. · Liquid-Liquid Interface Measurement

An advantage of variable displacers is that they are capable of detecting liquid-liquid
interfaces as well as liquid-gas interfaces. When a displacer is used to determine the level
of an interface between two liquids, it is always completely submerged.

· Variable Displacement Level Measuring Devices

A displacer must be connected to a measuring mechanism which, when sensing the

changes in buoyant force, converts this force into an indication of level. A displacer body
can be suspended directly in a tank, or installed in a float chamber on the outside of the
vessel. Torque tube displacer level instrument is suspended from an arm that is attached
to a torque tube or torque rod. A knife-edge bearing supports the movable end of the
torque tube. This type of bearing provides an almost frictionless pivot point. The torque
tube must be sufficient strength to support the full weight of the displacer in the absence
of buoyancy, or when the level is at minimum. It is a solid or hollow tube that transfers
displacer motion to an electronic instrument or a pneumatic instrument that will produce
a signal proportional to the changes in the weight of the displacer. Spring balance
displacers are devices similar to torque tube displacers. In these devices, the torsional
spring of the torque tube is replaced by a conventional range spring. The motion of the
displacer is transferred to the indicator by means of magnetic coupling.

13. · Applications
Variable displacement level devices are most often used for local level indication or
control. Because displacers are immersed in process fluids, their material of construction
must be compatible with the process. Displacers are also extremely sensitive to changes
in the density of process liquids. Provisions must be made to measure and compensate for
such changes in density when variable displacers are used.
14. Pressure sensors.
Since level can be determined by pressure, or head, many pressure measuring devices are
used for indicating level.

15. · Hydrostatic Pressure

A liquid at rest in a vessel exerts a pressure on the walls of the vessel. At any given point
the pressure on the wall of the vessel is proportional to the vertical distance between that
point and the surface of the liquid, and varies with the height of the liquid. The
relationship between the weight produced by the vertical height of a column of water and
the pressure exerted on the supporting surfaces of the vessel can be used to determine
level. The relationship between pressure and level makes it possible to convert
hydrostatic measurements directly to level in feet or inches. In the following equations,
"WC" stands for water column and is usually omitted from equations as understood in
discussions of hydrostatic pressure.

1 lb./in.2 = 2.31 feet water

= 27.7 inches water (WC)

1 psi = 2.31 feet

= 27.7 inches

16. · Open-Tank Head Level Measurement

If level is to be determined and indicated by measuring pressure, the specific gravity of
the liquid must be known. The specific gravity of water is 1.00. If the liquid has a lower
specific gravity, the pressure exerted by the column of liquid will be less than that exerted
by a column of water of the same height. For liquids with a specific gravity greater than
1.00, the pressure exerted by the column of liquid will be greater. To compensate for the
difference in specific gravity, the following equation is used:

h = (p (2.31 ft.)) / G

where:

h = height in feet

p = pressure

G = specific gravity
17. · Diaphragm Box
The diaphragm box is submerged in the process liquid and connected to a pressure gage
by a gage line. The hydrostatic head produced by the level of the liquid in the tank exerts
pressure on the bottom of the diaphragm causing it to flex upward. This action
compresses the gas in the box and the gage line. The pressure is applied to a gage or other
pressure element that is part of an indicator assembly calibrated to indicate liquid level
units.

18. · Air-Trap Sensors

As the liquid level rises, the hydrostatic head forces liquid up into an air trap sensor, or
inverted bell. As the level of the liquid rises, it compresses the air trapped in the bell and
the gage line until an equilibrium between the air pressure and the pressure exerted by the
hydrostatic head is reached.

19. · Air Bubble or Surge Tube

Known by various names, including an air bubble, a surge tube, an air purge and a dip
tube, this type of system uses a continuous air supply that is connected to a tube that
extends into the tank to a point that represents the minimum level line. An air regulator
controls the air flow. It increases air flow to the tube until all liquid is forced from the
tube. At this pressure and flow rate, the air begins to bubble out of the bottom of the tube.
This indicates that the air pressure forcing the liquid out of the tube is equal to the
hydrostatic head produced by the height of the process liquid being forced into the tube.
The air pressure acting against the hydrostatic head provides the pressure indication to
the gage.

This is most useful for applications such as underground tanks and water wells. However,
as with other hydrostatic pressure systems, the major limitation of these systems is that
they are generally limited to open-tank applications.

20. · Closed-Tank Applications

In open tanks, measurements are referenced to atmospheric pressure. At atmospheric
pressure, the pressure on the surface of the liquid is equal to the pressure on the reference
side of the pressure element in the measuring instrument. When atmospheric pressure
changes, the change is equal on both the surface of the liquid and the reference side of the
measuring element. To compensate for the effects on level measurement caused by such
pressure variations in closed-tank applications, a differential pressure (d/p) cell is often
used to measure and indicate level. The d/p cell only responds to differences in pressure
applied to two measuring taps. One pressure tap is the measuring point on the tank, which
is usually below the minimum level point for the liquid. The other tap is usually located
near the top of the tank. The tap in the liquid region of the tank is referred to as the high-
side; the other tap, located above the level of the liquid, is referred to as the low-side.
System pressure is sensed by both the high and low sides. In addition to system pressure,
the high side also senses the pressure exerted by the height of the liquid. Since both sides
are exposed to the same system pressure, the effects of system pressure are canceled and
the differential pressure cell only indicates liquid level.

An instrument can be calibrated to compensate for the additional static pressure created
by the condensed liquid. This compensation or adjustment is called zero elevation. Other
means are also available to eliminate inaccuracies due to wet leg problems. For instance,
in what is referred to as a wet-leg installation, the low pressure leg is deliberately filled
with liquid. Another method involves the use of a device called a pressure repeater or
one-to-one relay. The repeater is installed at the top of the tank and linked by pipe to an
air relay. The pressure in the tank actuates the air relay, which is connected to an air
supply. When the pressure in the tank increases, the relay increases the air pressure on the
low-pressure leg. The relay regulates the air pressure so that it is equal to that of the tank
pressure. When the pressure in the tank decreases, the relay vents air from the low
pressure leg to maintain the equilibrium. Zero suppression, is the correction adjustment
required to compensate for error caused by the mounting position of the instrument with
respect to the level measurement reference.

21. Electrical sensors.

22. · Capacitance
A capacitor consists of two plates separated from each other by an insulating material
called a dielectric. In applications involving capacitance measuring devices, one side of
the process container acts as one plate and an immersion electrode is used as the other.
The dielectric is either air or the material in the vessel. The dielectric varies with the level
in the vessel. This variation produces a change in capacitance that is proportional to level.
Thus, level values are inferred from the measurement of changes in capacitance, which
result from changes in the level.

Capacitance type level measurement devices offer many advantages. Simple in design,
they contain no moving parts and require minimal maintenance. The availability of
corrosive resistant probes is also an advantage. Measurement is subject to error caused by
temperature changes affecting the dielectric constant of the material. If the probes should
become coated with a conductive material, errors in measurement may occur.

23. · Conductivity
A material's ability to conduct electric current can also be used to detect level. This
method is typically used for point measurement of liquid interfaces of relatively high
conductivity. Conductivity applications are usually limited to alarm devices and on/off
control systems. A common arrangement is two electrodes positioned at the top in a tank.
One extends to a minimum level and the other is positioned so that its lower edge is at the
maximum level. The tank is grounded and functions as the common, or third electrode.
Usually, a stilling well is provided to ensure that the interface is not disturbed and to
prevent false measurement.

There are limitations to the conductivity method. The first is process substance must be
conductive. Second, only point detection measurements can be obtained. The possibility
of sparking also makes this method prohibitive for explosive or flammable process
substances.

Advantages include low cost and simple design, as well as the fact that there are no
moving parts in contact with the process material. These advantages make this type of
system an effective method of detecting and indicating level for many water-based
materials.

24. · Resistance
Resistance type level detectors use the electrical relationship between resistance and
current flow to accurately measure level. The most common design uses a probe
consisting of two conductive strips. One strip has a gold-plated steel base; the other is an
elongated wire resistor. The strips are connected at the bottom to form a complete
electrical circuit. The upper ends of the strips are connected to a low voltage power
supply. The probe is enclosed in a flexible plastic sheath which isolates the strips from
the process material. As the level of the process material rises, the hydrostatic pressure
forces the resistance strips together up to the interface. This action shorts the circuit
below the interface level, and total resistance is reduced proportionately. Resistance
sensing devices can be used for liquid-gas interfaces and for slurries or solids. As with
the other electrical level sensors discussed, resistance-type level detectors require
relatively little maintenance.

2. SUBJECT : SPECIFIC GRAVITY 7-12

http://www.mcnallyinstitute.com/07-html/7-12.html

The term specific gravity is used to describe the weight or density of a liquid compared to
an equal volume of fresh water at 4°C (39° F). If the liquid you are comparing will float
on this water it has a specific gravity of less than one (1). If it sinks into the fresh water
the specific gravity is more than one. As you have already guessed fresh water at 4°C
(39° F) has been assigned a value of one (1).

It's important that you do not confuse specific gravity with viscosity which is a
measurement of a fluids resistance to pouring. Thick liquids are said to have a high
viscosity and thin liquids a low viscosity. Like specific gravity, viscosity can be altered
by a change in temperature, but unlike specific gravity it can also be altered by agitation.
The really important thing to keep in mind is that there is no correlation between
viscosity and specific gravity.

We measure specific gravity with a hydrometer. It consist of a glass cylinder with a

rubber bulb on top, and a float positioned inside the glass tube. The float is calibrated to
float on fresh water so if the fluid you are testing has a higher specific gravity, the float
will raise in the liquid and at a lower specific gravity it will sink lower in the liquid. This
is the same instrument that we use to tell if your automobile battery is fully charged.
Another version will determine the concentration of ant-freeze in an automobile radiator.
You can observe the little balls floating in the tube.

OK! now that we have all of that straight, what are we going to do with this specific
gravity information that we're collecting? It turns out that we use it for a lot of things. As
an example:

 It's part of the formula we use to convert pump head to pressure:

 You'll need it to calculate the hydraulic force acting on the impeller when the
centrifugal pump is operating off the best efficiency point:
  We need specific gravity to calculate the horsepower of the motor we need to
operate the pump:
o Horsepower needed = The horsepower noted on the manufacturers pump
curve multiplied by the specific gravity of the fluid you are pumping.
 NPSH and cavitation are directly related to specific gravity. The lower the
specific gravity the lower the vaporization pressure.
 Low specific gravity fluids cause a number of mechanical seal problems:
o The fluid can vaporize in the stuffing box causing a big bubble and high
heat at the seal faces..
o If the specific gravity falls below 0.4 we have to change the spring load on
the seal faces to a lower value, and change the hydraulic balance ratio
from about 70/30 to 60/40.
o Most low specific gravity fluids are poor lubricants that cause excessive
seal face wear, "slip- stick" vibration problems, and possible color
contamination of some products if carbon/ graphite is used as the seal
face.
o The fluid can flash between the lapped seal faces. This will:
o Cause chipping and damage to the carbon outside diameter.
o Leave solids between the lapped faces, the last place you need them.
o In some instances the flashing will cool the faces and freeze any oil or
grease you put on the seal face.

If the fluid is a mixture of a fluid and a solid we have a useful formula to calculate
the Specific Gravity of a slurry:
Sm = Specific gravity of the mixture or slurry

Sl = Specific gravity of the liquid phase

Ss = Specific gravity of the solids phase

Cw = Concentration of the solids by weight

The formula for the concentration of solids by weight (Cw ) is:

Here is an example of a typical mixture:

You have a water and solids slurry. The water is a liquid with a Specific Gravity of 1.0
and the % solids by weight is 30%. The solids having a Specific Gravity of 2.7, then:
For information about my CD with over 600 Seal & Pump Subjects
explained, click here
Link to the Mc Nally home page

3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravity

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with specific weight.

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a given solid or liquid substance
to the density of water at a specific temperature and pressure, typically at 4°C (39°F) and
1 atm (29.92 inHg) , making it a dimensionless quantity (see below). Substances with a
specific gravity greater than one are denser than water, and so (ignoring surface tension
effects) will sink in it, and those with a specific gravity of less than one are less dense
than water, and so will float in it. Specific gravity is a special case of, or in some usages
synonymous with, relative density, with the latter term often preferred in modern
scientific writing. The use of specific gravity is discouraged in technical use in scientific
fields requiring high precision — actual density (in dimensions of mass per unit volume)
is preferred.

Specific gravity, SG, is expressed mathematically as:

where is the density of the substance, and is the density of water. (By
convention ρ, the Greek letter rho, denotes density.) The density of water varies with
temperature and pressure, and it is usual to refer specific gravity to the density at 4°C
(39.2°F) and a normal pressure of 1 atm. The given temperature and pressure are
preferred because it is when water has its maximum density. In this case is equal to
1000 kg·m−3 in SI units (or 62.43 lbm·ft−3 in United States customary units).
Given the specific gravity of a substance, its actual density can be calculated by inverting
the above formula:

Occasionally a reference substance other than water is specified (for example, air), in
which case specific gravity means density relative to that reference.

Specific gravity is, by definition, dimensionless and therefore not dependent on the
system of units used (e.g. slugs·ft−3 or kg·m−3). However, the two densities must be
converted to the same units before carrying out the numerical ratio calculation.

For information about the measurement of and uses of specific gravity, see relative
density.

4. VOLUME AND DENSITY DEFINITIONS AND

DETERMINATION METHODS – SUPPLIER DATA BY
MICROMERITICS
http://www.azom.com/Details.asp?ArticleID=3214#_Specific_Gravity

4.1. BACKGROUND

There are a number of manual and automated methods for determining volume and
density. This article, however, focuses on laboratory methods that are most often used in
research and quality control applications.

Another large area of application is on-line monitoring in production control.

4.2. THE DENSITY ENIGMA

When first introduced to density, perhaps in grade school, we were taught that it simply is
the mass of an object divided by its volume. We thought that was pretty much the whole
story, but sooner or later we discovered that this definition was only the beginning. The
difficulty in defining density is exemplified by the American Society for Testing and
Materials’ book of standard definitions where one finds over forty definitions based on
mass per unit volume. The British Standards Institute has narrowed it down to fourteen
types of densities.

4.3. VOLUME DETERMINATION AND DEFINITION

Determining the mass of an object is rather straightforward; it is the determination of

volume that conceals the difficulty. The ‘volume’ of a solid object, whether a single piece
or a mass of finely divided powder, is one of those concepts that can’t be bundled up into
a single, neat definition.

A layman’s dictionary typically defines volume in vague terms such as ‘the space
occupied by an object.’ McGraw-Hill’s Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms
expands only slightly on that definition, offering “A measure of the size of a body or
definite region in three dimensional space….”

One must consult a particle technology’s lexicon to appreciate the various conditions
under which volume is defined. Two sources for these definitions are the British
Standards Institute (BSI) and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
Here one finds that the ‘volume’ of a material is the summation of several rigorously
defined elemental volumes.

4.4. VOLUME AND DENSITY OF A BRICK

A common masonry brick will serve as a good example of an object that contains all
types of elemental volumes and differs in material volume according to the measurement
technique, measurement method, and conditions under which the measurements are
performed.

A brick obviously is composed of solid material and it has a volume that can be
calculated after measuring its length, width, and thickness.

4.5. SURFACE IRREGULARITIES, SMALL FRACTURES,

FISSURES AND PORES

However, it also contains surface irregularities, small fractures, fissures, and pores that
both communicate with the surface and that are isolated within the structure. Voids that
connect to the surface are referred to as open pores; interior voids inaccessible from the
surface are called closed or blind pores.

Surface irregularities compose another type of void volume. For example, assume the
bulk volume of the brick is determined from linear measurements of its length, width, and
thickness. It generally is understood that the value of volume determined in this way is
limited in accuracy because the surfaces are not perfect. If a perfect plane were to be laid
on one of the surfaces, there would be many voids sandwiched between the two surfaces.
For lack of a standard definition, this will be referred to as ‘external void volume’ and
will refer to the void volume between solid surface and that of a closely fitting envelope
surrounding the object.

It does not include pores that penetrate the interior of the particle. The meaning of the
term is admittedly vague, but this volume can be determined or, at least, estimated under
certain analytical conditions and can provide an indication of surface roughness. Figure 1
demonstrates the concept.
 Figure 1. A straightedge placed along the edge of a brick demonstrates the concept of
‘external volume,’ the volume contained by virtue of surface irregularities.

When a solid material is in granular or powdered form, the bulk contains another type of
void: interparticle space. The total volume of interparticle voids depends on the size and
shape of the individual particles and how well the particles are packed.

Table 1 provides ‘standard’ definitions for volume in consideration of these elemental

volumes. Figure 2 illustrates the bases for the differences between various volume
definitions.

Table 1. Definitions of various types of volumes. BSI = British Standards Institute,

ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials.

Solid Material Volume

Open Pore Volume

Closed Pore Volume

Inter - particle Void Volume

External Void Volume

Absolute powder volume: (also called Absolute volume): The volume of the solid matter after exclusion of
all the spaces (pores and voids) (BSI).

Apparent particle volume: The total volume of the particle, excluding open pores, but including closed
pores (BSI).

X
Apparent powder volume: The total volume of solid matter, open pores and closed pores and interstices
(BSI).

Bulk volume: The volumes of the solids in each piece, the voids within the pieces, and the voids among
the pieces of the particular collection (implied by ASTM D3766).

Envelope volume: The external volume of a particle, powder, or monolith such as would be obtained by
tightly shrinking a film to contain it (BSI).

The sum of the volumes of the solid in each piece and the voids within each piece, that is, within close-
fitting imaginary envelopes completely surrounding each piece (Implied by ASTM D3766; see Table 2).

X
 X

Geometric volume: The volumes of a material calculated from measurements of its physical dimensions.

X
 X

Skeletal volume: The sum of the volumes of the solid material and closed (or blind) pores within the
pieces (Implied by ASTM D3766).

True volume: Volume excluding open and closed pores (implied by BSI).

Void: Space between particles in a bed (BSI).

Figure 2. Illustration of various volume types. At the top left is a container of individual
particles illustrating the characteristics of bulk volume in which interparticle and
“external” voids are included. At the top right is a single porous particle from the bulk.
The particle cross-section is shown surrounded by an enveloping band. In the illustrations
at the bottom, black areas shown are analogous to volume. The three illustrations at the
right represent the particle. Illustration A is the volume within the envelope, B is the
same volume minus the “external” volume and volume of open pores, and C is the
volume within the envelope minus both open and closed pores.

Three volume definitions, those of apparent powder volume, bulk volume and envelope
volume, have subtle differences. Apparent powder volume is most rigidly defined. It is
the sum total of the four volumes indicated by the column headings in Table 1. Bulk and
tap densities are obtained from bulk and tap volumes, which are apparent powder
volumes obtained under specified conditions. Usually, this involves placing the powder
into a rigid container of specific dimensions while taking specific steps to control
compaction. In the case of a monolithic sample, bulk volume may be calculated from
dimensional measurements or by displacement of some medium in which it is immersed.

4.6. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENVELOPE AND BULK

VOLUMES

The difference between envelope and bulk volumes often is unclear. As can be seen in
Table 1, ASTM’s definition of envelope volume must be inferred from their definition of
envelope density in Table 2. It implies that the definition pertains only to a single
particle, while BSI’s definition encompasses a particle or a monolith (singular implied),
and a powder (by definition, a collection of fine particles).

Table 2. Definitions of various types of densities that follow from the volume definitions
of Table 1. BSI = British Standards Institute, ASTM = American Society for Testing and
Materials.

Solid Material Volume

Open Pore Volume

Closed Pore Volume

Inter - particle Void Volume

External Void Volume

Absolute powder density: The mass of powder per unit of absolute volume (BSI).

Apparent particle density: The mass of a particle divided by its apparent

(particle) volume (BSI).

X
 Apparent powder density: The mass of a powder divided by its apparent volume (BSI).

Bulk density: (also called Bulk powder density): The apparent powder density under defined conditions
(BSI).

The mass of the particles divided by the volume they occupy that includes the space between the particles
(ASTM D5004).

The ratio of the mass of a collection of discrete pieces of solid material to the sum of the volumes of: the
solids in each piece, the voids within the pieces, and the voids among the pieces of the particular
collection (ASTM D3766).

X
 X

Envelope volume: The external volume of a particle, powder, or monolith such as would be obtained by
tightly shrinking a film to contain it (BSI).

The sum of the volumes of the solid in each piece and the voids within each piece, that is, within close-
fitting imaginary envelopes completely surrounding each piece (Implied by ASTM D3766; see Table 2).

X
X

X
 Effective particle density: The mass of a particle divided by its volume including open pores and closed
pores (BSI).

Envelope density: The ratio of the mass of a particle to the sum of the volumes of: the solid in each piece
and the voids within each piece, that is, within close-fitting imaginary envelopes completely surrounding
each piece (ASTM D3766).

The ratio of the mass of a particle to the envelope volume of the particle (implied by BSI).

X
 X

Skeletal density: The ratio of the mass of discrete pieces of solid material to the sum of the volumes of:
the solid material in the pieces and closed (or blind) pores within the pieces (ASTM D3766).

Tap density (also called Tap powder density): The apparent powder density obtained under stated
conditions of tapping (BSI).

X
 X

Theoretical density: The ratio of the mass of a collection of discrete pieces of solid material to the sum of
the volumes of said pieces, the solid material having an ideal regular arrangement at the atomic level
(ASTM).

True density (also called True particle density); The mass of a particle divided by its volume, excluding
open pores and closed pores (BSI).

In regard to this document and others by Micromeritics, envelope volume and envelope
density are defined following ASTM’s definition, that is, in terms of a single particle or
monolith. Bulk properties pertain to collections of particles. A third definition, that of
geometrical volume, is adopted and pertains to a volume calculated from the linear
dimensions of the bulk or monolithic material.
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity, in general, is the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of material
at a stated temperature to the weight of the same volume of water (or other reference) at a
stated temperature. It, therefore, is dimensionless and is sometimes expressed in the form,
for example, 6.25 25/25 C. In this format, 6.25 is the specific gravity value and 25/25 °C
indicates that the sample temperature was 25 ° and the reference water temperature was
25 °C. The type volume measurement used in calculating density determines the type
specific gravity. For example, true specific gravity is calculated using true volume
measurements. It is the ratio of the true density of the material (determined at a specific
temperature) to the true density of water (at a specific temperature).
The reason for expressing the temperatures is that the density of pure, air-free water at
3.98 C is 1.00000 g/ml. This is the maximum density value; density decreases with both
higher and lower temperatures. If one assumes a density of 1.000 for water at room
temperature the error introduced is about 0.3%.
Volume and Density Determination Methods
Using Manual Laboratory Devices
Although not a complete list, the following represents the most common methods by
which volume and density are determined manually.
Pycnometry (Specific Gravity Bottles)
A pycnometer is a vessel with a precisely known volume. When one thinks of density
determinations, one usually thinks of a pycnometer. Although a pycnometer is used to
determine density

or specific gravity, it measures volume ; a balance is used to determine mass . Manual

µpycnometers§ (glassware) typically are used to determine the density or specific gravity
of liquids by filling the vessel, then weighing. Density is calculated by and specific
gravity by the same equation and dividing both sides by the density of water with
reference to temperature.
Essentially the same process can be used to determine the volume of an unknown,
enclosed space. First the object containing the void is weighed empty. It is then filled
with a liquid of known density and reweighed. The weight difference is the weight of
the liquid and from these data, volume can be calculated by
As will be explained, this process is used to ‘calibrate’ sample cells used in mercury
porosimetry.
Another µpycnometer§ method is to place a quantity of a dry, pre-weighed solid sample
in the µpycnometer§ and fill the rest of the µpycnometer§ with a liquid of known density
(typically water), the weight of the µpycnometer§filled only with the liquid having
previously been established. The density of the sample can be determined from the
known density of the water, the weight of the µpycnometer§ filled only with the liquid,
the weight of the µpycnometer§ containing both sample and liquid, and the weight of the
sample. This is a common method used in characterizing soil samples.
Hydrostatic Weighing (Displacement Method)
By this method, the volume of a solid sample is determined by comparing the weight of
the sample in air to the weight of the sample immersed in a liquid of known density. The
volume of the sample is equal to the difference in the two weights divided by the density
of the liquid.
Conversely, if the volume of a solid object is accurately known, the density of the liquid
can be determined by the loss of weight of the immersed object. This is the basis for the
hydrometer method (see next section).
If the sample is porous, one must determine if the pores are to be included or excluded
from the volume. If they are to be included or the sample will react with the displacement
medium, a sealing coating can be applied (see Bulk / Envelope Volume by Coating). If
pore volume is to be excluded, the liquid must displace the air and completely fill the
pores.
Various pretreatment methods are used including evacuation and boiling.
When determining volume by directly measuring the displaced volume, liquids, fine
particles or gases can be used as the displacement medium. If the sample material is
porous, fine particles will not penetrate into the smaller pores that water can enter.
Mercury, being a non-wetting liquid, also will not penetrate pores under ambient pressure
as will wetting liquids. Gases, Helium in particular, will penetrate readily into very fine
pores.
Hydrometers
A hydrometer is a vertical float that measures the density or specific gravity of a liquid or
liquid/solid suspension (slurry). The hydrometer, inscribed with a graduated scale along
its length, sinks into the liquid until it has displaced a volume of liquid equal in weight to
that of the float. Specific gravity or density is read directly from the inscribed scale at the
liquid surface after buoyancy and gravitational forces equalize.
Float-Sink or Suspension (Buoyancy) Method
This method requires a liquid of known and adjustable density in which the sample is
placed. The density of the liquid is adjusted until the sample either begins to sink or float,
or is suspended at neutral density in the liquid.
The density of the object is then equated to that of the liquid. This method also is used to
separate materials by their density.
Density Gradient Column
A density gradient column is a column of liquid that varies in density with height. A
sample is placed in the liquid and observed to determine at what vertical level in the
column the sample is suspended. The density of the liquid at that level is the density of
the sample, and that value is determined by standards of known density.
Tap Density and Vibratory Packing Density
These are very similar methods for determining the bulk density of a collection of
particles under specific conditions of packing. In the former case, packing is achieved by
tapping the container and in the latter by vibrating the container. The particles under test
should not break up under test conditions.
Bulk / Envelope Volume by Coating
Coating the sample allows determination of bulk volume or apparent volume of solids
while preventing absorption or reaction with suspension liquids.
Penetration of the coating into the open pores of the sample must be considered.
Following the referenced method, the mass of the sample is obtained. The sample is
dipped into molten wax of known density. After withdrawal, any air bubbles in the wax
coating are pressed out, and the coated sample is weighed. The difference in weight
before and after coating is the weight of the wax, and dividing this number by the density
of the wax provides the volume of wax composing the coating. The volume of the coated
sample is determined by hydrostatic weighing. From this volume, the volume of wax (or
other coating) is subtracted, yielding the bulk (or envelope) volume of the sample.
Volume and Density Determinations by Laboratory Analytical Instruments
The displacement method is the underlying principle used in all automated volume
determining methods discussed below.
Skeletal Volume and Density by Gas Pycnometry
A gas µpycnometer§ operates by detecting the pressure change resulting from
displacement of gas by a solid object. Figure 3 helps explain the technique. An object of
unknown volume Vx is placed into a sealed sample changer of known volume Vs. After
sealing, the pressure within the sample chamber is measured Ps. Then, an isolated
reference chamber of known volume Vr is charged to a pressure Pr, which is greater than
that of the sample chamber. A value isolating the two chambers is opened and the
pressure Psys of the system is allowed to equilibrate. The gas law, PV = nRT is applied to
determine the volume of the unknown as follows:
Assume the system is maintained at a constant temperature T and there is no net loss or
gain of gas, that is, the number of gas molecules n is constant throughout the experiment.

Figure 3. Essentials of the operation of a precalibrated gas pycnometer.

Logically, one deduces that when the valve is opened the pressure in the reference
volume will fall and the pressure in the sample chamber will rise. The larger the volume
of the unknown, the higher will be the final system pressure, the initial pressure of the
reference chamber being the upper limit when 100 percent of the volume of the sample
chamber is displaced by the unknown volume.
Mathematically, the initial condition is
Ps(Vs – Vx) + PrVr = nRT
where R is the gas constant.
After the valve is opened, the condition changes to
Psys(Vs + Vr – VX) = nRT
This leads to the expression
Ps(Vs – Vx) + PrVr = Psys(Vs + Vr – VX)
which can be solved in terms of the unknown
quantity Vx yielding,
VX = (PsysVs + PsysVr – PsVs – PrVr) / (Psys-Ps)
The accuracy and precision of the gas µpycnometer§ in the determination of skeletal
volume and density can be quite high, but relies greatly on the sample material and
analysis gas being free of moisture. The sample also must be free of any volatile
substances that can contribute their partial pressures and cause error and instability. For
these reasons, the gas is a pure gas or dry air, and the sample is pretreated in a vacuum
oven to remove volatiles. The contribution of the instrument to error is, for the most part,
confined to leaks and temperature instability or temperature gradients.
Helium typically is the gas used because it readily diffuses into small pores. Other gases
also are used and selected based on the size of the molecule or the way in which the gas
reacts with the surface of the unknown sample.
Sometimes, the difference in results obtained when using different gases is indicative of
some sought-after characteristic of the sample.
The gas µpycnometer§ is used in a wide variety of applications and found in a number of
configurations - manual and automated, single sample chamber and multi-chambered,
and fixed chamber volume and multiple volume designs.
One variation of the design makes it especially suitable for the measurement of rigid,
closed cell foams. The applications of this technique are not only for material volume and
density, but also as a means for porosity determination as discussed in a later section.
Citations to several diverse applications are found in the reference section, the materials
under study being pitch, coatings, petroleum coke , cereal grain, tuff cores, volcanic soils,
wool, compost, asteroids, chromatographic packing materials and cellulose powder.
Envelope Volume and Density by Displacement of a Dry Medium
The displacement technique applies to a solid object immersed in a bed of much smaller
solid particles as well as in liquids and gases. The difference is in the way the displaced
medium conforms to the surface of the immersed object.
A liquid can conform quite closely to the surface. Wetting liquids have the capability to
fill voids and pores that communicate with the surface. Solid particles and non-wetting
liquid displacement media do not invade pores and provide means by which envelope
density can be determined in a controlled manner. The use of a non-wetting liquid
(mercury, specifically) is discussed in the next section.
Micromeritics GeoPyc Model 1360
µMicromeritics’§ µGeoPyc Model 1360§ is the only known-of commercial instrument
that automatically determines the volume and density of a solid object by displacement of
a solid medium. The medium is a narrow distribution of small, rigid spheres that have a
high degree of flowability and achieve close packing around the object under
investigation.
The particles are sufficiently small that during consolidation they conform closely to the
surface of the object, yet do not invade pore space.
Repeatability and reproducibility are achieved by a controlled method of compaction.
The sample cell in which the dry medium is placed is a precision cylinder. A plunger
compresses the powder as the cell vibrates; the force of compression is selectable and,
therefore, repeatable from test to test. A preliminary compaction with only the
displacement medium in the cell establishes a zero-volume baseline.
The object is then placed in the cylinder with the dry medium and the compaction process
is repeated. The difference in the distance ht the piston penetrates the cylinder during the
test and the distance h0 it penetrates during the baseline procedure (h = h0 – ht) is used to
calculate the displacement volume of the medium using the formula for the volume of a
cylinder of height h.

Figure 4 illustrates the process. This relatively new technique is finding applications
where tap density and mercury displacement methods traditionally have been used.

Figure 4. Volume determination by the displacement of a dry medium.

Bulk, Envelope, and Skeletal Volumes and Densities by Mercury Porosimetry
Mercury is a non-wetting liquid that must be forced to enter a pore by application of
external pressure. The surface tension of mercury and the interfacial tension between
mercury and the solid surface results in mercury bridging the openings to pores, cracks,
and crevices until sufficient pressure is applied to force entry.
For example, at atmospheric pressure, mercury will resist entering pores smaller than
about 6 micrometers in diameter. When an object is surrounded by mercury, the mercury
forms a closely fitting liquid envelope around the object. How closely the mercury
conforms to the surface features of the object depends on the pressure applied. At some
pressure, mercury begins to enter the pores, cracks, crevices, and voids of the sample. At
a pressure of 60,000 psi (414 MPa) mercury has been forced to enter pores of diameters
down to 0.003 micrometer. This fills essentially all pore volume in most materials.
There is a slight but important difference in the method of determining the volume of a
solid object and that of a finely divided powder by µmercury porosimetry§. Therefore,
the two forms of sample materials are considered separately in the subsequent discussion.
Monolithic Sample Material
First, consider a single lump of solid material of known mass. It is assumed that the exact
volume of the sample cell has been established using the method described in a previous
section on manual pycnometry. The sample cell (referred to as a penetrometer or
dilatometer) containing the sample is evacuated and filled with mercury. Mercury
surrounds the sample, but, at sub-ambient or near-ambient pressure, does not enter small
cracks and crevices in the surface nor into pores in the structure of the material.
Reweighing the filled sample containers and subtracting from this the weight of the
empty sample cell plus sample, yields the weight of the surrounding mercury from which
the volume of mercury is to be calculated. The difference in the volume of the empty
sample cell and the calculated volume of mercury is equal to the envelope volume of the
sample.
Skeletal Volume
The skeletal volume of the sample also can be determined by increasing pressure and
causing the mercury to invade the open pore space. If, at maximum pressure, all open
pores in the sample are filled, then the volume of mercury intruded is equal to total pore
volume. This value subtracted from the bulk or envelope volume of the monolithic
sample yields its skeletal volume.
If the sample contains no closed (blind) pores, then the volume measured is the true
volume.
Finely grinding materials with closed pores (when appropriate) may allow true volume to
be determined by making these pores accessible to the surface.
If the sample contains pores smaller than the minimum pore size into which mercury can
intrude at maximum instrument pressure, then the accuracy of skeletal volume
determination is affected. For these samples, skeletal volumes would be less than those
obtained determined by gas pycnometry because gases such as helium and nitrogen can
penetrate into micropores and small mesopores where mercury cannot. The difference in
skeletal volume obtained by mercury porosimetry and that obtained by gas pycnometry
indicates pore volume in the size range from the minimum size probed by mercury
porosimetry down to approximately the size of the gas molecule.
Powdered or Granulated Sample Materials
In the second case where the sample material is a fine powder or granules, the procedure
follows essentially the same preliminary steps as when the sample is a single piece. The
difference is that there is an additional step in the interpretation and reduction of the
experimental data.
A powdered sample is a bulk mass of grains; at low pressure mercury will not invade the
interparticle voids. This is illustrated by Illustration A in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Mercury intrusion into pore space as pressure increases; black areas indicate
mercury.
A. Mercury envelops the mass.
B. Mercury fills the interparticle voids.
C. Mercury penetrates into the pores of the individual particles.
Initially, the mercury envelope forms around the bulk mass and not around the individual
particles, so the bulk volume or envelope volume (according to the definition adopted) of
the entire sample mass is displaced. Only when pressure is increased will mercury invade
the interparticle space and envelope individual particles (Illustration B, Figure 5). At
what pressure interparticle void filling begins (the breakthrough pressure) and the
pressure at which it is completed depends on the size and shape of the particles and can
be readily identified on a plot of volume intruded versus applied pressure. The indication
of breakthrough is an abrupt increase in the slope of the intrusion curve and, when filling
is completed, a notable decrease.
A further increase in pressure will force mercury into the voids within the individual
particles (Illustration C, Figure 5). Only pores with access to the surface can be filled and
any blind pores remain unfilled. Further increases in pressure can cause temporary or
permanent structural changes in the sample material.
The critical points during the mercury intrusion process are illustrated in Figure 6.

Figure 6. The intrusion volume points on a mercury intrusion plot that are critical in the
determination of volume and density. Point A is used to determine bulk or envelope
volume, points A and B are used to determine interparticle void volume, and points A
and C are used to determine skeletal volume.
When measuring volume (density) by µmercury porosimeter§, it should be recognized
that the value obtained is pressure-dependent (porefilling dependent). Since the µmercury
porosimeter§ provides a continuous record of mercury volume change within the sample
cell, the volume and density at any pressure can be determined. Typically, the volume of
mercury displaced at minimum pressure and that displaced at maximum pressure (prior to
deformation) are used to determine bulk (or envelope) density and skeletal density,
respectively. For powders, an intermediate volume, the total volume of the grains only,
may be determined.
A µmercury porosimeter§ is seldom used solely for the determination of envelope, bulk,
and skeletal volume determinations. These determinations more often are a by product of
a data set that was obtained primarily for the determination of pore volume distribution
by pore size.
Porosity Information Derived from Volume and Density Determinations
The subject of porosity was touched upon in the individual sections above as it relates to
determining material volume. Material porosity is approached in this section as the
primary physical characteristic of interest. However, only the analytical methods and
techniques used to determine material volume are considered, so, by these analytical
methods, porosity information is a byproduct of volume determinations and not the
primary emphasis.
Table 3 contains various definitions of porosity. These are only a few examples and the
same term may have slightly different meanings in different applications. For example,
ASTM defines the term ‘porosity’ in over a dozen different ways.
Table 3. Porosity terms adapted from various sources including British Standards
Institution, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, American Society for
Testing and Materials, and U.S. GeologicalSurvey.
Porosity Term
Definition
Interstice / Interstitial Void
An opening in a rock or soil that is not occupied by solid matter (USGS)
Void space between particles
Macropore
A pore of diameter greater than about 50nm
Mesopore
A pore of diameterfrom about 2nm to 50nm
Micropore
A pore of diameter less than about 2nm
Pore diameter
The diameter of a pore in a model in which the pores typically are assumed to be
cylindrical in shape and which is calculated from data obtained by a specified procedure
Pore volume, specific
Pore volume per unit mass of material
Pore volume
The volume of open pores unless otherwise stated
Pore, closed
A cavity with no access to an external surface
Pore, ink-bottle
An open pore with a narrow neck
Pore, open
A cavity or channel with access to an external surface
Porosity, effective
The ratio, usually expressed as a percentage of the total volume of voids available for
fluid transmission to the total volume of the porous medium
Porosity, interparticle
Void space between particles
Porosity, intraparticle
All porosity within the envelopes of individual particles
Porosity, particle
The ratio of the volume of open pore to the total volume of the particle
Porosity, powder
The ratio of the volume of voids plus the volume of open pores to the total volume
occupied by the powder
Porosity
(a)The ratio of open pores and voids to the envelope volume (BSI)
(b) The ratio, usually expressed as a percentage, of the total volume of voids of a given
porous medium to the total volume of the porous medium (ASTM)
Void
The space between particles in a bed
Depending upon the measurement method, various types of volumes as defined in Table
1 can be determined. Obtaining two or more volume values by different methods allows
extraction of porosity information by the application of simultaneous equations. The set
of equations implied by Table 1 is:
Bulk Volume
VB = VS + VOP + VCP + VI + VExt
Apparent Particle Volume
VAPart = VS + VCP
Apparent Powder Volume
VAPow = VS + VOP + VCP + VI
Envelope Volume (BSI)
VE = VS + VOP + VCP + VI + VExt
Envelope Volume (ASTM)
VE = VS + VOP + VCP + VExt
Skeletal Volume
VSk = VS + VCP
True Volume
VT = VS
In the above equations, VS is the volume of the solid material, VOP the volume of open
pores, VCP the volume of closed pores, VI the volume of interparticle voids, and VExt
the external void volume. Any of these equations can be rearranged and solved for pore
volume. Examples follow.
Percent Porosity
From measurements of bulk volume (VB) and skeletal volume (VSk), total porosity VPt
can be determined from the equation VPt = VB - VSk. This allows percent porosity to be
calculated by the simple relationship
% Porosity = = (VPt/VB) x 100%.
Percent Porosity Filled
A µmercury porosimeter§ tracks the volume of mercury intruded VI into the sample from
minimum to maximum pressure. Since the total volume of mercury injected into the
sample equals the total volume (VPt) of open pores, the percent of pore volume filled at
any pressure can be determined by
%VP Filled = (VI / VPt) x 100%.
If the sample contains closed pores, then the above equation becomes
% VP Filled = ((VI + VPc) / VPt) x 100%.
The size of pores being invaded by mercury depends on the pressure applied. This means
that, at a specific pressure (pore size), the percent porosity filled relates to pores of the
current size and larger. The remaining percent of unfilled pores relates only to pores
smaller than the current size.
Apparent (Skeletal) Volume, Bulk Volume and Open Porosity by Liquid Absorption
To determine the volume of open pores in a sample, first the mass of the dry sample is
obtained. Then, the sample is immersed in a liquid that is capable of penetrating into the
open voids. When u sing water, boiling may be required to assure pore filling. Skeletal
volume is determined by hydrostatic weighing in the same liquid. The sample is weighed
again after removing it from the liquid. The difference between the wet and dry mass
divided by the density of the liquid is the volume of open pores in which the liquid
washable to penetrate.
A variation of this method uses oil as the liquid. To assure adequate pore filling, the
sample is immersed in oil and the container evacuated to a few mmHg and maintained for
1 hour. Atmospheric pressure is restored and the sample is left to equilibrate for 30
minutes.
True Volume and Closed Pore Volume by Size Reduction
Methods of determining bulk volume and open pore volume have been described.
However, material may contain closed pores. If the true density of the solid material is
known, then the mass of the sample divided by its density is its true volume; bulk volume
minus open pore volume minus true volume is the volume of closed pores.
If the density of the solid material is not known, but its bulk volume and open pore
volume have been determined, the volume of closed pores may be found by grinding the
sample into a powder. Any remaining closed pores will be smaller than the µparticle
size§ of the powder. The true volume of the sample (the powder) is determined by liquid
or gas displacement.
Total Pore Volume
Bulk volume and true volume having been obtained for a sample by one of the methods
above, the difference between the former and latter is total pore volume. Likewise, if
open pore volume and closed pore volume are determined as suggested above, their sum
is total pore volume.
Conclusions
Density, volume, and porosity are physical characteristics of solid materials that can be
determined by a variety of experimental techniques. However, the value obtained is very
likely to be dependent on the technique. This is largely because of the way the
measurement technique treats volume in respect to the degree of exclusion of void spaces
associated with the sample material. Various definitions of density and volume are used
to differentiate these values in terms of what void volumes are included with the overall
volume determination. An analyst must understand the type of volume or density sought
in order to select the appropriate measurement technique.

API gravity
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/API_gravity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: µnavigation§, µsearch§
The µAmerican Petroleum Institute§ gravity, or API gravity, is a measure of how heavy
or light a µpetroleum§ liquid is compared to water. If its API gravity is greater than 10, it
is lighter and floats on water; if less than 10, it is heavier and sinks. API gravity is thus a
measure of the relative density of a petroleum liquid and the density of water, but it is
used to compare the relative densities of µpetroleum liquids§. For example, if one
petroleum liquid floats on another and is therefore less dense, it has a greater API gravity.
Although mathematically API gravity has no units (see the formula below), it is
nevertheless referred to as being in “degrees”. API gravity is graduated in degrees on a
µhydrometer instrument§ and was designed so that most values would fall between 10
and 70 API gravity degrees.
History of development
The U.S. National Bureau of Standards in 1916 established the Baumé scale (see
µdegrees Baumé§) as the standard for measuring µspecific gravity§ of liquids less dense
than water. Investigation by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences found major errors
in salinity and temperature controls that had caused serious variations in published
values. Hydrometers in the U.S. had been manufactured and distributed widely with a
modulus of 141.5 instead of the Baumé scale modulus of 140. The scale was so firmly
established that by 1921 the remedy implemented by the American Petroleum Institute
was to create the API Gravity scale recognizing the scale that was actually being used.
API gravity formulas
The formula used to obtain the API gravity of µpetroleum§ liquids is thus:
µ§
Conversely, the specific gravity of µpetroleum§ liquids can be derived from the API
gravity value as
µ§
Thus, a heavy oil with a specific gravity of 1.0 (i.e., with the same density as pure water
at 60°F) would have an API gravity of:
µ§
Measurement of API gravity from its density
To derive the API gravity from the µdensity§, the density is first measured using either
the µhydrometer§, detailed in µASTM§ D1298 or with the µoscillating U-tube§ method
detailed in ASTM D4052. Density adjustments at different temperatures, corrections for
soda-lime glass expansion and contraction and µmeniscus§ corrections for opaque oils
are detailed in the µPetroleum Measurement Tables§, details of usage specified in ASTM
D1250. The specific gravity is then calculated from the formula below and the API
gravity calculated from the first formula above.
µ§
Direct Measurement of API gravity (Hydrometer method)
This method of measurement is similar to the method above except that the hydrometer is
graduated with API gravity units instead. This method gives the advantages of field
testing and on-board conversion of measured volumes to volume correction. This method
is detailed in ASTM D287.
Classifications or grades
Generally speaking, oil with an API gravity between 40 and 45 commands the highest
prices. Above 45 degrees the molecular chains become shorter and less valuable to
refineries.µ[1]§
µCrude oil§ is classified as light, medium or heavy, according to its measured API
gravity.
Light crude oil is defined as having an API gravity higher than 31.1 °API
Medium oil is defined as having an API gravity between 22.3 °API and 31.1 °API
Heavy oil is defined as having an API gravity below 22.3 °API.
Not all parties use the same grading.µ[2]§ The µUnited States Geological Survey§ uses
slightly different definitions.µ[3]§ Simply put, bitumen sinks in fresh water, while oil
floats.
Crude oil with API gravity less than 10 °API is referred to as µextra heavy oil§ or
µbitumen§. Bitumen derived from the µoil sands§ deposits in the Alberta, Canada area
has an API gravity of around 8 °API. It is 'upgraded' to an API gravity of 31 °API to 33
°API and the upgraded oil is known as µsynthetic crude§.
See also
µDensity§
µSpecific gravity§
µSpecific weight§
References
µ^§ µhttp://dnr.louisiana.gov/sec/execdiv/techasmt/oil_gas/crude_oil_gravity/
comments_1989.htm§ Louisiana Department of Natural Resources
µ^§ µhttp://www.crudemonitor.ca/quickfacts/misc/grades.pdf§
µ^§ µhttp://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2006/3133/pdf/FS2006-3133_508.pdf§
External links
µlink to hydrometer§
µConocoPhillips price adjustment by API gravity§
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