CHAPTER TWO

MEASURING HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

2 Horizontal distance measurements
 Tapping (chaining), electronic distance measurement
(EDMIs), Stadia Methods, Total Station, and satellite
systems are most commonly used by surveyors to
measure horizontal distances between stations.
 The satellite supported with GPS is rapidly replacing all
other system due to many advantages.
3 2.1. Tapping/Chaining
 It is a method of taking measurement for determining the horizontal
distance or length with a tape/chain.
 The operation of horizontal length of the line with the help of a tape is
also conventionally called changing (tapping) and the two parsons
called tape person or chainmen.
 It is different from pacing where distances between points are
determined taking natural step.
 i)Taping over level ground: In this case the tape is held above the ground in a
horizontal position.
 Raging pole is used to make the end points of a line to be measured and at
the intermediate when necessary to ensure unobstructed sight lines.
 ii)Tapping over uneven ground: A standard practice to measure length is by
holding the tape horizontally & uses a plumb bob at one end of the stretches.
 The horizontal distance between points can be determined by using direct
and indirect methods.
4 a)Direct method:
 It is also called method of steeping where the distance is measured
in small horizontal stretches or steps.
 L1 to L 3 are horizontal distances
 D= Total horizontal stretches
 D= L1 + L2 +L 3

Figure: Direct
method of
distance
measurement
5 b) Indirect Method:
 In this case, first measure the sloping distance and the horizontal
distance can be calculated if the ground feature has regular or
uniform slope.
 Therefore,
 Distance AC= Length of AB × cos α
 Where,
 AB is Inclined distance between points A and C;
 α is Slope of AB measured by clinometers; and
 AC is horizontal distance between A and C
6 2.2.1. Common mistakes made in taping
 Errors and mistakes may arise from:
 Erroneous length of chain or tape
 Bad ranging
 Careless holding and marking
 Bad straightening
 Non horizontality
 Sag in chain
 Variation in temperature
 Variation in pull (tension)
 Personal mistakes
7 2.2.2. Distance correction taping
 In most of errors we made in taping, proper corrections can be
applied.
 For instance, in an important and precise work, corrections must be
applied to measurements taken with a chain, still bar, or tape.
 However, corrections are not necessary in ordinary chaining (taping).
 i)Correction for slope: The distance measured along the slope is
always greater than the horizontal distance and hence the
correction is always subtractive.
 Normally, it should be applied before temperature corrections.
 If the difference in elevation (h) between two ends of the line of
included length (l) is measured, the slope correction is given by:
C slope =L - HD 𝐶 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝐿 − ሺ𝐿2 − ℎ^2൯

• If θ, the angle of inclination for a slope, is measured instead of

elevation (h), the correction s given by:
C slope = L-L cos θ or C slope = L (1-cos θ)
8 ii) Correction for temperature:
 If the temperature in the field is more than the temperature at which the
tape was standardized, the length of the tape increase, measured
distances becomes less and correction is additive (positive).
 The opposite will be true for the temperature is less than the temperature
at which the tape was standardized i.e. negative (subtractive).
 Thus, C temp= α L(Tm-To) Where,
 Tm= mean temperature in the field during measurement
 To= Standard temperature for tape
 α = Coefficient of thermal expansions of a tape
 L = Measured length in the field
 Units for C temp and the measured length is the same. Therefore,
 C temp = +ve if Tm>To
 C temp = -ve if Tm <To
 α = 6.210-6 m/0C (mean value adopted)
9 iii) Correction for pull or tension
 If the pull applied during measurement is more than the pull at which the
tape was standardized:
 The length of the tape increase
 Measured distances become less
 Correction is positive (additive)
 The opposite will apply for the tape pull applied for a tape is less than the
standard pull during measurement i.e. negative (subtractive).
 Correction for pull (C pull) = (Pm –Po) L Where:
AE
 Pm = Pull applied during measurement (kg/N).
 Po= Pull standardized (Kg/N)
 L= Measured length (m).
 A= Cross-sectional area of the tape (cm2/mm2)
 E= Younger modules of elasticity ( kg/cm2 or N/mm2)
 Units of correction for pull and measured length is the same:
 Cp = Positive if Pm> Po
 Cp= Negative if Pm<Po
 Cp= Zero if Pm = Po
10 iv) Correction for sag (bend):
 It is when the tape is stretched on support between two points.
 It takes the form of a horizontal catena (bend).
 The different between the horizontal distance and the measured length along
this sag is sag correction.
 It is always negative and for correction determination and the curve may be
assumed to be parabola.
 Correction for sag (C sag) =L ×(w l 1)2 Where,
24 (Pm) 2
 l1 = the length of the tape (m) suspended between supports.
 Pm= Pull applied in Kg or N.
 W= Weight of tape in Kg or N perimeter run.
 Wl= Weight of tape suspended between the supports.
11 v)Correction for standardization:
 The actual (absolute) length of the tape is not equal to the
nominal length.
 Thus, a correction will have to be applied to the measured
length of the line.
 Incorrect tape length is a serious source of error and calibration
(standardization) is essential.
 Mostly, standardization is undertaken and checked with
standardized tape or new tapes than the old ones.
𝐿 𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑−𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑚
 𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑚
 Where:
 L= measured length in the field
 l nom=Nominal length
 l stand = Standardized length
12 Tapping precision:
 The degree of accuracy desired is affected by:
 Fineness of the graduations of the tape
 Nature of the ground
 Time and money available
 Weather condition, etc.
 Therefore, the corrected measured distance by tape is equal to:
 Corrected length = L – C slope + C temp + C pull –C sag + C stand
 Suggestions of good tapping: - to obtain high degree of precision, errors must be
reduced to a far degree when:
 Measurement should be made on hazy days
 Measurement over bridges should be made on cloudy days or nights and should be
repeated several times.
 The tape should be supported at two points or throughout depending on the length of
the stretch.
 Use of leveling instruments is important to increase speed and precision in
measurement, etc…
13 Exercise
 The standardized length of the tape was known to be 50.013 m at 20°c
and 50 N tensions. The nominal length of the tape was 50 m and the
tape was used to measure a line AB suspended between two supports.
The following measurements were recorded.
 AB (length measured) = 46.65 m
 Slope angle (θ) = 2°45’
 Average filed T0 = 25°C
 Tension applied= 25N
 Calculate the corrected horizontal line of AB if young modulus of
elasticity(E) for a tape material is 200,000 N/mm2 and α = 0.000,0112
m/ °C, section of the tape is 2mm2 and weight of tape between two
supports is given as 0.17N.
14 2.8. Distance measuring with substense bar
 It is an indirect method of distance measurement involving the reading of
the angle subtended by two precisely spaced targets on a substense bar.
 The substense bar method was often used in the past to obtain distance
over inaccessible courses such as over bodies of water.
 The accuracy of the substense method diminishes with increased line of
length.
 However, accuracy can be improved by taking readings from both ends of
the line and averaging.

Figure: Subtense bar with its tripods

15

 Field procedures for measuring distance by the use of

substance bar are:
 i)An invar substense bar mounted on a tripod
 ii)The bar is fixed over one point (tripod) leveled by means of
level vial, and aligned perpendicular to the survey line by
means of a slighting device on the top of the bar.
 iii)Fixed targets near the bar ends are precisely 2m apart and
the horizontal angle (2) between targets is measured with a
Theodosia set over the other point, and horizontal distance
computed.
 iv)Equation for computing horizontal distances is given as:
1𝑚 α
𝐻 = 𝛼 = cotሺ2 )m
tan
2
16

Figure: Geometry of the substense bar

method

 The figure shows a schematic diagram of a substense bar

having center at C fitted with targets at A and B.
 Let the separation between targets be S.
 A theodolite is set up at O. The bar is kept perpendicular to
the line of sight OC by means of a sighting device at the
center of the bar.
17 2.3. Measuring distances using stadia methods
 Stadia method is a means for measuring direction, distance and elevation
using only a theodolite and a level rod.
 It is used where tapping of distances is not required called tachometry.
 The method is very useful for mapping small or medium sized parcels of land
of variable terrain.
 However, the modern total station instrument can provide the same data with
greater precision and speed.
 Stadia field measurement is not a precise method of filed measurements
which distances can be determined with an accuracy of about 1:1000 at
best.
18 2.3.1. Stadia measurements on level ground
 The geometric principle underlying stadia is the corresponding
sides of similar triangles are proportional.
 The stadia hairs (horizontal and vertical) are carefully placed in
the reticule so that their line of sight separate at rate of 1 to 100,
from a point at the center of a modern theodolite.
 Thus, the vertical length observed between the stadia hairs on a
level rod held 100m a way would be 1m, and so on.
 Since, the distance of a vertical rod from the instrument is always
100 times the vertical intercept observed on the rod, horizontal
distances between the rod and the instrument are easily
determined when the theodolite telescope is level.
 D = 100 x (Upper Reading Level –Lower Reading Level) i.e., D =
100x S, where, S is stadia intercept
19 Figure: The stadia hairs to measure the target distance
and elevation difference between stations

 Figure: Stadia measurements on level ground

20 2.3.2. Stadia measurements on inclined sites
 One of the chief advantages of stadia surveying is that both horizontal and
vertical distance can be measured when the telescope line of sight is not
horizontal.
 Most stadia shots are inclined because of varying topography, but the
intercept is read on plumbed (vertical) rod and the slope length is reduced
to horizontal and vertical distances.
 Principles on inclined stadia measurements are shown in figure below
21
 It was already shown that the perpendicular distance (D)
between the level rod and the instrument station is simply
D= 100xS when the theodolite telescope is level.
 If the line of sight is not horizontal or a slope distance, the
horizontal distance can be expressed as:
H = D cos α and D = 100S
Therefore, H = 100S cos α
 Since the rod is held vertically on the point being observed,
the vertical interval actually read on the rod (S’) is bigger
than the perpendicular stadia intercept (S).
S = S’ cos α and H = 100S cos α
H = 100S’ cos α. cos α, then H = 100 S’ cos2 α
22 2.2.3. Stadia Field Procedures
 When the stadia method is employed, it is most often for
locating details in topographic mapping.
 In topographic detailing by stadia, the transit is set up on a
control station and oriented on in azimuth bay back
sighting along a line of known directions with the line’s
azimuth on the horizontal circle.
 Then, azimuths can be read directly to all sighted points.
 Many shots can be taken from one instrument station.
 Thus, orientation should be checked by sighting on the
control line after every 10 or 20 topographic points, and
before leaving the setup.
23

 An order of field procedures well suited for topographic detailing

is as follows:
i) Bisect the rod with the vertical cross hair.
ii) With the middle cross hair approximately on the “hi”, set the
lower hair at a full-foot mark.
iii) Read the upper cross hair and mentally subtract the lower hair
reading from it to get the rod intercept. Record only the rod
intercepts.
iv) Move the middle cross hair to the “hi” by using the vertical
tangent screw.
v) Release the rod person for movement to the next point.
vi) Read and record the horizontal angle (azimuth).
vii) Read and record the vertical angle (zenith).
24 2.4. Measuring distances with EDMI
 It is advice used to measure distance (lengths) between stations by indirectly
measuring the time it takes electromagnetic energy (EME) of known velocity to
travel from eh end of a line to another and return.
 The most common system for classifying EDM instruments is by the type of EME
they transmit. These ae:
 electro-optical instruments and
 micro wave equipment.
 Total station instrument: are also called electronic tachometers which combine
an EDM is instrument, an electronic digital theodolite and a computer in one
unit.
Figure: Basic geometry of
EDM involving the
propagation of electro-
magnetic radiation to
measure distances