Ideal Gas: Ideal Gas Law for Mixtures: Amagat's Law of Partial Volumes, also Equivalent Molecular Weight

agat's Law of Partial Volumes, also Equivalent Molecular Weight = Molar

An ideal gas is a theoretical concept that serves The ideal gas law can be extended to gas known as the Law of Partial Volumes, states Mass / Valence
as a simplified model for understanding gas Where:
mixtures using the concept of partial pressures. that in a mixture of non-reacting gases at a
behavior under various conditions. Ideal gases Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of the
For a mixture of gases, the total pressure is given constant temperature and pressure, the volume
are characterized by several key assumptions: substance.
by the sum of the partial pressures of each gas: occupied by each gas is independent of the
a. Particles have zero volume: The volume P_total = P_1 + P_2 + ... + P_n presence of other gases Valence: The number of equivalents of the
occupied by the gas particles themselves is Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures: specific species involved in the reaction.
Total Volume (V_total) = V_1 + V_2 + ... equivalent molecular mass of a mixture
considered negligible compared to the total As mentioned earlier, Dalton's law states that the + V_n of gases can be derived using the concept
volume of the gas. partial pressure of each component in a gas V_total is the total volume of the gas mixture.
b. No intermolecular forces: Ideal gases do not mixture is proportional to its mole fraction: of the mole fraction. Let's consider a mixture
V_1, V_2, ..., V_n are the individual volumes
of two gases A and B.
experience attractive or repulsive forces P_1 = X_1 * P_total Amagat's Law is useful for understanding the
Let:
between particles. This assumption is valid at P_2 = X_2 * P_total behaviour of gases in mixtures •n_A = Number of moles of gas A
low pressures and high temperatures. P_n = X_n * P_total Volumetric analysis involves measuring the •n_B = Number of moles of gas B
c. Elastic collisions: Collisions between gas Mole Fraction and Mass Fraction: volumes of different gases in a mixture. This •M_A = Molar mass of gas A
Mole fraction (X) of a component in a gas mixture method relies on the ideal gas law (PV = nRT)
particles and the walls of the container are •M_B = Molar mass of gas B
is the ratio of the number of moles of that The total number of moles in the mixture
perfectly elastic, meaning there is no loss of and Dalton's law of partial pressures. By
component to the total number of moles in the (n_total) is given by:
kinetic energy. measuring the volumes of gases at the same
mixture. Mass fraction (Y) is the ratio of the mass n_total = n_A + n_B.
d. Random motion: Gas particles move in temperature and pressure, you can determine
random, continuous, and rapid motion.
of a component to the total mass of the mixture.
the mole fractions or volume fractions of each The mole fraction of gas A (x_A) is given by:
These fractions provide information about the x_A = n_A / n_total.
Ideal gases obey the ideal gas law: PV = nRT, relative abundance of each gas in the mixture. gas in the mixture. Similarly, the mole fraction of gas B (x_B) is
Perfect Gas: Partial Molar Properties: Steps for Volumetric Analysis: given by:
The term is often used interchangeably with such as partial molar volume, partial molar Measure the total volume of the gas mixture. x_B = n_B / n_total.
"ideal gas" i. However, some texts may use the enthalpy, and partial molar entropy, describe the Collect each component gas separately over The equivalent molecular mass of the mixture
term "perfect gas" to refer specifically to gases change in a thermodynamic property of a mixture water or a suitable liquid to displace water (M_eq) is defined as the mass of one mole of
that follow the ideal gas law at all conditions, when adding a small amount of a component vapor. the mixture divided by the total number of
including extreme pressures and while keeping the other components constant. Measure the volume of each component gas. moles. It can be expressed as:
temperatures. Henry's Law: Calculate the mole fraction or volume fraction M_eq = (n_A * M_A + n_B * M_B) / n_total.
Real Gas: relates the solubility of a gas in a liquid to its of each gas using the ideal gas law. Substitute the expressions for n_A and n_B
from the mole fractions:
actual gases that do not strictly follow the partial pressure in the gas phase. commonly used Gravimetric Analysis: determining the M_eq = (x_A * M_A + x_B * M_B) / (x_A +
assumptions of ideal behavior. Real gases to describe the behavior of gases dissolved in composition of a gas mixture by measuring the x_B).
deviate from ideal behavior under certain liquids, such as the solubility of gases in water. mass of a component gas. This is based on the Now, we can express the mole fractions (x_A
conditions, such as high pressures or low Raoult's Law: fact that the mass of a gas is directly and x_B) in terms of the given gas fractions
temperatures. These deviations can arise due applicable to ideal solutions and states that the proportional to its number of moles. (a/b format):
to the finite volume of gas particles and vapor pressure of a component in a liquid-gas STEPS x_A = a / (a + b), x_B = b / (a + b).
mixture is proportional to its mole fraction in the Substitute these expressions into the equation
intermolecular forces. Pass the mixture through a suitable absorbent
properties of gas mixtures: liquid phase.
to selectively absorb one component gas. for M_eq:
Partial Pressure:
properties of gases:
Weigh the absorbent before and after M_eq = (a / (a + b)) * M_A + (b / (a + b)) *
Expansion: Gases fill the space given to them. M_B = (a * M_A + b * M_B) / (a + b).
In a mixture of gases, each individual gas
Compressibility, Fluidity, Low Density absorption to determine the mass of the
contributes to the total pressure of the mixture. Diffusion: Gases spread and mix with other absorbed gas.
The partial pressure of a gas is the pressure it gases., Pressure, High Kinetic Energy Calculate the mass of the absorbed gas and the
would exert if it occupied the entire volume No Fixed Shape or Volume, Gases expand remaining gas.
alone at the same temperature. Dalton's law of when heated. Gases mix uniformly. Determine the mass or mole fraction of each
partial pressures states that the total pressure component gas.
of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial
pressures of its individual components.
Adiabatic mixing of steam refers to the Total Molar Gas Constant = R₁ + R₂ + ... + Since N is the total moles and xᵢ = nᵢ / N: The second law of thermodynamics, states
process of combining two or more streams Rₙ M_app = (x₁M₁ + x₂M₂ + ... + xₙMₙ) / that the total entropy of a closed system,
of steam without any heat exchange with Total Moles of Gas = n₁ + n₂ + ... + nₙ N * (x₁ + x₂ + ... + xₙ) which reflects its randomness or disorder,
the surroundings. In this mixing process, (where nᵢ is the moles of the ith gas) This simplifies to: tends to increase over time. Essentially, this
there is no heat transfer, and the total Mean Gas Constant R̄= (R₁ + R₂ + ... + M_app = x₁M₁ + x₂M₂ + ... + xₙMₙ principle points to the tendency of systems to
energy remains constant. As a result, the Rₙ) / (n₁ + n₂ + ... + nₙ) derive Dalton's Law of Partial move from more ordered states to more
properties of the mixed steam, such as Since the moles of each gas (nᵢ) are related Pressures, considering a container disordered states.
temperature, pressure, and specific to the total moles and the mole fraction (xᵢ): with two non-reacting gases, Gas A and To delve into why actual work is less than
volume, change due to the combined effect nᵢ = xᵢ * N (N is the total moles of the Gas B, at a constant temperature. reversible work, let's consider an illustrative
of the individual streams. mixture) denote their volumes as V_A and V_B, scenario involving an ideal gas expanding
Key Points: Substitute nᵢ into the equation for the mean and their pressures as P_A and P_B, against a piston. In an irreversible expansion,
No Heat Exchange: Adiabatic mixing gas constant:
respectively. the gas pushes the piston against a slightly
implies that there is no transfer of heat R̄ = (R₁ + R₂ + ... + Rₙ) / (n₁ + n₂ + ... Applying Boyle's and Charles's Laws. lower external pressure compared to its
between the steam streams and their + nₙ)
P_A * V_A = constant (for Gas A), internal pressure. This leads to an expansion
surroundings during the mixing process. = (R₁ + R₂ + ... + Rₙ) / (x₁ * N + x₂ * N
P_B * V_B = constant (for Gas B). that is not infinitesimally slow or reversible.
Conservation of Energy: The total + ... + xₙ * N) Additionally, Charles's Law states that the
= (R₁ * x₁ + R₂ * x₂ + ... + Rₙ * xₙ) / The actual work performed by the gas in this
energy of the mixed steam remains the volume of a given quantity of gas is directly
(x₁ + x₂ + ... + xₙ) proportional to its absolute temperature when irreversible process can be represented as the
same as the sum of the energies of the external pressure multiplied by the change in
= (x₁R₁ + x₂R₂ + ... + xₙRₙ) / (x₁ + x₂ pressure is constant:
individual streams. This includes internal V_A / T = constant (for Gas A), V_B /
+ ... + xₙ). volume: W_actual = P_ext * (V_final -
energy, kinetic energy, and potential T = constant (for Gas B).
Derive expression for the apparent V_initial).
energy. molecular mass of a gas mixture: Combine the equations from both laws On the other hand, the reversible work for the
Temperature and Pressure Change: Individual Molecular Masses: to eliminate the constants: same expansion is calculated by integrating the
Due to the conservation of energy, the Let's assume we have 'n' different gases in P_A * V_A = k1 * T, V_A / T = k2, pressure-volume curve under ideal conditions,
resulting temperature and pressure of the the mixture, with molecular masses M₁, M₂, P_A = k1 * k2. where the pressure remains in equilibrium with
mixed steam depend on the initial ..., Mₙ. Similarly, for Gas B: the gas: W_reversible = ∫(P_internal * dV).
conditions of the individual streams. Mole Fractions: P_B = k3 * k4. Comparing these two expressions, we note
Specific Volume: Adiabatic mixing alters The mole fraction of the ith gas in the consider a container that contains that the external pressure (P_ext) is less than
the specific volume of the combined steam. mixture is denoted as xi both Gas A and Gas B. The total the internal pressure (P_internal) during the
The specific volume represents the volume Total Number of Moles: N pressure (P_total) of the mixture is irreversible process. This means that P_ext *
occupied by a unit mass of the substance. N = n₁ + n₂ + ... + nₙ (where nᵢ is the moles the sum of the partial pressures of (V_final - V_initial) is smaller than the integral
derive the expression for the mean of the ith gas) Gases of P_internal * dV, which corresponds to nRT *
value of the gas constant for a Apparent Molecular Mass (M_app): P_total = P_A + P_B = k1 * k2 + ln(V_final / V_initial) based on the ideal gas
mixture of gases: The apparent molecular mass is a weighted k3 * k4. law.
Assumptions: average of the individual molecular masses Since the temperature and volume of
For mixture of 'n' gases. based on mole fractions.
the container are constant, the
The mole fraction of the ith gas is denoted M_app = (x₁M₁ + x₂M₂ + ... + xₙMₙ) / (x₁ +
constants k1, k2, k3, and k4 are fixed
as xᵢ. x₂ + ... + xₙ)
for this system.
The individual gas constant of the ith gas is Substitute ni into the equation for mole
fractions: This derivation can be extended to
denoted as Rᵢ. any number of non-reacting gases
M_app = (x₁M₁ + x₂M₂ + ... + xₙMₙ) /
Mean Gas Constant (R̄) = Total Molar Gas within the mixture, yielding:
(x₁N + x₂N + ... + xₙN)
Constant / Total Moles of Gas P_total = P_1 + P_2 + P_3 +.. + P_n
High-Grade Energy: also known as high-quality The Clausius inequality is typically stated Kelvin-Planck Statement: "It is impossible to is pumped to a high pressure and then heated in
energy or exergy, is energy that is ∮ δQ / T ≤ 0, construct a heat engine that operates in a cycle a heat exchanger by a heat source, such as
concentrated, organized, and available for where: and extracts heat from a single reservoir and geothermal energy. The hot working fluid is then
direct use in performing useful work. It is •∮ represents a closed loop or a cycle, expanded in a turbine, generating power. The
converts it entirely into mechanical work,
characterized by its ability to do mechanical, •δQ is the infinitesimal amount of heat transferred, working fluid is then condensed in a condenser
•T is the absolute temperature at which the heat without any other effect."In simpler terms, the
electrical, or other forms of work efficiently. Kelvin-Planck statement states that no heat and pumped back to the heat exchanger.
Have a high potential to perform work without transfer occurs.
engine can be 100% efficient, The working fluid in the low-temperature loop is
significant energy losses. In words, the Clausius inequality states that pumped to a high pressure and then heated in a
for any cyclic process (a process that returns Clausius Statement:
Eg: Chemical energy in high-energy-density "It is impossible to construct a cyclically heat exchanger by the hot working fluid from the
fuels like gasoline, diesel, or natural gas. the system to its initial state), the sum of the high-temperature loop. The hot working fluid is
infinitesimal amounts of heat transferred operating device that transfers heat from a
•Electricity generated from renewable sources cooler body to a hotter body without any
then expanded in a turbine, generating additional
like solar panels or hydroelectric dams. divided by the absolute temperature at which power. The working fluid is then condensed in a
the heat transfer occurs is always less than or external work input..
•High-temperature heat sources in industrial condenser and pumped back to the heat
equal to zero. equivalence of these two statements can be exchanger.
processes that can be used for mechanical established through the concept of
work or electricity generation. This inequality has important implications: The two loops are connected by a heat
•If the inequality holds with equality (∮ δQ / T = reversibility. If one statement is true, the other exchanger, where the hot working fluid from the
High-grade energy is valuable because it can be follows automatically, and vice versa.
easily converted into other forms of energy 0), the process is reversible. high-temperature loop heats the working fluid
•If the inequality holds with a less than (<) sign 1.If we assume that the Kelvin-Planck from the low-temperature loop. This heat
with minimal losses, making it suitable for statement is true, then it means there is no
(∮ δQ / T < 0), the process is irreversible, and exchange helps to improve the efficiency of the
various applications in industry, transportation, heat engine that can produce 100% efficiency,
some amount of energy is lost as waste. cycle.
and everyday life. and some heat must be rejected to a lower-
•If the inequality is violated (∮ δQ / T > 0), it The binary vapour cycle is a more efficient way to
Low-Grade Energy: also known as low-quality temperature reservoir. This implies that any generate power than a single-fluid vapour cycle
energy or anergy, is energy that is diffuse, would imply a violation of the second law of
thermodynamics. heat engine working in a cycle would violate because it uses two working fluids with different
disorganized, and less capable of performing the Clausius statement, as it would transfer critical temperatures. This allows the cycle to
useful work directly. It has a lower potential to Clausius inequality is a key tool in analyzing the
efficiency of heat engines, refrigerators, and heat from a colder body to a hotter body operate at higher temperatures and pressures,
do work efficiently and often requires without using any work. which results in more efficient power generation.
additional energy inputs to be converted into a other thermodynamic processes. It helps us
understand the constraints on heat transfer 2.Conversely, if we assume that the Clausius
more usable form. statement is true, then it means no heat engine
Examples of low-grade energy sources include: and energy conversion that arise from the
second law of thermodynamics can transfer heat from a colder body to a
•Ambient heat in the environment, such as air hotter body without any external work input.
or water at moderate temperatures. triple point of a substance is the temperature
and pressure at which the three phases of that This means that the heat engine can't operate
•Waste heat from industrial processes, engines, with 100% efficiency, as some heat must be
or appliances. substance (solid, liquid, and gas) coexist in
thermodynamic equilibrium. It's the unique rejected to a lower-temperature reservoir,
•Energy in the form of vibrations or noise. violating the Kelvin-Planck statement.
Clausius inequality is a fundamental concept in combination of temperature and pressure
where all three phases are in equilibrium, binary vapour cycle consists of two loops, the
thermodynamics that arises from the second high-temperature loop and the low-
law of thermodynamics. It provides a criterion meaning they can all exist stably at that point
critical point the temperature and pressure at temperature loop. The high-temperature loop
for the direction of heat transfer in a cyclic uses a working fluid with a high critical
which the distinction between liquid and gas
process and is used to establish the concept of phases disappears, the liquid and gas phases temperature, such as mercury. The low-
entropy generation. become indistinguishable, and the substance temperature loop uses a working fluid with a
exhibits unique properties, such as critical lower critical temperature, such as water.
density and critical temperature. The working fluid in the high-temperature loop
effect of friction in nozzle flows 1.decreasing its pressure from state 3 to Helmholtz Function (A): It is defined as the 1.Thermodynamic Potentials: Helmholtz and
1.Energy Loss and Reduced Efficiency As the state 4 (saturated vapour). difference between the internal energy (U) of a Gibbs functions are thermodynamic potentials
steam flows through the nozzle, some of its kinetic 4. Constant pressure heat rejection (4-1): system and the product of its temperature (T) that help simplify calculations and analyses by
energy is converted into heat due to friction. This
The working fluid is condensed at constant and entropy (S): combining multiple variables into concise
energy loss reduces the available mechanical work
pressure from state 4 to state 1 (saturated A = U - TS. expressions. They provide a comprehensive view
2.pressure drop can impact the pressure
liquid) in the condenser. useful for systems held at constant temperature of a system's energy and work capabilities.
profile and performance of downstream The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is given and volume. It provides insights into the amount 2.Maxwell Relations: enable the manipulation of
equipment. Conversion of kinetic energy into by the following equation: of work a system can perform and is often thermodynamic quantities, aiding in the
heat due to friction can also lead to a decrease η = 1 - (h_4 - h_1)/(h_3 - h_2) employed in applications involving isothermal determination of unknown properties and
in steam temperature Mollier diagram is a thermodynamic diagram processes or situations where heat exchange simplifying complex calculations. They establish
Erosion and Wear. flow instabilities and that shows the relationship between the with the surroundings is minimal. connections between different properties,
turbulence within the nozzle. Turbulent flow enthalpy and entropy of a substance It can be Gibbs Function (G):It is defined as the sum of the facilitating deeper understanding.
can lead to fluctuations in pressure, used to visualize the different thermodynamic internal energy (U) and the product of 3.Phase Equilibrium and Chemical Reactions:
temperature, and velocity, potentially affecting processes that a substance can undergo, such temperature (T) and entropy (S), adjusted for The Gibbs function is particularly crucial in
the stability and reliability of the entire system. as heating, cooling, and compression. It can pressure (P) and volume (V): studying phase equilibrium and chemical
The turbulent flow and pressure fluctuations also be used to calculate the efficiency of G = U + PV - TS. reactions. It helps determine conditions under
resulting from friction can also lead to thermodynamic cycles, such as the Rankine useful for systems held at constant temperature which reactions occur and phases coexist
increased noise generation. pressure drops can cycle and the Carnot cycle. and pressure. It is widely employed in chemical essential differences between the Carnot and
lead to cavitation, where the local pressure drops thermodynamics, phase equilibrium, and Rankine steam engine cycles:
back pressure is the pressure of the
below the vapor pressure of the liquid phase,can chemical reactions. For a closed system, the •The Carnot cycle is an idealized cycle, while the
surrounding fluid at the exit of the nozzle. Rankine cycle is a practical cycle. The Carnot cycle
cause formation of vapor bubbles, which can Gibbs function reflects the maximum non-
When the back pressure is low, the flow assumes that the working fluid is an ideal gas and
collapse and cause damage to the nozzle surfaces. expansion work that can be extracted.
through the nozzle is supersonic. The flow Maxwell Relations: are a set of mathematical that the processes are reversible. The Rankine cycle,
T-S diagram of Rankine cycle
reaches its maximum speed at the throat of the relationships that connect partial derivatives of on the other hand, assumes that the working fluid is
nozzle, and then expands to subsonic speeds in thermodynamic potentials. These relations stem water and that the processes are irreversible.
the diverging section. from the fact that second partial derivatives of •The Carnot cycle has a higher theoretical efficiency
As the back pressure is increased, the flow than the Rankine cycle. This is because the Carnot
state functions are symmetric. Maxwell's
through the nozzle becomes choked. This relations help in simplifying calculations and cycle does not have any losses due to irreversibility.
means that the flow speed at the throat is The Rankine cycle, on the other hand, has losses
relating different thermodynamic properties.
due to friction, turbulence, and heat loss.
equal to the speed of sound. The flow is no For example, one of the Maxwell relations is
•The Carnot cycle uses two heat reservoirs, while
longer able to expand to subsonic speeds in the derived from the Helmholtz function: the Rankine cycle uses only one heat reservoir. The
diverging section, and a shock wave forms at (∂²A/∂T∂V) = - (∂²A/∂V∂T). Carnot cycle uses a hot reservoir and a cold
1.Isentropic compression (1-2): The working This relationship connects the second partial
the throat. reservoir. The Rankine cycle, on the other hand,
fluid (water) is compressed from state 1 derivatives of the Helmholtz function with uses a heat source and a heat sink. The heat source
(saturated liquid) to state 2 (saturated vapor) respect to temperature and volume. is the hot reservoir in the Carnot cycle. The heat
by the pump. significance: sink is the cold reservoir in the Carnot cycle.
2.Constant pressure heat addition (2-3): The 1.Helmholtz and Gibbs Functions provide •The Carnot cycle is not practical to implement,
working fluid is heated at constant pressure valuable insights into a system's ability to do while the Rankine cycle is practical to
from state 2 to state 3 (superheated vapor) in work under specific conditions. They are implement. This is because the Carnot cycle
the boiler. fundamental in understanding and predicting requires the use of ideal gases and reversible
3.Isentropic expansion (3-4): The working fluid thermodynamic behavior in various processes processes. The Rankine cycle, on the other hand,
expands in the turbine, doing work and and applications. can be implemented using real fluids and
irreversible processes.
Carnot's theorem Carnot engine is a theoretical heat engine that Limitations of first law and second law of The reheat cycle is a thermodynamic power cycle
No heat engine operating between two heat operates on the Carnot cycle Thermodynamics First Law of Thermodynamics used in steam power plants, particularly in large-
reservoirs can be more efficient than a the processes in the cycle can be reversed, and (Law of Conservation of Energy): Doesn't Explain scale power generation facilities like coal-fired or
reversible engine operating between the same the engine can be operated in reverse to Processes: The first law states that energy cannot nuclear power plants. The primary purpose of a
reservoirs. produce cooling. be created or destroyed, only converted from reheat cycle is to improve the overall efficiency of
To prove this theorem, we can use a proof by The Carnot cycle consists of four reversible one form to another. It doesn't explain how the power plant by maximising the utilisation of
contradiction. Let us assume that there is a processes: energy transformations occur in various the available heat energy. In a reheat cycle, the
heat engine that is more efficient than a • Isothermal expansion: The working fluid is processes. Ignores Dissipative Processes: The first basic Rankine cycle (a fundamental
reversible engine operating between the same expanded at a constant temperature, law doesn't account for energy losses due to thermodynamic cycle for steam power
reservoirs. We can then construct a system irreversible processes, such as friction, heat generation) is extended with an additional stage
absorbing heat from the hot reservoir.
that violates the second law of conduction, and viscous dissipation. In real-world of steam expansion and reheat. The reheating
• Adiabatic expansion: The working fluid
thermodynamics. systems, some energy is often converted into non- process involves taking the partially expanded
expands without exchanging heat with its useful forms (e.g., heat). Doesn't Address Quality:
The system is as follows: steam from the high-pressure turbine and
surroundings. The first law treats all forms of energy as equal, but sending it back to the boiler for reheating before
The reversible engine is coupled to an • Isothermal compression: The working fluid it needs to account for the quality or usefulness of it enters the low-pressure turbine.
irreversible engine. is compressed at a constant temperature, different forms of energy. For example, high-quality Reheat cycle offers several advantages:
The irreversible engine operates between the releasing heat to the cold reservoir. energy (e.g., mechanical energy) can be converted
same heat reservoirs as the reversible engine. Improved Efficiency: Reheating the steam before
• Adiabatic compression: The working fluid is into low-quality energy (e.g., heat) in certain it enters the low-pressure turbine helps to reduce
The irreversible engine is more efficient than compressed without exchanging heat with processes, reducing the system's ability to do work. moisture content and increases the average
the reversible engine. its surroundings. Second Law of Thermodynamics: Doesn't Specify temperature at which the steam works, leading
The net effect of this system is that heat is The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by: Irreversibility: The second law states that the to higher overall thermal efficiency. Reduced
transferred from the cold reservoir to the hot η = 1 - (T_c / T_h) total entropy of an isolated system can never Condensation Losses: The reheating process
reservoir without any external work being decrease over time, indicating the direction of minimises the risk of moisture condensation
done. This violates the second law of spontaneous processes. However, it doesn't within the turbine blades, which can cause
thermodynamics, so our original assumption specify the degree of irreversibility or predict erosion and reduce efficiency.Better
must have been wrong. Therefore, no heat how fast a process will occur. Equilibrium Performance at High Capacities: Reheat cycles
engine can be more efficient than a reversible Assumption: The second law's formulations often are particularly beneficial for large-capacity
engine operating between the same reservoirs. assume systems are close to equilibrium. In real- power plants, where improving efficiency can
The Carnot theorem has several important world systems, deviations from equilibrium can significantly impact power generation and fuel
implications. First, it tells us that the efficiency occur, and the law's predictions might not hold consumption.
of a heat engine is limited by the temperature precisely. Statistical Nature: The second law is
based on statistical mechanics and probabilities.
of the heat reservoirs. Second, it tells us that
In specific small-scale systems or at quantum
the efficiency of a heat engine can be improved
scales, the law’s strict interpretations might not
by increasing the temperature of the hot
directly apply, and quantum effects can lead to
reservoir or decreasing the temperature of the exceptions—limited Application to Open Systems:
cold reservoir. Third, it tells us that the designed for closed or isolated systems. When
efficiency of a heat engine cannot be improved dealing with open systems that exchange matter
by using an irreversible engine instead of a and energy with their surroundings, applying the
reversible engine. second law can become more complex and
nuanced.
Regenerative Cycle some of the waste heat methods for improving the efficiency of the steam power plant is a type of thermal power Fire Tube Boiler:Design: hot gases produced
from the working fluid leaving a system is Rankine cycle, plant that converts heat energy into mechanical by the combustion of fuel pass through the
captured and used to preheat the incoming 1.Increasing Boiler Pressure and Temperature: work and, ultimately, into electrical energy using tubes that are surrounded by water. The
feedwater before it enters the boiler. This This increases the temperature difference steam as the working fluid. Steam power plants combustion gases flow within the tubes, and
process helps to improve the overall efficiency between the heat source (e.g., burning coal or have played a crucial role in the generation of the heat is transferred to the water
of a thermodynamic cycle, such as a steam natural gas) and the heat sink (usually cooling electricity and have been a staple of power surrounding the tubes.Construction: Fire tube
power cycle, by reducing the amount of heat water), which enhances the efficiency of heat generation for many years. They operate based boilers consist of a shell containing water and
that needs to be added in the boiler to produce transfer. on the principles of the Rankine cycle, a steam and a set of tubes that run through the
steam.primary goal of a regeneration cycle is 2.Superheating Steam: By superheating the thermodynamic cycle used in steam power center of the shell. The tubes are submerged in
to minimize the temperature difference steam beyond its saturation point, the generation.
water and extend the length of the boiler. Hot
between the feedwater and the working fluid temperature at which it enters the turbine is Boiler: fuel source (such as coal, natural gas, or oil) is
burned to produce high-temperature and high-pressure gases pass through the tubes, heating the
at the turbine inlet. This reduces the increased. This reduces the moisture content and
steam. The heat released during combustion is used to water around them.Heat Transfer:is achieved
temperature mismatch and improves the improves the efficiency of the expansion process.
convert water into steam.Steam Turbine: The high- primarily through convection and radiation.
thermal efficiency of the cycle. The concept of 3.Reheat and Regeneration: Reheat involves splitting pressure steam is directed into a steam turbine. As the
the expansion process into multiple stages with Hot gases transfer heat to the tubes, and the
regeneration is often employed in power steam passes through the turbine's blades, it expands,
intermediate reheating. Regeneration involves This expansion of steam causes the turbine to rotate, heated water is then circulated to produce
plants, especially in steam power plants, to preheating the feedwater using steam extracted from steam.Fire tube boilers are generally compact
generating mechanical work.Generator: The mechanical
increase their efficiency. main advantages of a various stages of the turbine, Cooled Condenser: work from the steam turbine is used to drive an electric and suitable for smaller applications. They
regeneration cycle are: Improved Efficiency: By using a cooling medium (such as cooling water) at generator. which generates electrical energy .Condenser: areused in locomotives, ships, and smaller
preheating the feedwater, the regeneration a lower temperature enhances the temperature After exiting the steam turbine, the low-pressure steam is
industrial processes. Fire tube boilers are more
process reduces the amount of heat needed to difference between the steam and the cooling condensed back into water in a condenser. This process
releases heat, which is usually transferred to a cooling tolerant of variations in water quality and can
be added in the boiler to reach a desired steam medium, which improves efficiency. handle a wider range of water
medium (such as cooling water from a river or a cooling
temperature, thereby increasing the overall 4.Combined Heat and Power (CHP): where both tower) to complete the cycle. Feedwater Pump: The onditions.Pressure and Temperature: Fire tube
thermal efficiency of the cycle.Reduced Fuel electricity and useful heat are produced condensed water is then pumped back to the boiler, boilers are typically used for low to moderate
Consumption: Because less heat is required in 5.Binary Cycle Configurations:This allows for where it is heated again to produce steam.
steam pressure and temperature
the boiler, the regeneration cycle leads to efficient heat transfer and power generation at
lower temperatures, which can be useful in requirements.
reduced fuel consumption for a given amount water tube boiler, water circulates through a
of electricity generation. Regeneration is a geothermal and waste-heat-to-power
applications. network of tubes, while hot combustion gases
common practice in modern power plants, as it pass around the outside of the tubes. The heat
allows for higher efficiencies and better 6.Advanced Cooling Technologies:such as dry
cooling or hybrid cooling systems, can improve transfer occurs through both convection and
utilization of heat energy radiation. Water tube boilers consist of a steam
the efficiency of the cooling process,
7.Efficiency-Enhancing Materials: Using advanced drum and a set of tubes arranged in various
materials with better thermal properties, such as configurations. The steam drum is located at
high-temperature alloys, can improve the the top, and the tubes connect the steam drum
performance and efficiency of the cycle to a water drum at the bottom. Water tube
components. boilers provide efficient heat transfer due to
8.Efficient Steam Generators: Designing and boiler is a device or a system that is designed to transfer the larger surface area of the tubes. The high
maintaining efficient steam generators with heat energy from a fuel source to water, ultimately
flow rate of water through the tubes enhances
producing steam. Boilers are a fundamental component
optimized heat transfer surfaces and proper heat transfer.Water tube boilers are often
in various industrial processes
water treatment can improve the overall cycle larger and more complex than fire tube boilers.
efficiency. suitable for higher-capacity applications and
Supersaturation refers to a state in which a solution
contains more solute than it would normally be able Pressure-compounded impulse turbines use a throat, the flow velocity reaches the speed of . Mechanical Losses:
to dissolve at a given temperature and pressure. In series of pressure stages, steam expands sound (sonic velocity). This is a critical design •Bearing and Seal Friction: Friction losses in
other words, the concentration of the solute in the sequentially through sets of nozzles and rotor point for achieving maximum discharge and bearings and seals contribute to the overall
solution exceeds its equilibrium solubility. blades, pressure compounding involves changes efficient supersonic flow. mechanical losses in the turbine.
Supersaturation is a temporary and often unstable in both velocity and pressure as the steam 3. Divergent Section: nozzle expands into a Gibbs-Dalton law for enthalpy states that the
conditiontypically arises when a solution is prepared progresses through the stages. divergent section with a gradually increasing change in enthalpy (ΔH) of a mixture at constant
by dissolving a solute in a solvent at a high Key points about pressure compounding: cross-sectional area. This leads to further temperature and pressure is equal to the sum of
temperature and then cooling the solution rapidly. 1.Multiple Pressure Stages: consist of multiple acceleration and a decrease in pressure. In the the changes in enthalpy of its individual
This rapid cooling can prevent the solute from fully pressure stages, each designed to operate at divergent section, the flow accelerates beyond components, each multiplied by its respective
crystallizing out of the solution, leading to a higher different pressure levels. mole fraction.
to supersonic velocity
concentration of solute than would normally be 2.Pressure Drop and Velocity: In each stage, the ΔH_m = ∑(x_i * ΔH_i),
Losses in Turbines •ΔH_m is the change in enthalpy of the mixture,
possible. Supersaturation is utilized in various steam undergoes a pressure drop across the
1. Friction Losses: •x_i is the mole fraction of component i in the mixture,
applications, such as the production of nozzles, resulting in an increase in velocity. This
increase in velocity allows for efficient energy •Blade and Disk Friction: Friction between the •ΔH_i is the change in enthalpy of component i.
supersaturated pharmaceutical solutions to moving blades, rotor disks, and stationary Gibbs-Dalton’s law for internal energy states
enhance drug absorption, the creation of synthetic transfer to the rotor blades.
3.higher pressure ratio across each stage components (casings) that the change in internal energy (ΔU) of a
gemstones, and the development of certain types of •Steam Flow Friction: between the steam and mixture at constant volume is equal to the sum of
coatings and films compared to velocity-compounded turbines.
4.enhances turbine efficiency by optimizing the the inner surfaces of the turbine passages and the changes in internal energy of its individual
Velocity and pressure compounding are two components, each multiplied by its respective
pressure and velocity changes to extract more nozzles
methods used to increase the efficiency and mole fraction.
energy from the steam •2. Leakage Losses:
performance of impulse turbines ΔU_m = ∑(x_i * ΔU_i)
velocity-compounded impulse turbines, the kinetic throat pressure for maximum discharge refers to •Steam Leakage:between blade rows or
•ΔU_m is the change in internal energy of the mixture,
energy of the steam is converted into mechanical the specific pressure at which a convergent- through gaps between the rotating and •x_i is the mole fraction of component i in the mixture,
energy in multiple stages. This is achieved by divergent nozzle achieves its highest mass flow stationary parts. This reduces the effective •ΔU_i is the change in internal energy of component i
dividing the expansion process into several velocity rate throat pressure at which maximum pressure difference across the turbine stages
stages, with each stage having a set of nozzles and discharge occurs is often associated with the •Seal Leakage:loss of efficiency due to
blades. The steam exits the nozzles at high velocity, phenomenon known as "choking." Choking imperfect sealing of turbine
and then its velocity is partially converted into occurs when the flow velocity at the throat of the 3. Losses Due to Steam Properties:
mechanical work as it impacts the moving blades. nozzle reaches the speed of sound (sonic •Steam Enthalpy Drop: As steam expands
The remaining kinetic energy is then extracted in velocity). At this point, any further decrease in through the turbine, its enthalpy (total energy)
subsequent stages. pressure will not result in an increase in flow decreases. This reduction in energy is
Key points about velocity compounding: rate; the nozzle is said to be choked. converted into mechanical work, but there are
1.Multiple Stages: Velocity-compounded turbines C-D nozzle is designed to efficiently convert the
inherent losses associated with this process.
consist of multiple stages, each with its set of nozzles pressure and thermal energy of the fluid into
•Moisture Content: moisture can cause
and rotor blades. kinetic energy, resulting in high-velocity
erosion, damage, and efficiency losses as it
2.Pressure Drop: there is a pressure drop across the supersonic flow.
1.Convergent Section: here the cross-sectional impacts the turbine blades.
nozzles, which helps maintain a suitable pressure
area gradually decreases. This increases the fluid 4. Shock and Separation Losses:
difference for efficient energy extraction.
3.Enhanced Efficiency:allows converting the high- velocity while decreasing its pressure. The fluid •Shock Waves: cause flow disturbances and
velocity steam into mechanical work over several accelerates as it moves toward the throat of the reduce efficiency.
stages, thereby reducing energy losses. nozzle. •Boundary Layer Separation: Flow separation
4.Overall Pressure Ratio:pressure ratio across each 2.Throat: narrowest section of the nozzle, where at the blade surfaces can result in energy losses
stage is relatively small compared to pressure- the fluid reaches its highest velocity. At the and reduced turbine performance.
compounded turbines.