Chapter 1 – Hydrostatics (study of fluids at rest)

-stationery fluids exert a force on its surroundings, a fluid force is specified a pressure.
-Pressure increases with depths when measured at different depths below the upper surface
of the fluid.

-Absolute pressure (It is the pressure with respect to zero datum)

Atmospheric pressure
-gauge pressure (It is the pressure with respect to atmospheric pressure. Pa is regarded as
the zero datum. It is positive above Pa and negative below Pa)

-There are two cases in which pressure exert a force on submerged bodies:
1. It when a body’s position is flat beneath water and the water exert a constant pressure
force
2. And when a body’s position is at an angle with respect to the horizontal water surface and
the pressure exerted by water varies with distance.

-The following are general approach formulas which are used to calculate the resultant
pressure force, distance from origin to the point of action of the resultant force, moment
about the origin which is caused by the resultant force. (Origin is the top)
 The force exerted by the pressure of the water distance from origin to the center of the object

The line of action of the force in the horizontal axis does not act on the
centroid of the object, it is found using the above point of action equation

-pressure resultant force that acts on curved surfaces due to water pressure, it acts on a
angle to the body, and therefore it must be resolved into x and y components.
-Fx = is equal to pressure force on a vertical plane surface equal in height to the projected
height of the curved surface
Total weight of the volume of the water displaced.
-Fy = is equal to the total weight of volume above Weight = w = m*g = p*V*g = p*A*h*g
density of water

-Buoyancy (meaning) = the ability or tendency of something to float in water or other fluid
-Buoyancy force acts upwards to keep an object floating
-Buoyancy acts in the position of the centre of gravity

Density of
object Density of water

Weight of water displaced by the

volume of the object

Density of the object

Fb (buoyancy force) = density*g * V (volume of the object) – weight equation
Fb = weight of the object (if more than one object, then it’s the sum)
If object is tilted or it has a curved surface, then the force acting on object can be splitted
onto x and y axis, Fy will be the buoyancy force (total weight of liquid acting above object)
Fx- will be equal to the pressure force on a vertical plane surface equal in height to the
projected height of the curved surface. Fx = p*g *A* ^y (y= distance from to centroid of
Point of action of the force
object)
The moment produced by the buoyancy force about the centre of gravity:

Chapter 2 – Principles of Fluid Flow (Fluid flow on Pipes)

-Flow is characterised by 2 characteristics – Time and Distance
-Parameters of a flow are: velocity, pressure, or depth of flow and discharge( volume per
second passing a given point)
-There are two sets of subdivisions of a flow:
1.(Steady – unsteady) 2.(Uniform – nonuniform)
1. Steady – a flow is steady if the parameters describing that flow do not vary with time and
vice-versa for unsteady
2. Uniform – A flow is uniform if the parameters describing that flow do not vary with
distance along the flow path and for non-uniform it’s vice versa.
*STREAMLINES – are fundamental methods of visualising a flow pattern, a streamline is
constructed by drawing a line which is tangential to the velocity vectors of a connected
series.

-In order to develop the equations which, describe a flow, fluids are subject to the following
fundamental laws of physics.
Q1 =Q2
Bernoulli equation

The following 3 equations from the following three laws are important for this chapter.

-If we assume the flow is steady and the flow is incompressible (refers to a flow in which the
material is constant within a fluid parcel, the following law applies:
weight flow rate equation:
W/t = Density * g * Velocity* A
= Density * g * Q Discharge = Velocity* Area
mass flow rate equation:
m/t = Density * Velocity* A
= Density * Q

velocity is zero here as the water is

standing still

Velocity is not zero here as the water

is moving out.

-Equation used to find pressure and velocity

at points

-Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to two points along a streamline, this equation may be used to
determine the variation of pressure and velocity along a streamline

-The following equation is a momentum equation for a steady-flow at uniform velocity. The
momentum equation is used to find the forces acting on pipe bends, etc. The momentum
equation may be used directly to evaluate the force causing a change of momentum in a
fluid. The momentum equation is used to solve problems in which energy losses occur that
cannot be evaluated directly, or when the flow is unsteady.

-Momentum force

The momentum force is composed of the sum of all external forces acting on the stream
tube (control volume) and may include pressure forces (FP) and reaction forces (FR).

can be calculated
-The reaction force is the force exerted on the fluids by the pipeline bends. (Take note of this)
-*Z- values are eliminated on Bernoulli equation on this chapter.
-On this chapter you should always first calculate pressure force using the Bernoulli equation
and then the discharge and velocities using the charge equation ( Q = V * A )
 -For a tube that splits into two parts

Q1 = Q2 + Q3

-please note that the discharge would not be the same on 1,2 and 3 -decrease/increase
Because the pipe is splitting into two therefore
in area

-The pitot tube and Pitot static tube are the two devices that are used to measure velocity in
the pipelines, the velocity equation is as follows:

Velocity!

-Venturi meter and the Orifice plate are the two devices that are used to measure discharge
in pipelines.
Venturi Meter

D2 Orifice Plate
D1

Check the equation to find h* from Rp

*Throat section, the velocity is increased, and consequently the pressure is decreased. By measuring the
difference in pressure, an estimate of discharge can be obtained through the equation.
Independent of inclination
*It is useful to note that the indicated head (Rp), and consequently the discharge equation, is
independent of the inclination of the meter
Discharge measurement in a venturi meter:
m = D1/D2 h* = Rp ( difference in height of the liquid inside orifice plate

*m= D1/D2
Rp is the change in head.

Check its Equation on the Tutorial

Discharge measurement in a normal orifice plate: (Small Orifice plate)

-Discharge measurement in a small orifice plate:

-Make sure you know this!!!

-Discharge measurement in a large orifice plate:

Chapter 3 -Behaviour of real fluids

-This chapter investigates behaviour of fluids that flow in a pipe
-This chapter focuses on the behaviour of fluids and ideal fluids (assumed to be no losses on
flows) that flow in pipes. In the past chapters above, fluid was assumed to be ideal and
therefore equations were mathematically straight forward.
-The following are characteristics of an Ideal fluid:
1. It’s Inviscid
2.Incompressible Know all of these, will be asked in exam
3. It has no surface tension
4. Fluid always forms a continuum

-Viscosity is the ability of a fluid to resist a flow. While the fluid moves through a rough
surface and resisting the flow, shear force is being transmitted from one layer to another as
it moves.
-if the temperature rises, viscosity falls, and if the temperature falls, viscosity rises

Liquid becomes loose and runny when temperature is high

 -The fluid near the belt moves with high velocity.

-The shear force applied on the fluid (applied by the belt as ikhuhla I fluid while I mover) and
the rate of fluid shear are related by the following equation:
Viscosity

Rate of fluid shear

Average velocity

(Absolute viscosity)
Vertical distance
Du = The Average velocity because the velocity varies linearly along the perpendicular
distance of a channel in which the fluid flows and so we need to use average velocity.
Dy = The perpendicular distance
Constant (u ) – is viscosity

Absolute Viscosity
 -This is the number that classifies the type of fluid flow, Always
Remember It!!!!!

-It is a number that is used to classify fluid flows, you can predict weather a fluid flow is
Laminar or turbulent from a given reynold’s number of a fluid flow.
-Renold's number represents the ratio of inertia force over viscous force. It is a
dimensionless number. Pipe Diameter

-Turbulence on fluid flows is a function of fluid velocity, viscosity and a typical dimension
velocity length of the of the pipe

Absolute viscosity Coefficient of viscosity

Absolute
viscosity

-I boundary surface kuxa I liquid I flower trough I rough surface and then the bottom layer
eseduze ne surface izo slower down I velocity yayo and then there would be a shearing
action between the surface and the layers
-Shearing action that occurs between fluids and fixed boundaries. The boundary layer is
defined as an area where the boundary induced viscous forces vary between different layers
in fluid.
As the flow comes into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid immediately adjacent to the
plate decelerates (due to viscous friction) and comes to rest. This follows from the postulate
that in viscous fluids a thin layer of fluid actually “adheres” to a solid surface. There is then a
considerable shearing action between the layer of fluid on the plate surface and the second
layer of fluid. The second layer is therefore forced to decelerate (though it is not quite
brought to rest), creating a shearing action with the third layer of fluid, and so on. As the
fluid passes further along the plate, the zone in which shearing action occurs tends to spread
further outwards (Figure 3.8b). This zone is known as a “boundary layer”. Outside the
boundary layer the flow remains effectively free of shear, so the fluid here is not subjected
to viscosity-related forces.

Because the fluid flows very slowly compared to turbulent

-Le topic Imalunga naxa I fluid iqabela I flower ,then it encounters I object phambi kwayo
let’s say a round ball, izo flower iqabele phezu kwayo, the I bhola will be dragged by a drag
force caused yila fluid. Ibhola is just an example, this happens in real life ko Pipe.
-A body immersed in an external flow may be subjected to two distinct force patterns:
 Drag force

-The drag force is usually the total force due to both friction and form components

-Boundary layer growth will commence at the entry to the pipe or channel system, and continue
downstream. Providing that the system is of sufficient length, a point will be reached at which the
boundary layer thickness, δ, extends as far as the centreline. From this point onwards it is clear that
no boundary layer growth is possible. The flow has therefore become virtually uniform, and the
boundary shear stress, τ0, must, within close limits, be constant. This is known as the “fully
developed flow” condition. In fully developed flows, it is usual for the boundary shear stress to be
expressed in terms of a “coefficient of friction” (symbol Cf), which is defined by the equation.
Chapter 4 -Flow in Pipes and closed conduits
-This chapter describes the theories of pipe flow.
-laminar to turbulent flow occurs at a critical velocity for a given pipe and fluid.
-Frictional loss proportional to velocity in laminar flow.
-Frictional loss is proportional to the square of velocity in turbulent flow.
-The following is a velocity equation for laminar flow used find the velocity at any distance
from centre of pipe to the surface.

Read
Here!!!
 4.6) Local Head Losses
Head losses, in addition to those due to friction, are always incurred at pipe bends, junctions, valves, etc. These additional
losses are due to eddy formation generated in the fluid at the fitting, and, for completeness, they must be taken into
account. In the case of long pipelines (e.g., several kilometers) the local losses may be negligible, but for short pipelines,
they may be greater than the frictional losses.