Major VII

GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

Unit-1 Location and Administration units - Physiographic Divisions - Climate -

Soils - Natural Vegetation

Unit-2 Drainage - Irrigation - Multipurpose Projects - Major Agriculture Crops: Rice,

wheat, cotton, sugarcane, tea and coffee, pulses and oil seeds - Problems of Indian
Agriculture

Unit-3 Distribution of metallic and non-metallic minerals - Power resources - Major

Industries: iron and steel, cement, paper, cotton, chemical, engineering &
electronics, automobile and software industries – Major Industrial Regions

Unit-4 Population growth and distribution - Transport: surface (Road & Rail), air,
water and pipelines – Major ports and harbours - Principal imports and export
items

Unit-5 Geography of Tamil Nadu: Physiography, drainage, soil, climate, agriculture,

minerals, industries and population

Reference Books
1. Khullar, D. R (2014) India: A Comprehensive Geography, Kalyani Publication, New
Delhi.
2. Singh R.L. (1971) India a regional Geography, NGSI. Varanasi.
3. Mamoria C.B., Economic & commercial Geography of India, Kitab Mahal,
Allahabad.
4. Sharma T.C. (1980) Economic & Commercial Geography of India, Vikas Publication.
5. Nag, P., and Sengupta, S., (1992), Geography of India, Concept of Publishing
Company, New Delhi.
6. http://www.censusindia.gov.in

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 Unit-1
Location and Administration units - Physiographic Divisions - Climate - Soils - Natural
Vegetation

1.1 Location and Administration units

1.1.1 LOCATION
India, with a zone of 32,87,782 sq km, is the 7th biggest nation after Russia, Canada, China, USA,
Brazil and Australia and the second generally crowded (close to China) nation on the planet. It
reaches out between 8° 4' and 37° 6' North scopes and 68° 7' and 97° 25' East longitudes, lying
north of the equator and consequently has a place with Northern Hemisphere. The Tropic of
Cancer (23° 30' N) isolates the nation into right around two equivalent parts. While the southern
half concurring with peninsular India lies in the equatorial area, the northern half, fairly mainland
in nature, has a place with the subtropical zone. Arranged toward the east of the Prime Meridian,
India additionally has a place with the Eastern Hemisphere.

The north-south expansion of India covers about 30° of scope or measures around 3,214 km and
the east-west augmentation covers practically 30° of longitude or measures around 2,933 km
which is one-twelfth of the Earth's boundary at the Equator. India has land boondocks of 15,200
km and a coastline of around 6,100 km. India takes as much time as is needed from the Meridian
of 82° 30' E, which is 5½ hours in front of Greenwich Mean Time (0° longitude). India is a
monster among South Asian nations and it possesses 73.2% of the all-out zone of South Asia. It is
four times bigger than Pakistan, which is the second biggest in South Asia.

Truth be told, except Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Delhi and Haryana, remaining
States in the nation have at least one worldwide outskirt or a coastline and can be viewed as
forefront States in the perspective on the fringe the executives. India's longest outskirt is with
Bangladesh while the most limited fringe is with Afghanistan.

China has the second-longest fringe of India, next just to its outskirt with Bangladesh. Five Indian
states, specifically Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal
Pradesh contact the Indian limit with China. The Sino-Indian outskirt is commonly isolated into
three areas in particular: (I) the Western area, (ii) the Middle area, and (iii) the Eastern area.
Western Sector of the Sino-Indian fringe isolates Jammu and Kashmir territory of India from the
Sinkiang (Xinjiang) area of China. The western area limit is generally the result of the British
approach towards the province of Jammu and Kashmir. China asserts the Aksai Chin locale, the
Changmo valley, Pangong Tso and the Sponggar Tso zone of north-east Ladakh just as a segment
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of around 5,000 sq km down the whole length of eastern Ladakh. China likewise asserts a piece of
Huza-Gilgit territory in North Kashmir (surrendered to it in 1963 by Pakistan). The centre area,
two Indian conditions of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand contact this fringe.

Source https://indianexpress.com/article/india/28-states-9-union-territories-here-is-the-new-map-of-india-6099663/

Fig 1.1

The Nepal outskirt with five conditions of India, in particular Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
West Bengal and Sikkim. A significant bit of Indo-Nepalese fringe runs the east-west way nearly
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along the lower region of the Shiwalik Range. India's fringe with Bhutan is very serene and there
is no limit debate between the two nations.

The Indo-Pakistan limit is the aftereffect of a segment of the nation in 1947 under the Radcliffe
grant of which Sir Cyril Radcliffe was the executive. Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the major
disputed locales.

Of the relative multitude of neighbouring nations, India's 4,096 km long outskirt with Bangladesh
is the longest and records for almost 27 percent of the complete land fringe of India. This limit has
been resolved under the Radcliffe Award which partitioned the recent territory of Bengal into two
sections. This limit runs generally along the watershed between the Brahmaputra and
Ayeyarwady. It goes through thickly forested slope nation, with Mizo Hills, Manipur and
Nagaland on the Indian side and Chin Hills, Naga Hills and Kachin state on the Myanmar side.

India and Sri Lanka are isolated from one another by a thin and shallow ocean called Palk Strait.
Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu coast in India is just 32 km away from Talaimanar in Jaffna
promontory in Sri Lanka. These two focuses are joined by a gathering of islets framing Adam's
Bridge.

1.1.2 ADMINISTRATION UNITS.

The total number of states in the country is now 28, while the total UTs have gone up to eight. The
political map of India was shown in the figure 1.1

States and Capitals

1. Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad)

2. Arunachal Pradesh (Itanagar)
3. Assam (Dispur)
4. Bihar (Patna)
5. Chhattisgarh (Raipur)
6. Goa (Panaji)
7. Gujarat (Gandhinagar)
8. Haryana (Chandigarh)
9. Himachal Pradesh (Shimla)
10. Jharkhand (Ranchi)
11. Karnataka (Bangalore)
12. Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram)

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 13. Madhya Pradesh (Bhopal)
14. Maharashtra (Mumbai)
15. Manipur (Imphal)
16. Meghalaya (Shillong)
17. Mizoram (Aizawl)
18. Nagaland (Kohima)
19. Odisha (Bhubaneshwar)
20. Punjab (Chandigarh)
21. Rajasthan (Jaipur)
22. Sikkim (Gangtok)
23. Tamil Nadu (Chennai)
24. Telangana (Hyderabad)
25. Tripura (Agartala)
26. Uttarakhand (Dehradun)
27. Uttar Pradesh (Lucknow)
28. West Bengal (Kolkata)
29. Union Territories
30. Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Port Blair)
31. Chandigarh (Chandigarh)
32. Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu
33. The Government of NCT of Delhi (Delhi)
34. Jammu & Kashmir (Srinagar-Summer, Jammu-Winter)
35. Ladakh (Leh)
36. Lakshadweep (Kavaratti)
37. Puducherry (Puducherry)

On the recommendation of Parliament, the President effectively dismantled Article 370 of the
Indian Constitution and gave assent to the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganization Act, 2019. Under
the leadership of Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi and supervision of Union Home Minister
Shri Amit Shah, the former state of Jammu & Kashmir has been reorganized as the new Union
Territory of Jammu and Kashmir and the new Union Territory of Ladakh on 31st October 2019.

The new Union Territory of Ladakh consists of two districts of Kargil and Leh. The rest of the
former State of Jammu and Kashmir is in the new Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
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1.2. Physiographic Divisions
India is a place that is known for variety in all habits. From culture, economy and even the scene
of India has assorted components, all on one landmass. The wide scope of actual highlights of
India makes the nation a total topographical examination. India has each conceivable scene that
the earth has from cold mountains to parched deserts, huge fields, hot and sticky level and wide
coastlines and tropical islands, the actual highlights of India cover each landscape is shown in the
figure 1.2.

PHYSIOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS OF INDIA

1. The Himalays
2. Indo-Gangetic Plain
3. The Peninsular Plateau
4. Coastal Plains
5. Desert
6. The Indian Islands – Lakshadweep; Andaman and Nicobar Islands
1.2.1 THE HIMALAYS
The Himalayas are a piece of Alpine mountain Chain. They are the most youthful mountain chain
on the planet. They run east-west for more than 2,400 km from the Indus gorge in the west to the
Brahmaputra gorge in the east. They are described by profoundly dismembered (cut by profound
thin valleys) geography and young seepage. The Himalayan mountain chain has the loftiest
pinnacles of the world.

DIVISION OF THE HIMALAYAS

1. The Greater Himalayas
2. The Trans-Himalayas – Tibetain Himalayas.
3. Lesser or Middle Himalayas
4. Shiwaliks or outer Himalayas
5. The Eastern Hills – Purvanchal: A chain of hills in North-East India.
I) THE HIMALAYAN RANGES
Arrangement of a few equal or merging reaches. The reaches are isolated by profound valleys
making an exceptionally dismembered geology. The individual reaches have steep inclination
towards the south however they present a lot gentler slant towards the north. A large portion of the
Himalayan reaches fall in India, Nepal and Bhutan. The northern slants are mostly arranged in
Tibet (trans-himalayas) while the western furthest point lies in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central

6
Asia. A progression of three equal reaches from the Indo-Gangetic plain to the Tibet level might
be perceived in the Himalayas.

II) THE GREAT HIMALAYA

It is also known as Inner Himalaya, Central Himalaya or Himadri. Average elevation of 6,100 m
above sea level and an average width of about 25 km. It is mainly formed of the central
crystallines (granites and gneisses) overlain by metamorphosed sediments. The folds in this range
are asymmetrical with steep south slope and gentle north slope giving 'hog back (a long, steep hill
or mountain ridge)' topography. This mountain arc convexes to the south just like the other two.
Terminates abruptly at the syntaxial bends. One in the Nanga Parbat in north-west and the other in
the Namcha Barwa in the north-east. This mountain range boasts of the tallest peaks of the world,
most of which remain under perpetual snow.

Everest Peak was first located by George Everest, the then Surveyor General of India in 1841and
in 1852 it was established as the highest peak of the world by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of
India.

III) THE MIDDLE OR THE LESSER HIMALAYA

In between the Shiwaliks in the south and the Great Himalayas in the north. Runs almost parallel
to both the ranges. It is also called the Himachal or Lower Himalaya. Lower Himalayan ranges are
60-80 km. Elevations vary from 3,500 to 4,500 m above sea level. Many peaks are more than
5,050 m above sea level and are snow covered throughout the year. Lower Himalayas have steep,
bare southern slopes and gentler, forest covered northern slopes.

The Pir Panjal range in Kashmir is the longest and the most important range. It extends from the
Jhelum river to the upper Beas river for over 300 km. It rises to 5,000 metres and contains mostly
volcanic rocks.

Pir Panjal Pass (3,480 m), the Bidil (4,270 m), Golabghar Pass (3,812 m) and Banihal Pass (2,835
m) are the major passes in Shiwalik. The Banihal Pass is used by the Jammu- Srinagar highway
and Jammu-Baramula railway. The Kishanganga, the Jhelum and the Chenab cut through the
range. Southeast of the Ravi, the Pir Panjal continues as Dhaola Dhar range, passing through
Dalhousie, Dharmshala, and Shimla.

In between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar Range of the main Himalayas, lies the valley of Kashmir.
The synclinal basin of the valley is floored with alluvial, lacustrine, fluvial and glacial deposits.
Jehlum River meanders through these deposits and cuts a deep gorge in Pir Panjal through which

7
it drains. In Himachal Pradesh there is Kangra Valley. It is a strike valley and extends from the
foot of the Dhaola Dhar Range to the south of Beas. On the other hand, the Kulu Valley in the
upper course of the Ravi is transverse valley. In Uttarakhand, the Middle Himalayas are marked
by the Mussoorie and the Nag Tibba ranges.

The Mahabharat Lekh, in southern Nepal is a continuation of the Mussoorie Range East of the
Kosi River, the Sapt Kosi, Sikkim, Bhutan, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills represent the lower
Himalayas. The Middle Himalayan ranges are more friendly to human contact. Majority of the
Himalayan hill resorts like Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora and Darjeeling, etc. are
located here.

IV) THE SHIWALIK RANGE

It otherwise called Outer Himalayas. Situated in the middle of the Great Plains and Lesser
Himalayas. The elevation shifts from 600 to 1500 meters. Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from
the Potwar Plateau to the Brahmaputra valley. The southern inclines are steep while the northern
slants are delicate. The width of the Shiwaliks changes from 50 km in Himachal Pradesh to under
15 km in Arunachal Pradesh. They are practically solid chain of low slopes aside from a hole of
80-90 km which is involved by the valley of the Tista River and Raidak River.

Shiwalik range from North-East India up to Nepal are covered with thick woodlands however the
backwoods cover diminishes towards west from Nepal (The quantum of precipitation diminishes
from east to west in Swiwaliks and Ganga Plains). The southern slants of Shiwalik range in
Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are practically without woods cover. These slants are exceptionally
analyzed via occasional streams called Chos.

Valleys are important for synclines and slopes are essential for anticlines or antisynclines.
Shiwaliks were shaped finally the reaches (2-20 million years back). The Shiwaliks are combined
sands, rock and aggregate stores which were brought by the waterways moving from the higher
reaches. These stores were collapsed and solidified because of pressure offered by the toward the
north development of Indian plate. Formation of Duns (Duras)

Shiwalik Hills were formed by the accumulation of conglomerates (sand, stone, silt, gravel, debris
etc.). These conglomerates, in the initial stages of deposition, obstructed the courses of the rivers
draining from the higher reaches of the Himalayas and formed temporary lakes. With passage of
time, these temporary lakes accumulated more and more conglomerates. The conglomerates were
well settled at the bottom of the lakes. When the rivers were able to cut their courses through the
lakes filled with conglomerate deposits, the lakes were drained away leaving behind plains called
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duns or doons in the west and duars in the east. Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand is the best example
Kotah, Patli Kothri, Chumbi, Kyarda, Chaukhamba, Udhampur and Kotli are other important
duns.

State Passes of Greater Himalayas

Jammu and Kashmir Burzil Pass

Zoji La

Bara Lacha La

Shipki La -The Hindustan-Tibet Road

connecting Shimla with Gartok in Western
Himachal Pradesh
Tibet

Thaga La Niti Pass

Uttarakhand Lipu Lekh

Nathu La

Jelep La - important trade route connecting

Kalimpong with Lhasa
Sikkim

V) THE EASTERN HILLS OR THE PURVANCHAL

Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal are the southward extension of Himalayas running along the
north-eastern edge of India. At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward bend
and form a series of comparatively low hills which are collectively called as the Purvanchal.
Purvanchal hills are convex to the west. They run along the India-Myanmar Border extending
from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to Mizoram in the south.

Patkai Bum: made up of strong sandstone; elevation varying from 2,000 m to 3,000 m; merges
into Naga Hills where Saramati (3,826 m) is the highest peak.

Naga Hills: Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the watershed between India and Myanmar. South of
Naga Hills are the Manipur hills which are generally less than 2,500 metres in elevation.

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The Barail range separates Naga Hills from Manipur Hills. Further south the Barail Range swings
to west into Jaintia, Khasi and Garo hills which are an eastward continuation of the Indian
peninsular block. They are separated from the main block by Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.

South of the Manipur Hills are the Mizo Hills (previously known as the Lushai hills) which have
an elevation of less than 1,500 metres. The highest point is the Blue Mountain (2,157 m) in the
south.

Fig 1.2

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1.2.2 INDO-GANGETIC PLAIN
Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain is the largest alluvial tract of the world. It is about 3,200 km
long from the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Ganga. Indian sector of the plain accounts
for 2,400 km. The northern boundary is well marked by the Shiwaliks and the southern boundary
is a wavy irregular line along the northern edge of the Peninsular India. The western border is
marked by Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. On the eastern side, the plains are bordered by
Purvanchal hills. The width of the plain varies from region to region. It is widest in the west where
it stretches for about 500 km. Its width decreases in the east.

The thickness of the alluvium deposits also varies from place to place. The maximum depth of the
alluvium up to the basement rocks are about 6,100 m (not uniform and varies greately from place
to place). The cones or alluvial fans of Kosi in the north and those of Son in the south exhibit
greater alluvial thickness while the intra-cone areas have relatively shallower deposits. Extreme
horizontality of this monotonous plain is its chief characteristic. Its average elevation is about 200
m above mean sea level, highest elevation being 291m above mean sea level near Ambala.
Geomorphological features of Indo-Gangetic Plain are given following:

i) The Bhabar

It is a narrow, porus, northen most stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain. It is about 8-16 km wide
running in east-west direction along the foothills (alluvial fans) of the Shiwaliks. These alluvial
fans have merged together to build up the bhabar belt. The porosity of bhabar is the most unique
feature. The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow in the east and extensive in the western and
north-western hilly region. The area is not suitable for agriculture and only big trees with large
roots thrive in this belt.

ii) The Terai

Terai is a ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow tract to the south of Bhabar
running parallel to it. The Tarai is about15-30 km wide. The underground streams of the Bhabar
belt re-emerge in this belt. This thickly forested region provides shelter to a variety of wild life.
Most of the Terai land, especially in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand, has been turned into
agricultural land which gives good crops of sugarcane, rice and wheat.

iii) The Bhangar

The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher than the flood
plain.
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iv) The Khadar

The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks. A
new layer of alluvium is deposited by river flood almost every year. This makes them the most
fertile soils of Ganges.

v) Reh or Kollar

Reh or Kollar comprises saline efflorescences of drier areas in Haryana. Reh areas have spread in
recent times with increase in irrigation (capillary action brings salts to the ground).

vi) The Punjab Plain

This plain is formed by five important rivers of Indus system. The plain is primarily made up of
doabs -the land between two rivers. The depositional process by the rivers, continuing since long,
has united these doabs and has given a homogenous geomorphological entity to the entire area.
Punjab literally means "(The Land of) Five Waters" referring to the following rivers: the Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. The total area of this plain is about 1.75 lakh sq km. The average
elevation of the plain is about 250 m above mean sea level. The eastern boundary of Punjab
Haryana plain is marked by subsurface Delhi-Aravali ridge. The northern part of this plain
adjoining the Shiwalik hills has been intensively eroded by numerous streams called Chos. This
has led to enormous gullying. To the south of the Satluj river there is Malwa plain of Punjab. The
area between the Ghaggar and the Yamuna rivers lies in Haryana and often termed as Haryana
Tract. It acts as water-divide between the Yamuna and the Satluj rivers. The only river between
the Yamuna and the Satluj is the Ghaggar which is considered to be the present-day Successor of
the legendary Saraswati River.

vii) The Ganga Plain

This is the largest unit of the Great Plain of India stretching from Delhi to Kolkata (about 3.75
lakh sq km). The Ganga along with its large number of tributaries originating in the Himalayan
ranges viz., the Yamuna, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi, etc. have brought large
quantities of alluvium from the mountains and deposited it here to build this extensive plain. The
general slope of the entire plain is to the east and south east. Almost all the rivers keep on shifting
their courses making this area prone to frequent floods. The Kosi river is very notorious in this
respect. It has long been called the 'Sorrow of Bihar'.

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viii) Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta

This is the largest delta in the world. The Ganga river divides itself into several channels in the
delta area. The slope of the land here is a mere 2 cm per km. Two thirds of the area are below 30
m above mean sea level. The entire land up to Kolkata would be completely submerged if the sea
level rose by only 7 metres. Large part of the coastal delta is covered by thick impenetrable tidal
forests. These are called the Sunderbans because of the predominance of Sundri tree here.

ix) The Brahmaputra Plain

This is also known as the Brahmaputra valley or Assam Valley or Assam Plain as most of the
Brahmaputra valley is situated in Assam. Its western boundary is formed by the Indo- Bangladesh
border as well as the boundary of the lower Ganga Plain. Its eastern boundary is formed by
Purvanchal hills. It is an aggradational plain built up by the depositional work of the Brahmaputra
and its tributaries. The alluvial fans formed by the coarse alluvial debris have led to the formation
of tarai or semi-tarai conditions.

1.2.3 THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU

Roughly triangular in shape with its base coinciding with the southern edge of the great plain of
North India. Apex of the triangular plateau is at Kanyakumari. It has many hills and minor
plateaus. It covers a total area of about 16 lakh sq km. The average height of the plateau is 600-
900 m above sea level. Most of the peninsular rivers flow west to east indicating it is general
slope. Narmada-Tapi are the exceptions which flow from east to west in a rift. It has been a stable
shield which has gone through little structural changes since its formation. Since few hundered
million years, Peninsular block has been a land area and has never been submerged beneath the
sea except in a few places. Peninsular Plateau is an aggregation of several smaller plateaus, hill
ranges interspersed with river basins and valleys.

i) The Central Highland

Also called the Madhya Bharat Pathar or Madhya Bharat Plateau. It is to the east of the Marwar or
Mewar Upland. Most of plateau comprises the basin of the Chambal river which flows in a rift
valley. It is a rolling plateau with rounded hills composed of sandstone. Thick forests grow here.

ii) The Bundelkhand Upland

It is the old dissected upland of the ‗Bundelkhand gneiss comprising of granite and gneiss.
Spreads over five districts of Uttar Pradesh and four districts of Madhya Pradesh. Average

13
elevation of 300-600 m above sea level, this area slopes down from the Vindhyan Scarp toward
the Yamuna River.

iii) The Malwa Plateau

The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills, bounded by the Aravali
Range in the west and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the north and Bundelkhand in the east. It is
composed of extensive lava flow and is covered with black soils. The general slope is towards the
north. This is a rolling plateau dissected by rivers. In the north, the plateau is marked by the
Chambal ravines.

iv) The Baghelkhand

North of the Maikal Range is the Baghelkhand. Made of limestones and sandstones on the west
and granite in the east. It is bounded by the Son river on the north and the Mahanadi river system
in the south. The region is uneven with general elevation varying from 150 m to 1,200 m. The
general horizontality of the strata shows that this area has not undergone any major disturbance.

v) The Chotanagpur Plateau

Chotanagpur plateau represents the north-eastern projection of the Indian Peninsula. Mostly in
Jharkhand, northern part of Chhatisgarh and Purulia district of West Bengal. The Son river flows
in the north-west of the plateau and joins the Ganga. The average elevation of the plateau is 700 m
above sea level. This plateau is composed mainly of Gondwana rocks. Rivers like the Damodar,
the Subarnrekaha, the North Koel, the South Koel and the Barkar have developed extensive
drainage basins.

The Damodar river flows through the middle of this region in a rift valley from west to east. Here
are found the Gondwana coal fields which provide bulk of coal in India. North of the Damodar
river is the Hazaribagh plateau with an average elevation of 600m above mean sea level. This
plateau has isolated hills. It looks like a peneplain due to large scale erosion. The Ranchi Plateau
to the south of the Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m above mean sea level. Most of the surface
is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661 m) is located.

The Rajmahal Hills forming the north eastern edge of the Chotanagpur Plateau are mostly made of
basalt and are covered by lava flows. They run in north-south direction and rise to average
elevation of 400 m (highest mount is 567 m). These hills have been dissected into separate
plateaus.

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vi) The Meghalaya Plateau

The peninsular plateau extends further east beyond the Rajmahal hills to from Meghalaya or the
Shillong plateau. The plateau is formed by Archaean quartzites, shales and schists. The plateau
slopes down to Brahmaputra valley in the north and the Surma and Meghna valleys in the south.
Its western boundary more or less coincides with the Bangladesh border. The western, central and
the eastern parts of the plateau are known as the Garo Hills (900 m), the Khasi-Jaintia Hills (1,500
m) and the Mikir Hills (700 m). Shillong (1,961 m) is the highest point of the plateau.

vii) The Deccan Plateau

It covers an area of about five lakh sq km. It is triangular in shape and is bounded by the Satpura
and the Vindhya in the northwest, the Mahadev and the Maikal in the north, the Western Ghats in
the west and the Eastern Ghats in the east. Its average elevation is 600 m. It rises to 1000 m in the
south but dips to 500 m in the north. Its general slope is from west to east which is indicated by
the flow of its major rivers. Rivers have further subdivided this plateau into a number of smaller
plateaus.

viii) The Maharashtra Plateau

The Maharashtra Plateau lies in Maharashtra. It forms the northern part of the Deccan Plateau.
Much of the region is underlain by basaltic rocks of lava origin. The area looks like a rolling plain
due to weathering. The horizontal lava sheets have led to the formation of typical Deccan Trap
topography. The broad and shallow valleys of the Godavari, the Bhima and the Krishna are
flanked by flat-topped steep sided hills and ridges. The entire area is covered by black cotton soil
known as regur.

ix) The Karnataka Plateau

The Karnataka Plateau is also known as the Mysore plateau. Lies to the south of the Maharashtra
plateau. The area looks like a rolling pleateau with an average elevation of 600-900 m. It is highly
dissected by numerous rivers rising from the Western Ghats. The general trend of the hills is either
parallel to the Western Ghats or across it. The highest peak (1913 m) is at Mulangiri in Baba
Budan Hills in Chikmaglur district. The plateau tapers between the Western Ghats and the Eastern
Ghats in the south and merges with the Niligiri hills there.

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x) The Aravali Range

They are aligned in north-east to south-west direction. They run for about 800 km between Delhi
and Palanpur in Gujarat. They are one of the oldest fold mountains of the world and the oldest in
India. It is general elevation is only 400-600 m, with few hills well above 1,000 m. Here Mt. Abu
(1,158 m), a small hilly block, is separated from the main range by the valley of the Banas. Guru
Sikhar (1,722 m), the highest peak, is situated in Mt. Abu.

xi) The Vindhyan Range

The Vindhaya Range, overlooking the Narmada valley, rises as an escarpment flanking the
northern edge of the Narmada-Son Trough. It runs more or less parallel to the Narmada Valley in
an east-west direction of over 1,200 km. The general elevation of the Vindhyan Range is 300 to
650 m. Most parts of the Vindhayan Range are composed of horizontally bedded sedimentary
rocks of ancient age.

xii) The Satpura Range

Satpura range is a series of seven mountains. It runs in an east-west direction south of the
Vindhyas and in between the Narmada and the Tapi, roughly parallel to these rivers. It stretches
for a distance of about 900 km. Parts of the Satpuras have been folded and upheaved. They are
regarded as structural uplift or 'horst'. Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi on Mahadev Hills is
the highest peak. Amarkantak (1,127 m) is another important peak.

xiii) The Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris)

They form the western edge of the Deccan tableland. Run from the Tapi valley to a little north of
Kanniyakumari for a distance of 1,600 km. The Western Ghats are steep-sided, terraced, flat-
topped hills presenting a stepped topography facing the Arabian Sea coast. This is due to the
horizontally bedded lavas, which on weathering, have given a characteristic 'landing stair aspect'
to the relief of this mountain chain. The Western Ghats abruptly rise as a sheer wall to an average
elevation of 1,000 m from the Western Coastal Plain. But they slope gently on their eastern flank
and hardly appear to be a mountain when viewed from the Deccan tableland. South of Malabar,
the Nilgiris, Anamalai, etc. present quite different landscape due to the difference in geological
structure.Thalghat and Bhorghat are important passes which provide passage by road and rail
between the Konkan Plains in the west and the Deccan Plateau in the east.

16
The Middle Sahyadri runs from 16°N latitude up to Nilgiri hills. This part is made of granites and
gneisses. This area is covered with dense forests. The western scarp is considerably dissected by
headward erosion of the west flowing streams. The average height is 1200 m but many peaks
exceed 1500 m. The Nilgiri Hills which join the Sahyadris near the trijunction of Karnataka,
Kerala and TN, rise abruptly to over 2,000 m. They mark the junction of the Western Ghats with
Eastern Ghats. Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Makurti (2,554 m) are important peaks of this area.

The southern part of the Western Ghats is separated from the main Sahyadri range by Palghat
Gap. The high ranges terminate abruptly on either side of this gap. Palghat Gap it is a rift valley.
This gap is used by a number of roads and railway lines to connect the plains of Tamil Nadu with
the coastal plain of Kerala. It is through this gap that moist- bearing clouds of the south-west
monsoon can penetrate some distance inland, bringing rain to Mysore region. South of the Palghat
Gap there is an intricate system of steep and rugged slopes on both the eastern and western sides
of the Ghats. Anai Mudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak in the whole of southern India. Three
ranges radiate in different directions from Anai Mudi. These ranges are the Anaimalai (1800-2000
m) to the north, the Palni (900-1,200 m) to the north-east and the Cardamom Hills or the
Ealaimalai to the south.

1.2.4 THE EASTERN GHATS

Eastern Ghats run almost parallel to the east coast of India leaving broad plains between their base
and the coast. It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills starting from the Mahanadi in
Odisha to the Vagai in Tamil Nadu. They almost disappear between the Godavari and the Krishna.
Mahendra Giri (1,501 m) is the tallest peak here.

In Between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers, the Eastern Ghats lose their hilly character and
the saddle between these two rivers is occupied by Gondwana formations. The Eastern Ghats
reappear as more or less a continuous hill range in Cuddapah and Kurnool districts of Andhra
Pradesh. Javadi Hills and the Shevroy-Kalrayan Hills form two distinct features of 1,000 m
elevation. The Biligiri Rangan Hills in Coimbatore district attain a height of 1,279 m. These hills
have steep slope and bold relief. Further south, the Eastern Ghats merge with the Western Ghats.

1.2.5 COASTAL PLAINS

India has about 6100 km long coast. The straight and regular coastline of India is the result of
faulting of the Gondwanaland during the Cretaceous period. As such the coast of India does not
offer many sites for good natural harbours. The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea came into
being during the Cretaceous or early Tertiary period after the disintegration of Gondwanaland.

17
i) East Coast

Lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It extends from the Ganga delta to
Kanniyakumari. It is marked by deltas of rivers like the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and
the Cauvery. Chilka lake and the Pulicut lagoon are the important geographical features of east
coast.In Orissa (Odisha) it is known as Utkal plain. From the southern limit of the Utkal plain,
stretch the Andhra plain. In the south of the Andhra plain is the Tamil Nadu plain.

ii) West Coast

The west coast strip extends from the the Gulf of Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) in the north to
Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari). Starting from north to south, it is divided into (i) the Konkan
coast, (ii) the Karnataka coast and (iii) the Kerala cost. It is made up of alluvium brought down by
the short streams originating from the Western Ghats. It is dotted with a large number of coves
creeks and a few estuaries. The estuaries, of the Narmada and the Tapi are the major ones. The
Kerala coast (Malabar Coast) has some lakes, lagoons and backwaters, the largest being the
Vembanad Lake. Coastlines The boundary between the coast and the shore is known as the
coastline.

1.2.6 THE INDIAN ISLANDS

The major islands groups of India are Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago in Bay of Bengal and
Lakshadweep islands in Arabian Sea. This archipelago is composed of 265 big and small islands.
The Andaman is a group of about 203 islands. The Andaman and Nicobar group of islands extend
about 590 km. The Andaman Islands are divided into three main islands i.e., North, Middle and
South. Duncan passage separates Little Andaman from South Andaman. The Great Andaman
group of islands in the north is separated by the Ten Degree Channel from the Nicobar group in
the south. Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar Islands and the most important port town
lies in the South Andaman.

South of Andamans is the Nicobar Islands. The Great Nicobar is the largest. The Car Nicobar is
the northernmost. The Nicobar group of islands consists of 7 big and 12 small islands together
with several tiny islands. The Great Nicobar is the largest island measuring. It is the southernmost
island and is very close to Sumatra island of Indonesia. The Barren and Narcondam islands, north
of Port Blair, are volcanic islands. Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs Many of them
are covered with thick forests. Most of the islands are mountainous. Saddle peak (737 m) in North
Andaman is the highest peak.

18
i) The Lakshadweep Islands

In the Arabian Sea, there are three types of islands. (1) Amindivi Islands. (2) Laccadive and (3)
Minicoy. At present these islands are collectively known as Lakshadweep. The Lakshadweep
Islands are a group of 25 small islands. They are widely scattered about 200-500 km south-west of
the Kerala coast.

In the extreme south is the Minicoy island. All are tiny islands of coral origin and are surrounded
by fringing reefs. The largest and the most advanced is the Minicoy island with an area of 4.53 sq
km. Most of the islands have low elevation and do not rise more than five metre above sea level.

1.3. Climate

India’s climate closely resembles the climate that of a tropical country although its northern part is
situated in the temperate belt. Indian subcontinent is separated from the rest of Asia by the lofty
Himalayan ranges which block the cold air masses moving southwards from Central Asia.

As a result, during winters, the northern half of India is warmer by 3°C to 8°C than other areas
located on same latitudes. During summer, due to over the head position of the sun, the climate in
the southern parts resemble equatorial dry climate. The north Indian plains are under the influence
of hot dry wind called ‘loo’ blowing from the Thar, Baloch and Iranian Deserts, increasing the
temperatures to a level comparable to that of the southern parts of the country. Thus, the whole of
India, south of the Himalayas can be climatically treated as a tropical country. The seasonal
reversal of winds in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal give India a typical tropical monsoon climate.

1.3.1 Factors Influencing the Climate of India

 Latitudinal location
 Distance from the Sea
 The Himalayas
 Physiography
 Monsoon Winds
 Upper Air Circulation
 El Nino and La Nina
 Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances

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i)Latitudinal location

The mainland of India extends between 8°N to 37°N. Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer are in
tropics and hence receive high solar insolation. The summer temperatures are extreme and winters
temperatures are moderate in most of the regions. The northern parts on the other hand lie in the
warm temperate zone. They receive comparatively less solar insolation. But summer is equally hot
in north India because of hot local winds. Winter is very cold due to cold waves brought by the
western disturbances. Some places in Himalayas record low temperatures particularly in winter.
Coastal regions see moderate climatic conditions irrespective of latitudinal position.

ii) Distance from the Sea

Coastal regions have moderate or equable or maritime climate where as interior locations are
deprived of the moderating influence of the sea and experience extreme or continental climate.
The monsoon winds first reach the coastal regions and hence bring good amount of rainfall.

iii) The Himalayas

The Himalayas act as a climatic divide between India and Central Asia. During winter, Himalayas
protect India from cold and dry air masses of Central Asia. During monsoon months these
mountain ranges act as an effective physical barrier for rain bearing south-west monsoon winds.
Himalayas divide the Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon winds into two branches – one branch
flowing along the plain regions towards north-west India and the other towards South- East Asia.
If the Himalayas were not present, the monsoon winds would simply move into China and most of
the north India would have been a desert.

In summer, there are many minor low-pressure cells that exist all over the plain region. As the
monsoon winds move from east to west the moisture levels decrease due to successive rainfall at
each low-pressure region. By the time winds reach western parts of the plains all the moisture in
the monsoon winds in exhausted. They receive rainfall due to Western Disturbances in winter.

iv) Physiography

Physiography is the most important factor that determines the mean annual rainfall received by a
region. Places on the windward side of an orographic barrier receive great amount of rainfall
where as those on the leeward side remain arid to semi-arid due to rain-shadow effect. Example:
The south-west monsoon winds from the Arabian sea strike almost perpendicular at the Western
Ghats and cause copious rainfall in the Western Coastal plain and the western slopes of the

20
Western Ghats. On the contrary, vast areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu lie in rain-shadow or leeward side of the Western Ghats and receive
scanty rainfall.

Monsoons winds flowing in Rajasthan and Gujarat are not obstructed by any orographic barrier
and hence these regions receive no rainfall. Monsoon winds blow almost parallel to Aravallis and
hence there is no orographic rainfall. No convection cell or vertical wind movements arise in
Rajasthan and Gujarat: Monsoon winds blow towards low pressure cells in Tibet and hence only
horizontal wind movements exist in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

v) Monsoon Winds

The most dominating factor of the Indian climate is the 'monsoon winds'. Important features of
Indian Monsoons are Sudden onset (sudden burst), Gradual progress, Gradual retreat and Seasonal
reversal of winds.

The complete reversal of the monsoon winds brings about a sudden change in the seasons. The
harsh summer season suddenly giving way to monsoon or rainy season. The south- west
monsoons from the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal bring rainfall to the entire country. The
north-eastern winter monsoon does not cause much rainfall except along the Caromandel coast
after getting moisture from the Bay of Bengal.

vi) Upper Air Circulation

The changes in the upper air circulation over Indian landmass is brought about by Jet streams.

Westerly Jet Stream

Westerly jet stream blows at a very high-speed during winter over the sub-tropical zone. Southern
branch of the jet stream exercises a significant influence on the winter weather conditions in India.
This jet stream is responsible for bringing western disturbances from the Mediterranean region in
to the Indian sub-continent.

Easterly Jet Stream

Reversal in upper air circulation takes place in summer due to the apparent shift of the sun's
vertical rays in the northern hemisphere. The westerly jet stream is replaced by the easterly jet
stream which owes its origin to the heating of the Tibet plateau. This helps in the sudden onset of
the south-west monsoons.

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vii) Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances

Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea and the influence large parts of
the peninsular India. Majority of the cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and influence the
weather conditions during the south-west monsoon season. Some cyclones are born during the
retreating monsoon season, i.e., in October and November and influence the weather conditions
along the eastern coast of India. The western disturbances originate over the Mediterranean Sea
and travel eastward under the influence of westerly jet stream. They influence the winter weather
conditions over most of Northern-plains and Western Himalayan region.

El Nino: Adversely affects monsoon rainfall, and cyclogenesis in Bay of Bengal. Good for
cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea. Droughts are common during El Nino events due to less monsoonal
and cyclonic rainfall.

La Nina: Good for monsoons and cyclogenesis in Bay of Bengal. Suppressed cyclogenesis in
Arabian Sea. Floods are common.

ENSO: Southern Oscillation is simply the oscillation or alternating positions of low pressure and
high-pressure cells over eastern and western Pacific. Southern Oscillation coinciding with El Nino
is called ENSO or El Nino Southern Oscillation.

1.3.2 SEASONS
The Cold Weather Season or Winter Season

The Hot Weather Season or Summer Season

The South-West Monsoon Season or Rainy Season

The Season of The Retreating Monsoon or North-East Monsoon

Rainfall Regions

1.3.2.1 THE COLD WEATHER SEASON OR WINTER SEASON

November – March. January is the coldest month. Sun‘s apparent path is to the south of equator.
Clear sky, pleasant weather, low temperature, low humidity, high range of temperature, cool and
slow north-east trade winds. The diurnal range of temperature, especially in interior parts of the
country, is very high.

22
i) Temperature

The isotherm of 20°C runs roughly parallel to the Tropic of Cancer. To the south of this isotherm
the temperatures are above 20°C. Here there is no distinctly defined winter weather. Some parts of
Kerala and Tamil Nadu typically experiences temperatures near 30°C. To the north mean
temperatures are below 21°C and the winter weather is distinct. The mean minimum temperature
is about 5°C over north-west India and 10°C over the Gangetic plains.

ii )Pressure

High air pressure prevails over large parts of north-west India due to low temperatures coupled
with divergence induced by the ridge of the STJ. Pressure is comparatively lower in south India.
The winds start blowing from high pressure area of north-west to low pressure area of south-east.
The wind velocity is low due to low pressure gradient. The path of the winds depends on pressure
gradient and physiography. Dras Valley in Kashmir is the coldest place in India. The minimum
temperature recorded at Dras was – 45°C in 1908.

iii) Western Disturbances

The spell of fine weather over north-western and northern India is often broken due to inflow of
western disturbances. They intensify over Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana. They move eastwards
across the sub-Himalayan belt up to Arunachal Pradesh. They cause light rain in the Indus-Ganga
plains and snowfall in the Himalayan belt. After the passage of the disturbance, widespread fog
and cold waves lowering the minimum temperature by 5° to 10°C below normal are experienced.
Fog lowers visibility and causes great inconvenience for transportation.

iv) Tropical Cyclones

This is the season of least tropical cyclone activity. The frequency of tropical cyclones decreases
with the advancement of the season. This is due to low sea surface temperature and exit of ITCZ
farthest south. The storms which are born in the Bay of Bengal strike Tamil Nadu and bring heavy
rainfall. Some of them cross the southern peninsula over to the Arabian Sea. Some storms
originate in the Arabian Sea and move towards either north or west.

v) Precipitation

The retreating winter monsoons pick up some moisture while crossing the Bay of Bengal and
cause winter rainfall in Tamil Nadu, south Andhra Pradesh, south-east Karnataka and south-east
Kerala (Usually in the first weeks of November). The highest seasonal rainfall of about 75 cm

23
between October and December. Most of it occurs along the south-eastern coast of Tamil Nadu
and adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh. Thereafter, it gradually decreases. The western
disturbances also cause a little rainfall in north-west India. The amount of rainfall gradually
decreases from the north and north-west to east (it is opposite in rainy season). The northeastern
part of India also gets rainfall during the winter months.

1.3.2.2 THE HOT WEATHER SEASON OR SUMMER SEASON

It occurs in between March to June. High temperature and low humidity are the chief
characteristics. Sometimes referred to as pre-monsoon period.

i) Temperature

High sun‘s insolation due to apparent movement of sun between the equator and the Tropic of
Cancer. The southern parts of the country are distinctly warmer in March and April whereas in
June, north India has higher temperatures. In March, the highest temperatures occur in the
southern parts (40-45°C). In April the highest temperature of about 45°C is recorded in the
northern parts of Madhya Pradesh. In May the highest temperature shifts to Rajasthan where
temperatures as high as 48°C may be recorded. In June the maximum temperature is in Punjab and
Haryana. The highest temperatures recorded are 50.5°C at Alwar on 10th May, 1956 and 50.6°C
at Ganganagar on 14th June, 1935. The highest temperatures are recorded just before the onset of
the southwest monsoons (late May). The diurnal range of temperature is also very high. It may be
as high as 18°C in some parts. The maximum summer temperatures are comparatively lower in
the costal and southern peninsular regions due to moderating effect of the sea. The temperatures
along the west coast are comparatively lower than those prevailing on the east coast due to the
prevailing westerly winds. There is large contrast between land and sea temperatures. Northern
and central parts of India experience heat waves in this season.

Most of the heat waves develop over Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana (location far away from the
sea). From here they spread over Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The strong north westerly winds
(caused due to strong divergence in north-west India) with a long land journey over hot regions
check the onward march of the sea breeze over eastern coastal belt and create heat wave
conditions over Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. The heat waves strike by the end of April and their
maximum occurrence is in May. They last till the onset of southwest monsoon. The normal
duration of heat waves is 4 to 5 days. However, heat waves are rare over the peninsula south of
13°N latitude due to maritime conditions prevailing there.

24
ii) Pressure

The atmospheric pressure is low all over the country due to high temperature. But strong
dynamically induced divergence over north-west India prevents the onset of south-west
monsoons.

iii) Winds in Summer Season

There is a marked change in the direction and speed of the winds from winter. The winds are by
and large light and variable.

iv) Loo

Loo winds originate over Iranian, Baloch and Thar deserts. In May and June, high temperature in
northwest India builds steep pressure gradient. Hot, dust laden and strong wind known as loo
blows. Loo normally starts blowing by 9.00 A.M., increases gradually and reaches maximum
intensity in the afternoon. It blows with an average speed of 30-40 km per hour and persists for
days.

v) Andhis

The strong dust storms resulting from the convective phenomena are locally known as andhis
(blinding storms). They move like a solid wall of dust and sand. The wind velocity often reaches
50-60 kmph and the visibility is reduced to a few metres. Such dust storms are common in
Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu region, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.
They are short lived. The squall and showers which follow these storms bring down the
temperature sharply temporarily.

vi) Norwesters and Thunderstorms

In West Bengal and the adjoining areas of Jharkhand, Odisha and Assam, the direction of squalls
is mainly from the northwest, and they are called norwesters. They are often very violent with
squall speeds of 60 to 80 km per hour. Hailstones sometimes accompany showers and
occasionally attain the size of a golf ball. They cause heavy damage to standing crops, trees,
buildings, livestock and even lead to loss of human lives. However, they are, sometimes, useful
for tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these storms are known as ‗Barodoli Chheerha‘. The
period of maximum occurrence of these storms is the month of Vaisakh (mid-March to mid-
April) and hence, they are locally known as Kalabaisakhis, the black storms or a mass of dark
clouds of Vaiasakha.

25
vii) Convectional Thunderstorms

In the south the thunderstorms occur in Kerala (Mango Showers) and adjoining parts of Karnataka
(Blossom Showers) and Tamil Nadu, particularly during evenings and nights.

viii) Western Disturbances

Their frequency and intensity gradually decrease with advancement of summer. Approximately 4,
3 and 2 western disturbances visit north-west India in March, April and May respectively. They
cause snowfall in higher reaches of the Himalayas.

ix)Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. A few cyclones are formed in
the Bay of Bengal in the month of March but they do not affect the mainland of India. Their
frequency rises steeply in April and the number of cyclones originating in May is more than
double than those originating in April. About three-fourths of the tropical cyclones are born in the
Bay of Bengal and the rest originate in the Arabian Sea. Most of the depressions in April originate
to the south of 10°N while those originating in May are born to the north of this latitude. Most of
the storms of this season initially move west or north-west but later they recurve northeast and
strike Bangladesh and the Arakan Coast of Myanmar. Very few hit Indian coast while some
dissipate over the sea itself. The whole of the east coast of India, the coastal areas of Bangladesh
and Arakan Coast of Myanmar are liable to be hit by tropical storms in May. Many of them are
quite severe and cause heavy damage to life and property. In the Arabian Sea, major storms are
formed in May between 7° and 12° N latitudes. Most of them move away from the Indian coast in
a north-westerly direction and dissipate in the sea. Few originate close to the Indian coast. They
move towards the north-east and hit somewhere along the west coast of India.

x)Precipitation

This season is not totally rainless (only one per cent of the annual rainfall). In the northeastern
parts of the country, dust storms bring little rainfall. The precipitation in Kashmir is mainly in the
form of snow caused by western disturbances. The norwesters bring some rainfall in Assam, West
Bengal and Odisha. The intensity of rainfall is high. The rainfall brought by the norwesters is
known as the spring storm showers. This small amount of rainfall is very useful for the cultivation
of tea, jute and rice and is known as tea showers in Assam. Coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka
receive rainfall from thunderstorms. Such showers are called mango showers in Tamil Nadu and

26
Andhra Pradesh because they are very beneficial to mango crop. In Karnataka they are called
cherry blossoms due to their effect on the coffee plantations.

1.3.2.3 THE SOUTH-WEST MONSOON SEASON OR RAINY SEASON

South West Monsoon Season – June to mid-September. South West Monsoon Season is also
known as hot-wet season is shown in the figure 1.3. Sudden onset is the important feature of South
West Monsoons. With the onset of monsoons, temperature falls drastically and humidity levels
rise.

i) Temperature

Sudden onset of South West Monsoons leads to significant fall in temperature [3° to 6°C]. The
temperature remains less uniform throughout the rainy season. The temperature rises in September
with the cease of south-west monsoons. There is rise in temperature whenever there is break in the
monsoons. The diurnal range of temperature is small due to clouds and rains. The highest
temperatures are experienced at places west of the Aravali [38° to 40°C]. This is due to lack of
clouds and hot continental air masses. Other parts of Northwest India also have temperatures
above 30°C. The temperatures are quite low over the Western Ghats due to heavy rainfall. The
coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh have temperatures above 30°C
as they receive little rainfall during this season.

Fig 1.3

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ii) Pressure and Winds

Low pressure conditions prevail over northwest India due to high temperature. ITCZ (monsoon
trough) lies along the Ganga plain. There are frequent changes in its location depending upon the
weather conditions. The atmospheric pressure increases steadily southwards.Over the peninsular
region, due to pressure gradient between north and south, winds blow in a southwest to northeast
direction from Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal. Their direction undergoes a change in Indo-
Gangetic plain where they move from east to west.

iii) Rainfall

Three fourths of the total annual rainfall is received during this season. The average rainfall over
the plains of India in this season is about 87 per cent. Normal date of the arrival of the monsoon is
20th May in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The advance of the monsoon is much faster in the
Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea. The normal date of onset of the southwest monsoon over
Kerala i.e. the first place of entry in the mainland of India is 1st June. The monsoons advance
quickly accompanied with a lot of thunder, lightning and heavy downpour. This sudden onset of
rain is termed as monsoon burst. Sometimes monsoons are delayed or they come much earlier
than normal. Normally the onset occurs between 29th May and 7th June. The earliest onset was on
11th May in 1918 and 1955, while the most delayed onset was on 18th June in 1972.

1.3.2.4 SOUTH WEST MONSOON – ARABIAN SEA BRANCH AND BAY OF BENGAL
BRANCH
Monsoon winds beyond south Kerala progress in the form of two branches viz. the Arabian Sea
branch and the Bay of Bengal branch. The Arabian Sea branch gradually advances northwards. It
reaches Mumbai by 10th June. The Bay of Bengal branch spreads rather rapidly over most of
Assam. The normal date of its arrival at Kolkata is 7th June. On reaching the foothills of the
Himalayas the Bay branch is deflected westward by the Himalayan barrier and it advances up the
Gangetic plain. The two branches merge with each other mostly around Delhi to form a single
current. Both the branches reach Delhi more or less at the same time. The combined current
gradually extends to west Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and finally to Himachal
Pradesh and Kashmir. By the end of June the monsoon is usually established over most parts of
the country. By mid-July, the monsoon extends into Kashmir and the remaining parts of the
country. By this time it reaches Kashmir, it has shed most of its moisture. Arabian Sea branch of
the monsoon is much powerful than the Bay of Bengal branch for reasons:

28
 (The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoons is divided into three distinct streams on
arriving in the mainland of India.)

The first stream strikes the west coast of India and gives extremely heavy rainfall of over 250 cm.
It strike perpendicular to Western Ghats causing plentiful Orographic Rainfall [400 to 500 cm
annual rainfall on the windward side]. Rainfall is drastically reduced to about 30-50 cm on the
leeward side of the crest. There is a narrow belt of marked aridity on the immediate leeward side
of the Western Ghats. But once it is passed, the air starts rising again and the amount of rainfall
increases further east. The second stream enters Narmada—Tapi troughs (narrow rift valley) and
reaches central India. It does not cause much rain near the coast due to the absence of major
orographic obstacle across the rift. Some parts of central India receive rainfall from this stream
(Ex: Nagpur). The third stream moves parallel to the Aravali Range without causing much
rainfall. Consequently the whole of Rajasthan is a desert area. However, some orographic effect is
occurs on the south-eastern edge of the Aravali Range. Mt. Abu gets about 170 cm rainfall while
the surrounding plains have only 60 to 80 cm rainfall.

The Bay of Bengal Branch of the southwest monsoon is divided into two distinct streams.

The first stream crosses the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta and reaches Meghalaya. Here that the
orographic effect results in intense rainfall. Cherrapunji receives an annual rainfall of 1,102 cm,
major portion of which occurs from June to August. Mawsynram (present champion) located at
1,329 m above sea level just 16 km to the west of Cherrapunji (X champion) records higher
annual rainfall of 1,221 cm. Both the stations are located on the southern slopes of the Khasi hills
at the northern end of a deep valley running from south to north. The second stream of the Bay of
Bengal branch moves along Himalayan foothills as they are deflected to the west by the Himalaya
and brings widespread rainfall to Ganga plain.

The rainfall by this stream is characterized by a steady decline as we move from east to west up
the plain. The Tamil Nadu coast remains relatively dry during the south-west monsoon period
because of Rain shadow effect of the Arabian Sea current and Bay of Bengal current which flows
parallel to the coast.

29
During the Monsoon season, there are periods when the Monsoon trough shifts to the foothills of
Himalayas, which leads to sharp decrease in rainfall over most parts of the country but increase
along the Himalayas and parts of Northeast India and Southern Peninsula. During July and
August, there are certain periods when the monsoons become weak. Rainfall practically ceases
over the country outside the Himalayan belt and southeast peninsula. This is known as break in the
monsoon. Breaks are likely to occur during the second week of August and last for a week. The
breaks are believed to be brought about by the northward shifting of the monsoon trough
(minimum low pressure cell in ITCZ). The axis of the trough lies at the foothills of the Himalayas
during the break period.

The monsoon trough is a portion of the Intertropical Convergence Zone as depicted by a line on a
weather map showing the locations of minimum sea level pressure, and as such, is a convergence
zone between the wind patterns of the southern and northern hemispheres.

During the break period, heavy rainfall occurs over the sub-Himalayan regions and the southern
slopes of the Himalayas. On an average one or two breaks do occur during the rainy season. 85
out of 100 years there is a break in the monsoons.

i) Depressions in South West Monsoon Season

A major part of the South West Monsoon rainfall is generated by depressions [intense low
pressure] originating in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Some depressions develop over land
also. About 3-4 depressions are formed per month from June to September. Almost all of them are
sucked inward through the deltas of great rivers [They need moisture to be alive], the Ganga, the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery and cause heavy rain in these areas. The
location of depressions strongly coincide with the latitudinal position of ITCZ. Most of the
depression originate to the west of 90⁰ E in Bay of Bengal and move in northwest direction. In the
Arabian Sea in June-July, the depressions move either in north-west or in northerly direction and
may affect west Gujarat or Maharashtra. Storms during August and September are rare and are
formed close to Maharashtra- Gujarat coast. Most of the rainfall in central and northern parts of
the country is caused by these depressions. The absence of depressions or a change in their tracks
result in deficit or no rain.

30
Major parts of monsoon rains are received between June and September. Monsoonal rainfall is
largely governed by relief and is orographic in its mode. The amount of rainfall decreases with
increasing distance from the sea. The rainless interval during south west monsoon season is
known as ‗breaks‘. The breaks in rainfall are related to tropical cyclones which originate in the
Bay of Bengal. There are large scale spatial variations in the distribution of rainfall. Monsoons
often fail to keep date. Sometimes the monsoons withdraw before the scheduled time causing
considerable damage to the crops.

1.3.2.5 THE SEASON OF THE RETREATING MONSOON OR NORTH EAST

MONSOON
Starts with the beginning of the withdrawal of southwest monsoon [middle of September -
November] is shown in the figure 1.4. The monsoons withdraw from the extreme north-west end
of the country in September, from the peninsula by October and from the extreme south-eastern
tip by December. In Punjab the south-west monsoons reach in the first week of July and withdraw
from there in the second week of September. The south-west monsoons reach Coromandel coast
in the first week of June and withdraw from there only in the middle of December. Unlike the
sudden burst of the advancing monsoons, the withdrawal is rather gradual and takes about three
months.

i)Temperature

With retreat of the monsoons, the clouds disappear and the sky becomes clear. The day
temperature starts falling steeply. The diurnal range of temperature increases due to lack of cloud
cover.

ii) Pressure and Winds

As the monsoons retreat, the monsoon trough weakens and gradually shifts southward.
Consequently the pressure gradient is low. Unlike south-west monsoon, the onset of the north
monsoon is not clearly defined. The direction of winds over large parts of the country is
influenced by the local pressure conditions.

iii) Cyclones

Most severe and devastating tropical cyclones originate in the Indian seas especially in the Bay of
Bengal. The highest frequency of the cyclones is in the month of October and the first half of
November. More cyclones are born in October and then in November and more cyclones originate
in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea.

31
 Fig 1.4

In October, the Cyclones of the Bay of Bengal originate between 8°N and 14°N. Initially they
move in a west or northwesterly direction, but many of them later recurve and move towards the
north-east. Near 55 per cent of the Bay storms cross or affect the Indian coast. The area‘s most
vulnerable to these storms include the coastal belts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and
West Bengal. Many of the cyclones which strike the eastern coast of India, south of 15°N latitude
cross the southern Peninsula and enter Arabian Sea. During this process, they may

32
weaken, but on re-entry over the Arabian sea they intensify into cyclonic storms. The storms of
Arabian sea originate between 12°N and 17°N latitudes in October and between 8° N and 13° N
latitudes in November. Generally they move away from the coast in a north-westerly direction.
But about 25% of them later recurve northeast and strike the Maharashtra or Gujarat coast. In
north-west India the western disturbances produce clouding and light rainfall in the otherwise fine
weather. The precipitation is in the form of snow in higher reaches of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and in Kumaon Hills.

iv) Precipitation

The humidity and cloud cover are much reduced with the retreat of the south-west monsoons and
most parts of the country remain without much rainfall. October-November is the main rainy
season in Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh to the south of the Krishna delta as
well as a secondary rainy period for Kerala. The retreating monsoons absorb moisture while
passing over the Bay of Bengal and cause this rainfall. Annual Rainfall [South West Monsoons +
Retreating Monsoons]

1.3.3 RAINFALL REGIONS

1.3.3.1Areas of very high rainfall

Areas receiving an annual rainfall of 200 cm and above. These include western side of Western
Ghats [Thiruvananthapuram in the south to Mumbai in the north]. The average annual rainfall in
this belt is 200-400 cm. Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim,
parts of Manipur, Tripura and north-eastern tip of West Bengal also receive 200 cm or more, with
isolated pockets receiving over 400 cm. Meghalaya (the abode of clouds) is the wettest part of the
country with Mawsynram and Cherrapunji getting 1,221 and 1,102 cm of annual rainfall
respectively.

1.3.3.2 Areas of high rainfall

100-200 cm annual rainfall. Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, major part of the northern plain,
Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Isohyet (the line joining places of
equal rainfall).

33
1.3.3.3 Areas of low rainfall

50-100 cm annual rainfall. Large parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra. western Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, eastern Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and parts of Uttar Pradesh.

1.3.3.4 Areas of very low rainfall

These are desert and semi-desert areas receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall. They include
large areas of western Rajasthan, Kachchh and most of Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir.

1.4. Soils
Soil is the thin top layer on the earth’s crust comprising rock particles mixed with organic matter.
Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment. Pedogenesis is the natural process of
soil formation that includes a variety of processes such as weathering, leaching, calcification etc..
The Soil formation is mainly related to the parent rock material, surface relief, climate and natural
vegetation. The soil is formed by the breaking down of rocks by the action of wind, water and
climate. This process is called weathering.

1.4.1 MAJOR SOIL GROUPS OF INDIA

Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be divided into soils of peninsular India and soils of extra-
peninsular India. The soils of Peninsular India are formed by the decomposition of rocks in situ,
i.e.directly from the underlying rocks. Soils of Peninsular India are transported and re- deposited
to a limited extent and are known as sedentary soils. The soils of the Extra-Peninsula are formed
due to the depositional work of rivers and wind. They are very deep. They are often referred to as
transported or azonal soils. Major groups:

1. Alluvial soils,
2. Black soils,
3. Red soils,
4. Laterite and Lateritic soils,
5. Forest and Mountain soils,
6. Arid and Desert soils,
7. Saline and Alkaline soils and
8. Peaty and Marshy soils.

34
i) ALLUVIAL SOILS
Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt deposited by Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra rivers. In
coastal regions some alluvial deposits are formed due to wave action. Rocks of the Himalayas
form the parent material. Thus the parent material of these soils is of transported origin. They are
the largest soil group covering about 15 lakh sq km or about 45.6 per cent of the total area. They
support more than 40% of the India‘s population by providing the most productive agricultural
lands.

Characteristics of Alluvial Soils

They are immature and have weak profiles due to their recent origin. Most of the soil is loamy.
Sandy and clayey soils are not uncommon. Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar (calcareous
concretions) beds are present in some regions along the river terraces. The soil is porous because
of its loamy (equal proportion of sand and clay) nature. Porosity and texture provide good
drainage and other conditions favorable for agriculture. These soils are constantly replenished by
the recurrent floods.The proportion of nitrogen is generally low. The proportion of Potash,
phosphoric acid and alkalies are adequate. The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary within a
wide range.

Distribution of Alluvial Soils in India

They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains except in few places where the top
layer is covered by desert sand. They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Cauvery, where they are called deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium). Some alluvial
soils are found in the Narmada, Tapi valleys and Northern parts of Gujarat.

Crops in Alluvial Soils

They are mostly flat and regular soils and are best suited for agriculture. They are best suited to
irrigation and respond well to canal and well/tube-well irrigation. They yield splendid crops of
rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize, oilseeds, vegetables and fruits.

Geological divisions of alluvial soils

Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India is divided into newer or younger khadar and
older bhangar soils.

35
Bhabar

The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide running along the Shiwalik foothills. It is a porous,
northern most stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain. Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit their
load along the foothills in the form of alluvial fans. These alluvial fans (often pebbly soils) have
merged together to build up the bhabar belt. The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature.
The porosity is due to deposition of huge number of pebbles and rock debris across the alluvial
fans. The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar region because of this porosity. Therefore,
the area is marked by dry river courses except in the rainy season. The area is not suitable for
agriculture and only big trees with large roots thrive in this belt.

Terai

Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow tract (15-30 km wide) to the
south of Bhabar running parallel to it. The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re- emerge in
this belt. It is swampy lowland with silty soils. The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and organic
matter but are deficient in phosphate. These soils are generally covered by tall grasses and forests
but are suitable for a number of crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute etc.. This thickly
forested region provides shelter to a variety of wild life.

Bhangar

The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher than the flood
plain (about 30 metres above the flood level). It is of a more clayey composition and is generally
dark colored. A few metres below the terrace of the bhangar are beds of lime nodules known as
kankar.

Khadar

The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks. The
banks are flooded almost every year and a new layer of alluvium is deposited with every flood.
This makes them the most fertile soils of Ganges. They are sandy clays and loams, drier and more
leached, less calcareous and carbonaceous (less kankary). A new layer of alluvium is deposited by
river flood almost every year.

ii) BLACK SOILS

The parent material for most of the black soil are the volcanic rocks that were formed in the
Deccan Plateau (Deccan and the Rajmahal trap). In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form the
parent material. The former are sufficiently deep while the later are generally shallow. These are
36
the region of high temperature and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil group typical to the dry and
hot regions of the Peninsula.

Characteristics of Black Soils

A typical black soil is highly argillaceous [Geology (of rocks or sediment) consisting of or
containing clay] with a large clay factor, 62 per cent or more. In general, black soils of uplands are
of low fertility while those in the valleys are very fertile. The black soil is highly retentive of
moisture. It swells greatly on accumulating moisture. Strenuous effort is required to work on such
soil in rainy season as it gets very sticky. In summer, the moisture evaporates, the soil shrinks and
is seamed with broad and deep cracks. The lower layers can still retain moisture. The cracks
permits oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths and the soil has extraordinary fertility.

Colour of Black Soils

The black colour is due to the presence of a small proportion of titaniferous magnetite or iron and
black constituents of the parent rock. In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh, the black colour
is derived from crystalline schists and basic gneisses. Various tints of the black colour such as
deep black, medium black, shallow black , a mixture of red and black may be found in this group
of soils.

Chemical Composition of Black Soils

10 per cent of alumina,

9-10 per cent of iron oxide,

6-8 per cent of lime and magnesium carbonates,

Potash is variable (less than 0.5 per cent) and

phosphates, nitrogen and humus are low.

Distribution of Black Soils

Spread over 5.46 lakh sq km (16.6 per cent of the total area) across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
parts of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.

Crops in Black Soils

These soils are best suited for cotton crop. Hence these soils are called as regur and black cotton
soils. Other major crops grown on the black soils include wheat, jowar, linseed, Virginia tobacco,

37
castor, sunflower and millets. Rice and sugarcane are equally important where irrigation facilities
are available. Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also successfully grown on the black
soils. This soil has been used for growing a variety of crops for centuries without adding fertilizers
and manures, with little or no evidence of exhaustion.

iii) RED SOILS

Red soils along with its minor groups form the largest soil group of India. The main parent rocks
are crystalline and metamorphic rocks like acid granites, gneisses and quartzites.

Characteristics of Red Soils

The texture of these soils can vary from sand to clay, the majority being loams. On the uplands,
the red soils are poor, gravelly, and porous. But in the lower areas they are rich, deep dark and
fertile.

Chemical Composition of Red Soils

They are acidic mainly due to the nature of the parent rocks. The alkali content is fair. They are
poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen and humus. They are fairly rich in potash and
potassium.

Color of Red Soils

The red colour is due to the presence of iron oxide. When limestone, granites, gneisses and
quartzites are eroded the clay enclosed within the rocks remains intact with other forms of non-
soluble materials. In oxidizing conditions, rust or iron oxide develops in the clay, when the soil is
present above the water table giving the soil a characteristic red colour. The colour is more due to
the wide diffusion rather than high percentage of iron oxide content.

Distribution of Red Soils

These soils mostly occur in the regions of low rainfall. They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km (10.6
per cent) of the total area of the country. These soils are spread on almost the whole of Tamil
Nadu. Other regions with red soil include parts of Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota Nagpur plateau; parts
of south Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; Aravalis and the eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or
Marwar Plateau), parts of North-Eastern states.

38
Crops in Red Soils

The red soils are mostly loamy and hence cannot retain water like the black soils. The red soils,
with the proper use of fertilizers and irrigation techniques, give good yield of cotton, wheat, rice,
pulses, millets, tobacco, oil seeds, potatoes and fruits.

iv) LATERITE – LATERITIC SOILS

Laterite soils are mostly the end products of weathering. They are formed under conditions of high
temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. Heavy rainfall promotes
leaching (nutrients gets washed away by water) of soil whereby lime and silica are leached away
and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind. Laterite‘ means brick in
Latin. They harden greatly on loosing moisture. Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay
and more gravel of red sand-stones.

Chemical composition of Laterite – Lateritic Soils

Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric oxides. They are very poor in lime, magnesia, potash and
nitrogen. Sometimes, the phosphate content may be high in the form of iron phosphate. In wetter
places, there may be higher content of humus.

Distribution of Laterite – Lateritic Soils

Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh sq km. Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on the
summits of Western Ghats at 1000 to 1500 m above mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the Rajmahal
Hills, Vindhyan, Satpuras and Malwa Plateau. They also occur at lower levels and in valleys in
several other parts of the country. They are well developed in south Maharashtra, parts of
Karnataka etc. and are widely scattered in other regions.

Crops in Laterite – Lateritic Soils

Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive leaching. When manured and irrigated, some laterites
are suitable for growing plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc.
In some areas, these soils support grazing grounds and scrub forests.

Economic value of Laterite – Lateritic Soils

Laterite and lateritic soils provide valuable building material. These soils can be easily cut into
cakes but hardens like iron when exposed to air. As it is the end-product of weathering, it cannot
be weathered much further and is durable.

39
v) Forest – Mountain Soils

These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km or 8.67% of the total land area of India. They are
mainly heterogeneous soils found on the hill slopes covered by forests. The formation of these
soils is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forests
and their character changes with parent rocks, ground-configuration and climate. Consequently,
they differ greatly even if they occur in close proximity to one another.

Distribution of Forest – Mountain Soils

In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valleys, less steep and north facing slopes.
The south facing slopes are very steep and exposed to denudation and hence do not support soil
formation. Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern Ghats also.

Chemical properties of Forest – Mountain Soils

The forest soils are very rich in humus. They are deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime. They
require good deal of fertilizers for high yields.

Crops in Forest – Mountain Soils

They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits in peninsular forest
region. Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are grown in the Himalayan Forest region.

vi) ARID – DESERT SOILS

The desert soils consist of Aeolian sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10 per cent). They cover
a total area of 1.42 lakh sq km (4.32%). The presence of sand inhibits soil growth. Desertification
of neighboring soils is common due to intrusion of desert sand under the influence of wind
[Aeolian sand].

Distribution of Arid – Desert Soils

Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. The sand here is blown
from the Indus basin and the coast by the prevailing south-west monsoon winds. Sandy soils
without clay factor are also common in coastal regions of Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Chemical properties of Arid – Desert Soils

They are usually poor in organic matter. Some desert soils are alkaline with varying degree of
soluble salts like calcium carbonate. Calcium content increases downwards and the subsoil has ten

40
times more calcium. The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils.
Nitrogen is originally low but some of it is available in the form of nitrates.

Crops of Arid – Desert Soils

Phosphates and nitrates make these soil fertile wherever moisture is available. There is a
possibility of reclaiming these soils if proper irrigation facilities are available. In large areas, only
the drought resistant and salt tolerant crops such as barley, cotton, millets, maize and pulses are
grown.

vii) SALINE – ALKALINE SOILS

In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil is impregnated (soak or saturate with a substance) with
saline and alkaline efflorescences (become covered with salt particles). Undecomposed rock
fragments, on weathering, give rise to sodium, magnesium and calcium salts and sulphurous acid.
Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers. In regions with low water table, the
salts percolate into sub soil and in regions with good drainage, the salts are wasted away by
flowing water. But in places where the drainage system is poor, the water with high salt
concentration becomes stagnant and deposits all the salts in the top soil once the water evaporates.
In regions with high sub-soil water table, injurious salts are transferred from below by the
capillary action as a result of evaporation in dry season.

Distribution of Saline – Alkaline Soils

Saline and Alkaline Soils occupy 68,000 sq km of area. These soils are found in canal irrigated
areas and in areas of high sub-soil water table. Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka,
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab (Side effects of improper or excess irrigation), Rajasthan
and Maharashtra have this kind of soils. The accumulation of these salts makes the soil infertile
and renders it unfit for agriculture. In Gujarat, the areas around the Gulf of Khambhat are affected
by the sea tides carrying salt-laden deposits. Vast areas comprising the estuaries of the Narmada,
the Tapi, the Mahi and the Sabarmati have thus become infertile. Along the coastline, saline sea
waters infiltrate into coastal regions during storm surges (when cyclones make landfall) and
makes the soil unfit for cultivation. The low-lying regions of coastal Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu face this kind of soil degradation.

viii) Peaty – Marshy Soils

These are soils with large amount of organic matter and considerable number of soluble salts. The
most humid regions have this type of soil. They are black, heavy and highly acidic.
41
Distribution of Peaty – Marshy Soils

Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala where it is called kari. Also occur in the coastal areas
of Odisha and Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans of West Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of
Uttarakhand.

Chemical Properties of Peaty – Marshy Soils

They are deficient in potash and phosphate.

Crops of Peaty – Marshy Soils

Most of the peaty soils are under water during the rainy season but as soon the rains cease, they
are put under paddy cultivation.

1.5 Natural vegetation

It refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without human aid and has been left
undisturbed by humans for a long time (also called as virgin vegetation). Cultivated crops and
fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not natural vegetation. The virgin vegetation, which
are purely Indian are known as endemic or indigenous species but those which have come from
outside India are termed as exotic plants. The term flora is used to denote plants of a particular
region or period. The species of animals are referred to as fauna.

The following are the principal types of natural vegetation in India:

 Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests,
 Deciduous or Monsoon Type of Forests,
 Dry Deciduous Forests and Scrubs,
 Semi Desert and Desert Vegetation,
 Tidal or Mangrove Forests

i) TROPICAL EVERGREEN FORESTS

The tropical evergreen forests usually occur in areas receiving more than 200 cm of rainfall and
having a temperature of 15 to 30 degrees Celsius. They occupy about seven per cent of the earth’s
land surface and harbours more than half of the world’s plants and animals. They are found mostly
near the equator. Region is warm and wet throughout the year. Trees reach great heights up to 60
metres or even above. It has a luxuriant vegetation of all kinds – trees, shrubs, and creepers giving
it a multilayered structure.

In India, evergreen forests are found in the western slopes of the Western Ghats in States such as
Kerala and Karnataka. They are also found in hills of Jaintia and Khasi. Some of the trees found in
42
Indian Tropical Forests are rosewood, mahogany and ebony. Bamboos and reeds are also
common. Common animals found in these forests are elephants, monkey, lemur and deer. The one
horned rhinoceros are found in the jungles of Assam and West Bengal.

ii) TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS:

They are the most widespread forests of India. Also called the monsoon forests and spread over
the region receiving rainfall between 200 cm and 70 cm. Trees of this forest type shed their leaves
for about six to eight weeks in dry summer. On the basis of the availability of water, these forests
are further divided into moist and dry deciduous.

iii) MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS:

It found in areas receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm. Exist mostly in the eastern part of the
country – northeastern states, along the foothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and
Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.

Teak is the most dominant species of this forest. Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair ,
kusum, arjun, mulberry are other commercially important species.

iv) DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS:

The dry deciduous forests are found in areas having rainfall between 100 cm and 70cm. These
forests are found in the rainier parts of the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh.There are open stretches in which Teak, Sal, Peepal, and Neem grow. A large part of this
region has been cleared for cultivation and some parts are used for grazing. Common animals
found are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant. Variety of birds, lizards, snakes, and tortoises are also
found here.

Difference between Dry & Moist Deciduous Forests

43
v) THE THORN FORESTS AND SCRUBS:
In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, the natural vegetation consists of thorny trees and
bushes. Found in the northwestern part of the country including semiarid areas of Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Acacias, palms, euphorbias
and cacti are the main plant species.

Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order to get moisture. The
stems are succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize evaporation

vi) MONTANE FORESTS:

In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to the
corresponding change in natural vegetation. As such, there is a succession of natural vegetation
belts in the same order as we see from the tropical to the tundra region is shown in the figure 1.5

The wet temperate type of forests are found between a height of1000 and 2000 metres. Evergreen
broadleaf trees such as oaks and chestnuts predominate. Between 1500 and 3000 metres,
temperate forests containing coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar, are
found. and they cover mostly the southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high altitude in
southern and northeast India.

At higher elevations, temperate grasslands are common. At high altitudes, generally more than
3,600 metres above sea level, temperate forests and grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation.
Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the common trees of these forests. They get
44
progressively stunted as they approach the snowline and are used extensively for grazing by
nomadic tribes like the Gujjars and the Bakarwals.

At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of tundra vegetation. Common animals found in
these forests are Kashmir stag, spotted dear , wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow
leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare red panda, sheep and goats with thick
hair.

Fig 1.5

vii) MANGROVE FORESTS

Found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and silt get accumulated on such coasts.
Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants submerged under water. The
deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishana, the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered by such
vegetation is shown in the figure 1.6

45
In the Ganga Brahmaputra delta, sundari trees are found, which provide durable hard timber.
Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta. Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous
animal in these forests. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are also found in these forests.

Fig 1.6

46
 Unit-2
Drainage - Irrigation - Multipurpose Projects - Major Agriculture Crops: Rice, wheat,
cotton, sugarcane, tea and coffee, pulses and oil seeds - Problems of Indian Agriculture

2.1 INDIAN RIVER SYSTEM

Indian drainage system consists of a large number of small and big rivers. It is the outcome of the
evolutionary process of the three major physiographic units and the nature and characteristics of
precipitation. The Himalayan drainage system includes the Ganga, the Indus and the Brahmaputra
river basins. The peninsular plateau is drained by Narmada, Tapi, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Kaveri. The River map is shown in the figure 2.1

The Indus River System

Major Rivers of River System Source Length

Indus

Glaciers of Kailas Range (Close 2880 km total. 710 km in

to Manasarovar Lake) India
Indus

Jhelum Verinag 720 km

Chenab Bara Lacha Pass 1180 km

Ravi Near Rohtang Pass 725 km

Beas Near Rohtang Pass 460 km

Satluj Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes 1450 km total
1050 in India

47
Fig 2.1

48
Indus

It flows in north-west direction from its source (Glaciers of Kailas Range) till the Nanga Parbhat
Range. It is joined by Dhar River near Indo-China border. After entering J&K it flows between the
Ladakh and the Zaskar Ranges. It is joined by the Zaskar River at Leh. Thereafter it flows through the
Potwar plateau and crosses the Salt Range. It the accumulated waters of the five eastern tributaries—
the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj. The river empties into the Arabian Sea
south of Karachi after forming a huge delta.

Ganga and its Tributaries

River Source
Bhagirathi (Ganga) Gangotri glacier
Jamuna Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak
Chambal Janapao Hills in the Vindhya Range
Banas Aravali Range
Betwa Bhopal district
Ken Barner Range
Son Amarkantak Plateau
Damodar (Sorrow of Bengal) Chotanagpur plateau
Ramganga River Garhwal district of Uttarakhand
Gurla Mandhata peak, south of Manasarovar
in Tibet (river of the trans- Himalayan origin)
Ghaghra River

The Kali River (border between Glaciers of trans-Himalaya

Nepal and Uttarakhand
Gandak River Tibet-Nepal border
Burhi Gandak Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border

Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi unite at Triveni

north of the Mahabharata Range to form the
Kosi (Sorrow of Bihar)
Kosi.

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The Ganga

Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier in Uttar Kashi District of Uttarakhand at an
elevation of 7,010 m. Alaknanda River joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag. From Devapryag the river is
called as Ganga. It is joined by the Yamuna at Allahabad. Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south-
east. At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in
Bangladesh. Brahmaputra joins Padma-Meghna at Goalundo. The total length of the Ganga river from
its source to its mouth is 2,525 km.

Ganga – Brahmaputra Delta

Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Ganga, along with the Brahmputra, forms the largest delta of
the world between the Bhagirathi/Hugli and the Padma/Meghna covering an area of 58,752 sq km.
The coastline of delta is a highly indented area. The delta is made of a web of distributaries and
islands and is covered by dense forests called the Sundarbans. A major part of the delta is a low-lying
swamp which is flooded by marine water during high tide.

The Brahmaputra River System

The Brahmaputra is 2,900 km in length raises from the Chemayungdung glacier (Kailas Range).
Mariam La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake. Brahmaputra flows
eastwards in Southern Tibet for about 1,800 km. Towards the end of its journey in Tibet, its course
abruptly takes a south ward turn around Namcha Barwa (7,756 m). In the north-eastern parts of
Assam Valley is known as the Brahmaputra.

The Brahmaputra has a braided channel for most of its passage through Assam where channels keep
shifting. It carries a lot of silt and there is excessive meandering. The river is navigable for a distance
of 1,384 km up to Dibrugarh from its mouth and serves as an excellent inland water transport route.
Brahmaputra bends southwards and enters Bangladesh near Dhubri. It flows for a distance of 270 km
in the name of Jamuna river and joins the Ganga at Goalundo. The united stream of the Jamuna and
the Ganga flows further in the name of Padma. About 105 km further downstream, the Padma is
joined on the left bank by the Meghna, originating in the mountainous region of Assam. From the
confluence of Padma and Meghna, the combined river is known as the Meghna which makes a very
broad estuary before pouring into the Bay of Bengal.

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The west flowing rivers of the Peninsular India

The west flowing rivers of the Peninsular India are fewer and smaller as compared to their east
flowing counterparts. The two major west flowing rivers are the Narmada and the Tapi. This
exceptional behaviour is because these rivers didn’t form valleys and instead, they flow through faults
created due to the bending of the northen peninsula during the formation process of Himalayas These
faults run parallel to the Vindhyas and the Sathpuras. It is interesting to note that the Peninsular rivers
which fall into the Arabian Sea do not form deltas, but only estuaries.

The Narmada

Narmada is the largest west flowing river of the peninsular India. Narmada flows westwards through
a rift valley between the Vindhyan Range on the north and the Satpura Range on the south. It rises
from Maikala range near Amarkantak in Anuppur district of Madhya Pradesh, at an elevation of about
1057 m. Narmada basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and
Chhattisgarh having an area of 1 Lakh Sq.km. Narmada drains into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf
of Khambhat. The Narmada is navigable upto 112 km from its mouth.

The Tapi

The Tapi (also known as the Tapti) is the second largest west flowing river of the Peninsular India
and is known as 'the twin' or 'the handmaid' of the Narmada. It originates near Multai reserve forest in
Betul district of Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of 752 m. Flows for about 724 km before out falling
into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay. East Flowing Peninsular Rivers

Mahanadi River

The Mahanadi follows a total course of 900 km. It has it source in the northern foothills of
Dandakaranya in Raipur District of Chhattisgarh at an elevation of 442 m. The Mahanadi is one of the
major rivers of the peninsular rivers, in water potential and flood producing capacity, it ranks second
to the Godavari. It is one of the most-active silt-depositing streams in the Indian subcontinent. After
receiving the Seonath River, it turns east and enters Odisha state. Puri, at one of its mouths, is a
famous pilgrimage site. Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath, the Hasdeo, the Mand and the Ib. Right
bank Tributaries: The Ong, the Tel and the Jonk.

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Godavari River

The Godavari is the largest river system of the Peninsular India and is revered as Dakshina Ganga.
The Godavari River rises from Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik district of Maharashtra about 80 km
from the Arabian Sea at an elevation of 1,067 m. The total length of Godavari from its origin to
outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,465 km. Right bank tributary: The Manjra (724 km) is the only
important right bank tributary. It joins the Godavari after passing through the Nizam Sagar. Left Bank
Tributaries: Dharna, Penganga, Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita, Pench, Kanhan, Sabari, Indravati etc.
Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Mula, Manjra, Peddavagu, Maner etc.

Krishna River

The Krishna is the second largest east flowing river of the Peninsula. The Krishna River rises from
the Western Ghats near Jor village of Satara district of Maharashtra at an altitude of 1,337 m just
north of Mahabaleshwar. The total length of river from origin to its outfall into the Bay of Bengal is
1,400 km. Right bank: the Ghatprabha, the Malprabha and the Tungabhadra. Left Bank: the Bhima,
the Musi and the Munneru.

Cauvery River

The Cauvery is designated as the Dakshina Ganga‘ or the Ganga of the South‘. The Cauvery River
rises at an elevation of 1,341 m at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri range near Cherangala village of
Kodagu (Coorg) district of Karnataka. The total length of the river from origin to outfall is 800 km.
The Cauvery basin extends over states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Union Territory of
Puducherry draining an area of 81 thousand Sq.km. The river descends from the South Karnataka
Plateau to the Tamil Nadu Plains through the Sivasamudram waterfalls. A tributary called Bhavani
joins Cauvery on the Right bank about 45 Kms below Mettur Reservoir. Thereafter it enters the plains
of Tamil Nadu. Two more tributaries Noyil and Amaravathi join on the right bank and here the river
widens with sandy bed and flows as Akhanda Cauvery. Immediately after crossing Tiruchirapalli
district, the river divides into two parts, the Northern branch being called The Coleron and Southern
branch remains as Cauvery and from here the Cauvery Delta begins. After flowing for about 16 Kms,
the two branches join again to form Srirangam Island ‘. On the Cauvery branch lies the "Grand
Anicut" said to have been constructed by a Chola King in 1st Century A.D. Below the Grand Anicut,

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the Cauvery branch splits into two, Cauvery and Vennar. These branches divide and sub-divide into
small branches and form a network all over the delta.

Vaigai River

South of the Cauvery delta, there are several streams, of which the Vaigai is the longest. The Vaigai
basin is an important basin among the 12 basins lying between the Cauvery and Kanyakumari. This
basin is bounded by the Varushanadu hills, the Andipatti hills, the Cardaman hills and the Palani hills
on the West and by the Palk strait and Palk Bay on the East. The Vaigai drains an area of 7,741
Sq.Km, which entirely lies in the state of Tamil Nadu.

Differences between the Himalayan and the Peninsular River Systems

The Himalayan River System The Peninsular River System

Origin Himalayan ranges. Peninsular Plateau (Western Ghats,
Vindhyas).
Catchment These rivers have large basins and These rivers have small basins and
area catchment areas. The total basin area of catchment areas. The Godavari has
the Indus, the Ganga and the the largest basin area of 3.12 lakh
Brahmaputra is 11.78, 8.61 and 5.8 lakh square kilometres.
square kilometres respectively
Valleys The Himalayan rivers flow through deep The Peninsular rivers flow in
V shaped valleys called gorges. These comparatively shallow valleys.
are examples of antecedent drainage. These are examples of consequent
drainage.
Water Flow The Himalayan rivers are perennial in The Peninsular rivers are seasonal or
nature. non-perennial. As such these rivers
are much less useful for irrigation.
Stage These rivers flow across the young fold These rivers have been flowing in
mountains and are still in a youthful one of the oldest plateaus of the
stage. world and have reached maturity.

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 Meanders The upper reaches of the Himalayan The hard rock surface and
rivers are highly tortuous. When they nonalluvial character of the plateau
enter the plains, there is a sudden permits little scope for the formation
reduction in the speed of flow of water. of meanders. As such, the rivers of
Under these circumstances these rivers the Peninsular Plateau follow more
form meanders and often shift their or less straight courses.
beds.

Deltas and The Himalayan rivers form big deltas at Some of the Peninsular rivers, such
Estuaries their mouths. The Ganga-Brahmaputra as the Narmada and the Tapi form
delta is the largest in the world. Indua estuaries. Other rivers such as the
also forma large delta. This is because Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna
of the high loads carried by rivers. and the Cauvery form deltas. Several
small streams originating from the
Western Ghats and flowing towards
the west enter the Arabian
Sea without forming any delta.

2.2 IRRIGATION

India, with a geographical area of 3.3 million square kilometres (Km2), experiences extremes of
climate. Annual average rainfall in the country is of the order of 1170 mm, which is equivalent to
nearly 4000 cubic Km of water. However, the rainfall varies from 100 mm in Western Rajasthan to
over 8000 mm at Cherrapunji in Meghalaya, considered wettest spot on earth. So irrigation is
essential for the growth of agriculture which in turn can lead to socio- economic development.

2.2.1 IRRIGATION TECHNIQUES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Various types of irrigation techniques differ in how the water obtained from the source is
distributed within the field. In general, the goal is to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so
that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little. Basically there are
two types of irrigation- "surface and localised". In surface irrigation systems water moves over and
across the land by simple gravity flow in order to wet it and to penetrate into the soil. Surface
irrigation can be subdivided into furrow, border strip or basin irrigation. It is often called flood
irrigation when the irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land.
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In drip irrigation, water is delivered at or near the zone of plants, drop by drop. This method can be
the most water-efficient method of irrigation, if managed properly, since evaporation and runoff are
minimized. In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations
within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. Irrigation projects
with a Culturable Command Area (CCA) between 2,000 and 10,000 hectares are classified as
medium projects and those with CCA of more than 10,000 hectares as major projects.

Groundwater has rapidly emerged to occupy a dominant place in India‘s agriculture and food
security in recent years. It has become the main source of growth in irrigated area over the past 3
decades, and it now accounts for over 60 percent of the irrigated area in the country. It is estimated
that now over 70 percent of India‘s food grain production comes from irrigated agriculture, in
which groundwater plays a major role. The behaviour of ground water in the Indian sub-continent
is highly complicated due to the occurrence of diversified geological formations with considerable
lithological and chronological variations, complex tectonic framework, climatological
dissimilarities and various hydrochemical conditions. Studies carried out over the years have
revealed that aquifer groups in alluvial / soft rocks even transcend the surface basin boundaries.
Broadly two groups of rock formations have been identified depending on characteristically
different hydraulics of ground water, viz. Porous formations and Fissured formations.

2.2.2 TYPES OF IRRIGATION

i)Well and Tube Well Irrigation:

A well is a hole dug in the ground to get the subsoil water. Normal well is about 3-5 metres deep
but deeper wells up-to 15 metres are also dug. This system of irrigation has been used in India from
ancient time. Various methods are used to lift the ground water from the well for irrigation,
drinking, bathing and for other purposes.

Well irrigation is more popular in those regions where ground water is in ample and where there
are few canals. These areas include a large part of the Great Northern Plain, the deltaic regions of
the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, parts of the Narmada and the Tapi
valleys and the weathered layers of the Deccan Trap and crystalline rocks and the sedimentary
zones of the Peninsula. However, the greater part of the Penisnular India is not appropriate for well
irrigation due to stony structure, rough surface and lack of underground water. Large dry tracts of

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Rajasthan, the adjacent parts of Punjab, Haryana, and Gujarat and some parts of Uttar Pradesh have
salty ground water which is not suitable for irrigation and human use and hence inappropriate for
well irrigation.

Advantages of Well and Tube Well Irrigation: Well is simplest and cost effective source of
irrigation and the poor Indian farmer can easily afford it. Well is an independent source of
irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity arises. Several chemicals such as nitrate,
chloride, sulphate, etc. are generally found mixed in well water. They make soil fertility when they
reach the agricultural field along with well water. It is more reliable during periods of famine when
surface water dries up.

Disadvantages of well and Tube Well Irrigation: With these methods, only limited area can be
irrigated. Normally, a well can irrigate 1 to 8 hectares of land. The well may dry up and may be
rendered ineffective for irrigation if excessive water is taken out. In the drought situation, the
ground water level falls and enough water is not available in the well when it is needed the most.

Tube wells can draw a lot of groundwater from its neighbouring areas and make the ground dry
and not suitable for agriculture. Well and tube well irrigation is not possible in areas of salty
groundwater.

II) CANAL IRRIGATION:

Canals are most important source of irrigation from the period of 1960s, but in the 1970s, they
yielded first place to wells and tube wells and now constitute the second most important source of
irrigation in India. Canals are most effective techniques of irrigation in areas of low level relief,
deep fertile soils, perennial source of water and extensive command area. Therefore, the main
concentration of canal irrigation is in the northern plain of India, especially the areas comprising
Uttar Pradesh Haryana and Punjab.

The digging of canals in stony and uneven areas is difficult and unprofitable. Thus the canals are
practically absent from the Peninsular plateau area. However, the coastal and the delta regions in
South India do have some canals for irrigation.

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Canals in India are of two types: Inundation canals, which are taken out from the rivers without
any regulating system like weirs at their head. Such canals supply irrigation mainly in the rainy
season when the river is in flood and there is excess water. When the rainy season is over, the flood
in the river subsides, the level of water falls below the level of the canal head and the canal dries
up. Some canals taken off from the Satluj in Punjab were of this type. Since irrigation from this
type of canals is unsure, they have been converted in perennial canals.

Perennial Canals are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a barrage
across the river. Most of the canals in India today are perennial.

Advantages of Canal Irrigation: Most of the canals provide perennial irrigation and supply water
as and when required. This saves the crops from drought conditions and helps in increasing the
farm production. Canals carry a lot of residue brought down by the rivers. This sediment is
deposited in the agricultural fields which make soil more fertile. Some of the canals are parts of
multipurpose projects and, therefore, provide inexpensive source of irrigation. Although the initial
cost involved in canal irrigation is more, it is quite cheap in the long run.

Drawbacks of Canal Irrigation: The canal water soaks into the ground and results in water-logging
along the canal route. Excessive flow of water in the fields raises the ground water level. Capillary
action brings alkaline salts to the surface and makes large areas unfit for agriculture. Huge areas in
Panjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh suffer from the problem caused by canal irrigation. The muddy
areas near the canals act as reproduction grounds of mosquitoes which result in widespread
malaria. Many canals overflow during rainy season and flood the surrounding areas. Canal
irrigation is suitable in plain areas only.

III) TANK IRRIGATION:

A tank act as an irrigation storage system which is developed by constructing a small bund of earth
or stones built across a stream. The water impounded by the bund is used for irrigation and for
other purposes. Some tanks are built partly as dugouts and partly by enclosing bunds. Tanks are of
varying size but most of the tanks are of small size and are built by individual farmers or groups of
farmers. Tank irrigation is more suitable in the peninsular plateau area such as Andhra Pradesh
(Including Telangana) and Tamil Nadu.

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 The drainage areas of the Godavari and its tributaries have large number of tanks. Nellore and
Warangal are the main districts of tank irrigation.

According to reports, Tamil Nadu has the second largest area which is over 23 per cent of tank
irrigated area of India and about one-fifth of the total irrigated area of the state. Tanks comprise an
important source of irrigation in the Karnataka Plateau, eastern Madhya Pradesh, eastern
Maharashtra, interior Orissa and Kerala. Outside the Peninsular plateau, West Bengal, Bihar,
Bundelkhand area of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat have tank irrigation.

Advantages of Tank Irrigation: Most of the tanks are natural and not expensive for their
construction. Even an individual farmer can have his own tank. Tanks are normally constructed on
rocky bed and have long life. In many tanks, fishing is also done. This supplements both the food
resources and income of the farmer.

Drawbacks of Tank Irrigation: Major problem with tanks water storage is that tanks dry up during
the dry season and fail to provide irrigation when it is needed the most. Silting of the tank bed is a
serious problem and it requires de-silting of the tank at regular intervals. Much water is evaporated
from the large expanse of shallow water and is therefore not available for irrigation. Tanks cover
large areas of cultivable land. In many areas, other sources of irrigation have been adopted and the
dry beds of tanks have been reclaimed for agriculture. Furthermore, lifting of water from tanks and
carrying it to the fields is a tiring and expensive effort which discourages the use of tanks as a
source of irrigation.

IV) MICRO-IRRIGATION OR LOCALIZED IRRIGATION:

A. Drip irrigation:
In the area of irrigation process, drip irrigation is modern technique. It is also called trickle
irrigation, which was originally developed in Israel in the early 1960s and became popular in areas
of water scarcity. The drip irrigation is the most competent and it can be practised in array of crops,
especially in vegetables, orchard crops, flowers and plantation crops (Mamata Swain, 1999).

Drip irrigation was used to the ancient custom in certain parts of India of irrigating a tulsi plant
kept in the courtyard. During the summer months, the plant was irrigated by a hanging pitcher
containing water and a minute hole at its bottom to allow the trickling of water on to the plant. The

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irrigation network was first experimented in Germany in 1869. The noticeable growth of the
petrochemical industry during and after the 1950s aided manufacturing of plastic pipes at a cost
much cheaper than the cost of metallic or cement concrete pipes. Plastic pipes are convenient for
water conveyance under pressure and the plastic material are easily formed into the desired
configuration. These features of plastic made the field-scale use of drip irrigation practicable. The
drip system was developed for field crops in Israel in the early 1960s and in Australia and North
America in the late 1960s. The area under drip irrigation system in the USA is about 1 M ha,
followed by India, Spain, and Israel. In India, there has been a tremendous growth in the area under
drip irrigation during the last 15 years. At present, around 3.51akh ha area is under drip irrigation
with the efforts of the Government of India, while it was only 40 ha in 1960. Maharashtra (94,000
ha), Karnataka (66,000 ha) and Tamil Nadu (55,000 ha) are some of the states where large areas
have been brought under drip irrigation. Many crops are irrigated by the drip method in India with
the tree crops occupying the maximum percentage of the total area under drip irrigation, followed
by vine crops, vegetables, field crops, flowers and other crops.

In drip irrigation, water is applied near the plant root through emitters or drippers, on or below the
soil surface. The soil moisture is kept at an optimum level with frequent irrigations. In this method
irrigation water is conveyed on the surface in 12 to 16 mm diameter tubing‘s fed from large feeder
pipes. The water is allowed to drip or trickle slowly through the nozzle or orifices at practically
zero pressure. In this way the soil in the root-zone of crops is constantly kept wet. Drip irrigation
results in a very high water application efficiency of about 90-95 per cent. The area under drip
irrigation system in the USA is about 1 M ha, followed by India and other countries.

In India, there has been a fabulous growth in the area under drip irrigation during the last many
years. At present, major area is under drip irrigation with the help of the Government of India.
Reports indicated that Maharashtra (94,000 ha), Karnataka (66,000 ha) and Tamil Nadu (55,000
ha) are some of the states where large areas have been brought under drip irrigation. Many crops
are irrigated by the drip method in India with the tree crops occupying the maximum percentage of
the total area under drip irrigation, followed by vine crops, vegetables, field crops, flowers and
other crops.

The advantages of drip irrigation are under:

1. Possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals.

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 2. Fertilizer and nutrient loss is minimized due to localized application and reduced
leaching.
3. Water application efficiency is high.
4. Field levelling is not necessary. Fields with irregular shapes are easily accommodated.
5. Recycled non-potable water can be safely used.
6. Soil type plays less important role in frequency of irrigation.
7. Soil erosion is lessened.
8. Weed growth is lessened.
9. Water distribution is highly uniform, controlled by output of each nozzle.
10. Labour cost is less than other irrigation methods.
11. Variation in supply can be regulated by regulating the valves and drippers.
12. Plants remains dry, reducing the risk of disease.
13. Usually operated at lower pressure than other types of pressurised irrigation, reducing
energy costs.
The shortcomings of drip irrigation are:

1. Initial cost can be more in this technique.

2. The sunrays can affect the tubes used for drip irrigation, shortening their usable life.
3. If the water is not properly filtered and the equipment not suitably maintained, it can
result in blockage.
4. For subsurface drip the irrigator cannot see the water that is applied. This may lead to
the farmer either applying too much water (low efficiency) or an insufficient amount of
water, this is particularly common for those with less experience with drip irrigation.
5. Drip irrigation might be inadequate if herbicides or top dressed fertilizers need
sprinkler irrigation for activation.
6. Drip tape causes extra clean-up costs after harvest. Users need to plan for drip tape
winding, disposal, recycling or reuse.

B. Sprinkler Irrigation:

In the sprinkler technique of irrigation, water is sprinkled into the air and allowed to fall on the
ground surface just like rainfall. The spray is done by the flow of water under pressure through
small orifices or nozzles. The pressure is generally obtained by pumping. Through

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proper selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the amount of irrigation
water required to refill the crop root zone can be applied almost uniform at the rate to suit the
infiltration rate of soil. In agriculture, almost all crops are suitable for sprinkler irrigation system
except crops such as paddy and jute. The dry crops, vegetables, flowering crops, orchards,
plantation crops like tea, coffee are all suitable and can be irrigated through sprinklers techniques
of irrigation.

The sprinkler irrigation is categorized according to the functions which are mentioned as
under:
 The main irrigation system
 The supplementary irrigation system
 The protective irrigation system
The sprinkler irrigation system is effective for irrigation on uneven lands and on shallow soils.
It is also suitable to coarse sandy terrain where the percolation loss is more and where as
aconsequence, the frequency of irrigation required is more. The sprinkler irrigation system is
appropriate in rising and falling land where land shaping is expensive or technically not
practicable. The elimination of fertile soil cover by land shaping is not advisable. Sprinkler
irrigation system can also be espoused in hilly regions where plantation crops are grown.

Fig 2.2
Historical facts signified that though sprinkler irrigation system is known since 1946, yet the
farmers started adopting it in huge scale only since 1980s. It began in the hilly areas of Western
Ghats in states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and in the North eastern states mainly for
plantation crops like coffee, tea, cardamom, rubber. Gradually it spreads to the water scarcity and
light soil states of Rajasthan and Haryana in addition to the black soil area of Madhya Pradesh.

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v) Other Irrigation methods:
Surge Irrigation: Surge Irrigation is an alternative of furrow irrigation where the water supply is
pulsed on and off in planned time periods (e.g. on for 1 hour off for 1½ hour). The wetting and
drying cycles reduce infiltration rates resulting in faster advance rates and higher uniformities than
constant flow.

Ditch Irrigation: Ditch Irrigation is type of traditional method, where ditches are dug out and
seedlings are planted in rows. The plantings are watered by placing canals or furrows in between
the rows of plants. Siphon tubes are used to move the water from the main ditch to the canals.

Subirrigation or seepage irrigation: It is a system of irrigation where water is allowed to the plant
root zone from below the soil surface and absorbed upwards. The excess may be collected for
reuse. Subirrigation is used in growing field crops such as tomatoes, peppers, and sugar cane in
areas with high water tables. Major benefits of this system are water and nutrient conservation, and
labour-saving. The outfitting cost is comparatively high. Main problems include possibility of
increased presence of disease in recycle water.

To summarize, Irrigation is a technique of supplying water to the dry land as a supplementation of

rain water. It is mainly aimed for farming. There are various types of systems of irrigation practices
in different parts of India. Irrigation in India is carried on through wells, tanks, canals, perennial
canal, multi-purpose river valley projects. The irrigation engineer should be acquainted with the
type of soil moisture, quality of irrigation water, frequency of irrigation for the proper
implementation of irrigation system.

2.3 Major Multipurpose Project in India

i) Damodar Valley Project:

Prototype of USA‘s Tennessee Valley Authority, DVC project was one of the very few composite
projects, consisting of irrigation, flood protection measures, hydel power projects etc. Since its
inception in 1948, this project was more or less responsible for economic revival of the area. The
aggressive Damodar, during the rainy season, with all its surplus water used to en- gulf the entire
region. Periodic and successive flood was so disastrous that Damodar was aptly known as ‗Curse of
Bengal‘. But after the construction of several dams, recurrence of flood is nowadays a bygone

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chapter. Storage dams were constructed at Tilaiya, Maithan, Panchet and Konar. Durgapur and
Bokaro to provide power to the core sectors of industry and commerce e.g. Railway, Steel Plants,
Coal mines. The major objectives of this pioneer and ambitious project include irrigation, power
generation, flood control, fishing, health improvement and recreation in the area.

ii) Bhakra-Nangal Project:

The most ambitious project to convert large barren semi-arid tracts of North West India into lush
green fertile agricultural field, Bhakra-Nangal project was one of the largest multipurpose Indian
projects, constructed over the river Sutlej.

From the constructional point of view, indeed, erection of this dam was a remarkable achievement.
The entire work was undertaken jointly by the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Central
Government. After construction, Bhakra became one of the highest dam in the world.

Broadly, the entire project may be divided into two separate divisions:

(a) The Bhakra Dam, and

(b) The Nangal Barrage.

a) The Bhakra Dam:

This project has the capacity to store more than 10,000 million m3 water. This lake is popularly
known as Govind-Sagar.

b) The Nangal Dam:

Constructed 13 km. downstream of Bhakra. Any irregularities caused by Bhakra dam is rectified here
and stability of channel in maintained. The combined length of Bhakra-Nangal Canal exceeds 1,000
kms. Apart from the two main Dams storage, this project comprises of several other hydel projects at
places of Ganguwal, Kotla with total installed capacity of over 1500 M.W. number of irrigation
canals like the Bhakra Canal, Nangal Canal, Bist Doab Canal, Narvana Canal etc. Nearly almost all of
Punjab, large areas of Haryana and Rajasthan are benefited directly by the Bhakra-Nangal
multipurpose project.

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iii) The Hirakud Project:

Mahanadi is the lifeline of Orissa. It enters Orissa from the highland of Naraj. This rapid fall from
considerable height provoked planners to erect this monumental dam at Hirakud.

The major objectives behind the construction of this dam were:

 Harnessing ample hydel power from swift flow of water.

 Control of occasional flood and resultant havoc.
 Irrigation through canals to large areas of Puri and Cuttack districts.
 Improvement of water transport, through greater navigability.
 Overall economic development of the area by providing employment at the project.
 Rapid industrialization of the area, through the stable and assured power supply.
 The increase of other minor economic activities like fishing, tourism etc.

Project: Manifold construction work was undertaken to fulfil the objectives. These are:

 Construction of various canals like Sambalpur, Baragarh and Sasan.

 Construction of three dams, one each at Hirakud, Tikarpara and Naraj dams.
 Setting up of hydel power units at Hirakud, Chiplima and Tikarpara with combined generation
capacity of more than 500 M.W. One of the longest dam in the world, Hirakud has been so far
completed and achieved most of the targets.

iv) The Tungabhadra Project:

To facilitate power and irrigation to the extensive tract of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh,
Tungabhadra project was launched. The major objectives behind the construction of this dam were:

 Provision of irrigation over 4 lakh hectares in Bellary, Raichur, Hospet, and Anantapur,
Kurnool districts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, respectively.
 Generation of hydel power and transmission of power to the remote areas.
 Project:
 The canals were constructed on both the sides at Mallapuram.
 Several dams were erected at Mallapur, Hampi.
 Power stations at Hampi, Kamalapuram.
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v) The Kosi Project:

Kosi, the most unpredictable river in Bihar, was responsible for permanent recurrence of annual flood
in middle Ganga plain. This feeble, apparently small river debouches from Nepal Himalaya,
increasing in vigour and intensity rapidly during the rainy season. The principal object of this project
was to control the annual flood, followed, by power generation and irrigation to the neglected Saharsa
and Purnea districts.

 Three canals were constructed, one each at eastern and western side and another at Rajpur, to
irrigate cultivable lands of Monghyr and Saharsa districts.
 A barrage was erected at Hanumannagar.
 A large protective embankment was created to protect the entire area of Darbhanga district
from annual flood.
 Power projects were installed around Termi Bazar. The Kosi project is the outcome of a joint
effort by India and Nepal.

vi) The Rihand Project:

First of its kind in upper Ganga-Yamuna plain. In Mirzapur, a large reservoir, popularly known as
Gobind Ballav Pant Sagar, was constructed. The Rihand project is one of the few costly and
ambitious multi-purpose projects constructed after Independence. The basic objectives were:

 Development of power generation, both thermal and hydel to uplift the economy, particularly
industry.
 Creation of additional irrigation facilities.
 Flood control.

Project: Manifold construction work was undertaken to fulfil the objectives. These are:

 A large reservoir, Gobind Ballav Pant Sagar, was constructed.

 A high dam came into being near Pipri.
 Thermal power stations were erected at Mau and Gorakhpur and Obra.
 Hydel plants were installed near Rihand.

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vii) The Chambal Project:

This is essentially a multi-state venture. The project site is located within Madhya Pradesh.The other
beneficiary state is Rajasthan.

Major objectives of the projects:

 Supply of canal water to vast areas of Kota, Sawaimadhopur districts of Rajasthan and Bhind
and Morena districts of Madhya Pradesh.
 Power supply to extensive areas of Jaipur, Udaipur, Bundi, Ajmer districts of Rajasthan and
Indore, Gwalior, Ratlam districts of Madhya Pradesh.

Projects: Manifold construction work was undertaken to fulfil the objectives. These are:

Several steps were taken to ensure power supply and providing irrigation water to villages.

These steps were:

 To facilitate uninterrupted water, dams were erected at places of Gandhi Sagar, Ranapratap
Sagar, Jawahar Sagar.
 For irrigational purpose canals were constructed at Kota.

viii) The Gandak Project:

The river Gandak, after debouching from Nepal Himalaya, has been tapped at Champaran in Bihar in
its left bank and Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh in its right bank. This is also a joint venture comprising
Nepal and India.Major features of the projects are:

 A large barrage was constructed near Balmikinagar in Bihar.

 Two canals were constructed in India, one western canal flowing through Saran district in
Bihar and Gorakhpur district in Uttar Pradesh. Another eastern canal or Tirhut canal flows
through the districts of Champaran and Darbhanga district.
 There four power generation stations were installed.

ix) The Nagarjun Sagar Project:

This is the biggest river project in Andhra Pradesh. A dam was constructed near Nandikonda village.
This project was made to ensure irrigation water in Khammam, Guntur and Kurnool districts.
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x) The Beas Project:

This project was constructed as the extension of earlier projects like Bhakra-Nangal project. The
growing need of irrigation and consequent increasing demand of electricity compelled the planners to
select Beas as a potential source of water for another multipurpose project.

This project may be divided into two distinct part. On the one hand, canals were made to connect
Beas River with the river Sutlej. Another high dam was created at Pong. To meet the growing demand
of electricity, particularly in the agricultural fields of Punjab and Haryana, hydel power plants were
created at places like Dehar, and Beas dam at Pong.

Apart from these large projects, few comparatively smaller multi-purpose projects came into being in
India, particularly after 1966. Among these the Ramganga and Matatilla Multi- purpose projects are
noteworthy. Both the projects were developed in Uttar Pradesh. The former is located at Garhwal
district and the other is situated at Jhansi district. Though these projects are classified as multi-
purpose projects, in reality these are mainly irrigation projects.

2.4.1 Agriculture
In India around 70% of the population earns its livelihood from agriculture. It still provides
livelihood to the people in our country. It fulfills the basic need of human beings and animals. It is
an important source of raw material for many agro-based industries. India‘s geographical condition
is unique for agriculture because it provides many favourable conditions. There are plain areas,
fertile soil, long growing season and wide variation in climatic condition etc. Apart from unique
geographical conditions, India has been consistently making innovative efforts by using science
and technology to increase production.

Apart from variation in landform, the country has varieties of climatic conditions, and soil types.
These physical variations along with other factors like availability of irrigation, use of machinery,
modern agricultural inputs like High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds, insecticides and pesticides
have played their respective roles in the evolution of different farming practices in India. Some of
the major types of farming are discussed below.

Subsistence and commercial farming: Majority of farmers in India practices subsistence farming.
This means farming for own consumption. In other words, the entire production is largely
consumed by the farmers and their family and they do not have any surplus to sell in the market. In
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 this type of farming, landholdings are small and fragmented. Cultivation techniques are primitive
and simple. In other words there is a total absence of modern equipments like tractors and farm
inputs like chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides. In this farming, farmers mostly cultivate
cereals along with oil seeds, pulses, vegetables and sugarcane.

Commercial farming is just the opposite to subsistence farming. In this case, most of the produce is
sold in the market for earning money. In this system, farmers use inputs like irrigation, chemical
fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides and High Yielding Varieties of seeds etc. Some of the major
commercial crops grown in different parts of India are cotton, jute, sugarcane, groundnut etc. Rice
farming in Harayana is mainly for commercial purpose as people of this area are predominantly
wheat eaters. Howevr in East and North-Eastern states of India, rice cultivation would be largely of
subsistence type.

Intensive and Extensive Farming: The basic difference between these two types of farming is the
amount of production per unit of land. In comparison with temperate areas of USA, Canada, and
former USSR, India does not practice extensive cultivation. When we use large patch of land for
cultivation then we call it extensive farming. Here, total production may be high due to larger area
but per unit are production is low.

Intensive Farming records high production per unit of land. Best example of intensive cultivation is
in Japan where availability of land for cultivation is very limited. Similar kind of situation can be
observed in the state of Kerala in India.

Plantation Farming: It is an estate where a single cash crop is grown for sale. This type of
agriculture involves growing and processing of a single cash crop purely meant for sale. Tea, coffee,
rubber, banana and spices are all examples of plantation crops. Most of these crops were introduced
in India by the Britishers in the 19th Century.
Mixed Farming: It is a situation in which both raising crops and rearing animals are carried on
simultaneously. Here farmers engaged in mixed farming are economically better of than others. All
classifications are based on nature and purpose of farming. It may overlap. For example: Banana is a
plantation type of farming. It can also be classified as commerical farming.

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2.5 Rice
Rice is the most important food crop of India. It is predominantly a Kharif or summer crop. It
covers about one third of total cultivated area of the country and provides food to more than half of
the Indian population. Maximum population of India is of rice consumers.

Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:

 Temperature: Rice requires hot and humid conditions. The temperature should be
fairly high i.e. 24°C mean monthly temperature with average temperature of 22°C to 32°C.
 Rainfall: Rainfall ranging between 150-300 cm is suitable for its growth in areas of
Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh where rainfall is less than 100 cm, rice is cultivated
with the help of irrigation.
 Soil: Rice is grown in varied soil conditions but deep clayey and loamy soil provides
the ideal conditions. Rice is primarily grown in plain areas. It is also grown below sea level at
Kuttinad (Kerala), hill terraces of north eastern part of India and valleys of Kashmir

Fig 2.3

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  Labour: Rice cultivation requires easily available cheap labour because most of the
activities associated with it are labour orientated and are not very well suited for mechanization.
 Distribution: Rice is grown in almost all the states of India. The main rice producing
states are Tamilnadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand,
Chhatisgarh, Punjab, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam and Maharashtra. It is also grown
in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujrat and Kashmir Valley (See figure 2.3).
2.6 WHEAT:

Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice. It is a Rabi or winter crop. It is
sown in the beginning of winter and harvested in the beginning of summer. Normally (in north
India) the sowing of wheat begins in the month of October-November and harvesting is done in the
month of March-April. This is the staple food of millions of people particularly in the northern and
north-western regions of India. Unlike rice, wheat is grown mostly as a rabi or winter crop.

Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:

 Temperature: It is primarily a crop of mid-latitude grassland. It requires cool
climate. The ideal temperature is between 10°C to 15°C at the time of sowing and 21°C to 26°C
at the time of ripening and harvesting.
 Rainfall: Wheat thrives well in areas receiving annual rainfall of about 75cm. Annual
rainfall of about 100cm is the upper limit for wheat cultivation. As you know areas receiving
more than 100cm of rainfall are suitable for rice cultivation. Like rice, wheat an also be grown
by irrigation method in areas where rainfall is less than 75cm. But on the other hand, frost at the
time of flowering and hailstorm at the time of ripening can cause heavy damage to the wheat
crop.
 Soil: Although wheat can be grown in a variety of soils but well drained fertile loamy
and clayey loamy soil is best suited for wheat cultivation. Plain areas are very well suited for
wheat production.
 Labour: Wheat is highly mechanized and requires less labour.
 Distribution: The main regions of wheat production in India are U.P., Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat,Maharashtra. U.P., Punjab and Haryana together
produce more than 66% of the total wheat of the country (See figure 2.4).

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 Fig 2.4

2.7 COTTON:

Cotton is the most important fibre crop not only of India but also of the entire world. It not only
provides a raw material for cotton textile industry but also its seed is used in Vanaspati oil industry.
The cotton seed is also used as part of fodder for milch cattle for better milk production. Cotton is
basically a kharif crop and grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas.

Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:

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  Temperature: Cotton is the crop of tropical and sub-tropical areas and requires
uniformly high temperature varying between 21°C and 30°C.

Fig 2.5

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  Rainfall: It grows mostly in the areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year.
It requires modest amount of rainfall of 50 to 100cm. However, cotton is successfully grown with
the help of irrigation in the areas where rainfall is less than 50 cm.High amount of rainfall in the
beginning and sunny and dry weather at the time of ripening are very useful for a good crop.

 Soil: Cotton cultivation is very closely related to Black soils of Deccan and Malwa
plateau. However, it also grows well in alluvial soils of the Satluj-Ganga plain and red and
laterite soils of the peninsular region.
 Labour: As picking of cotton has not been made mechanized till now, therefore a lot
of cheap and efficient labour is required at the time of picking.
 Distribution: India has the largest area under cultivation and third largest producer of
cotton next only to China and the USA. Within the country two third of total area and production
is shared by four states. The main states for cotton production are Panjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat
and Haryana.(see figure 2.5)
2.8 SUGARCANE

Can you think life without sugar in your everyday life? It is almost impossible to think of life
without sugar. Do you know sugarcane belongs to bamboo family of plants and is indigenous to
India It is a Kharif crop. It is the main source of sugar, gur and khandsari. It also provides raw
material for the manufacturing of alcohol. Bagasse, the crushed cane residue, has also multiple
uses. It is used for manufacturing of paper. It is also an efficient substitute for petroleum products
and a host of other chemical products. A part of it is also used as fodder.

Some of the geographical conditions for the growth of sugarcane are as follows:
(a) Temperature: It requires hot and humid climate with an average temperature of 21°C
to 27°C.
(b) Rainfall: 75-150 cm rainfall is favourable for sugercane cultivation. Irrigation is
required in those areas where rainfall is less than the prescribed limit.
(c) Soil: It can grow in a variety of soils. In fact sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil
that can retain moisture. But deep rich loamy soil is ideal for its growth. The soil should be rich
in nitrogen, calcium and phosphorous but neither it should be too acidic nor alkaline. Flat, plain
and level plateau is an advantage for sugarcane cultivation because it facilitates irrigation and
transportation of cane to the sugar mills. Sugarcane cultivation requires heavy manures and
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 fertilizers because it exhausts the fertility of soils quickly and extensively.
(d) Labour: It is a labour orientated cultivation and requires cheap labour. Ample human
hands are required at every stage i.e. sowing, hoeing, weeding, irrigation, cutting and carrying
sugarcanes to the factories

(e) Distribution: India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation in the world and
the second largest producer next to Brazil. As far as distribution of sugarcane cultivation in India
is concerned, there are three distinct geographical regions in the country (see figure 2.6). These
regions are:
(i) The Satluj-Ganga plain from Punjab to Bihar containing 51% of the total area and 60% of the
country‘s total production.
(ii) The black soil belt from Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu along the eastern slopes of the western
Gahats.
(iii) Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Krishna river valley.

Fig 2.6

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2.9 Tea:
India is famous for its tea gardens. You must have heard about tea gardens of Assam and
Darjeeling in West Bengal. It is being said that tea plantation in India was started by the Britishers
in 1923 when wild tea plants were discovered by them in the hilly and forest areas of Assam. Tea is
made from tender sprouts of tea plants by drying them. At present, India is the leading tea
producing country in the world. China and Sri Lanka are respectively second and third largest
producers of tea.

Some of the geographical conditions for the growth of tea are as follows:
(a) Temperature: It requires hot and wet climate. The ideal temperature for the growth
of tea bushes and leaf varies between 20°C to 30°C. If temperature either rises above 35°C or
goes below 10°C, it would be harmful for the growth of tea bushes and leaves.

(b) Rainfall: As mentioned above tea requires a good amount of rainfall ranging between
150-300 cm and the annual rainfall should be well distributed throughout the year. Long dry
spell is harmful for tea.

(c) Soil: Tea bush grows well in well drained, deep, friable loamy soil. However, virgin
forest soils rich in humus and iron content are considered to be the best soils for the tea
plantation. Tea is a shade loving plant and grows better when planted along with shady trees.

(d) Labour: Cheap and efficient labour is required for tea production

(e) Distribution: Assam is the leading producer that accounts for more than 50% of tea
production of India. Tea producing areas of Assam are the hill slopes bordering the Brahmaputra
and Surma valleys. West Bengal is the second largest producer of tea where tea is mostly grown
in the districts of Darjeeling, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts. Tamil Nadu is the
third largest producer where tea growing areas are mostly restricted to Nilgiri hills.(see figure
2.7)

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2.10 COFFEE:

It is the indigenous crop of Ethiopia (Abysinia Plateau). From Ethiopia, it was taken to Yemen in
11th Century. From Arabia, the seeds were brought by Baba Budan in 17th Century and were
raised in Baba Budan hills of Karnataka. But it was British planters who took keen interest and
large coffee estates were established in the hills of Western Ghats.

Some of the geographical conditions for the growth of coffee are as follows:
(a) Temperature : It requires hot and humid climate with temperature varying between
15°C and 28°C. It is generally grown under shady trees. Therefore, strong sun shine, high
temperature above 30°C, frost and snowfall are harmful for coffee cultivation. Dry weather is
necessary at the time of ripening of berries.

Fig 2.7

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 Rainfall: Rainfall between 150 to 250 cm is favourable for coffee cultivation.
(b) Soil: Well drained, rich friable loamy soil containing good deal of humus and
minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for coffee cultivation. The soil must be properly
manured to retain and replenish fertility and to increase productivity.
(c) Labour: Like tea, coffee cultivation also requires plenty of cheap and skilled labour
for various purposes like sowing, transplanting, pruning, plucking, dying, grading and packing of
coffee.
(d) Distribution: Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu are the main states of coffee
production in India.

2.11 Pulses

It includes a number of crops which are mostly leguminous and provide invaluable proteins to the
vegetarian population of India. As they have fewer sources of proteins in comparision to those who
consume meat and fish. They also serve as excellent forage and grain concentrates in the cattle
feed. Apart from that these leguminous crops have the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the
soil and are normally rotated with other crops to maintain and restore soil fertility. A large variety
of pulses are found in India. These are gram, tur or arhar (Pigeon Pea or Red Gram), urd (black
gram), mung (green gram), masur (lentil), kulthi (horse gram), matar (peas) etc. But among these
above mentioned varieties only gram and tur or arhar are more important pulses.

Gram: It is the most important of all the pulses. It accounts for about 37% of the production and
about 30% of the total area of pulses in India. It is a rabi crop which is sown between September
and November and is harvested between February and April. It is either cultivated as a single crop
or mixed with wheat, barley, linseed or mustard.

Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:

(a) Temperature: It is grown in a wide range of climatic condition. Mild cool and
comparatively dry climate with 20°C-25°C temperature.
(b) Rainfall: 40-45 cm rainfall is favourable for gram cultivation.
(c) Soil: It grows well on loamy soils.

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 (d) Distribution: Although gram is cultivated in several parts of the country, however,
90% of the total production comes from five states. These states are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Maharashtra.
2.12 OILSEEDS:

It is one of the important groups of commercial crops in India. In fact, India has the largest area and
production of oilseeds in the world. Oil extracted from oilseeds not only forms an important item of
our diet but also serves as raw material for the manufacturing of hydrogenated oils, paints,
varnishes, soaps, lubricants etc. Oil-cake (the residue after the oil is extracted from the oilseeds)
forms an important cattle feed and manure.

Groundnut: It is the most important oilseed of India. Groundnut is grown both as kharif and rabi
crop but 90-95% of the total area is devoted to kharif crop.

Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:

 Temperature: It thrives best in the tropical climate and requires 20°C to 30°C
temperature.
 Rainfall: 50-75 cm rainfall is favourable for groundnut cultivation. It is highly
susceptible to frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain and stagnant water. Therefore dry winter
is needed at the time of ripening.
 Soil: Well drained light sandy loams, red, yellow and black soils are well suited for its
cultivation.

 Distribution: It is the most important oilseed of India and accounts for about half of
the major oilseeds produced in the country. India is the largest producer of groundnut in the
world and accounts for about one third of the world‘s to the production. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu and Gujarat are three main producer of groundnut in India and account for about 60% of
the total production. Another 30% of the total production comes from Maharashtra, Karnataka
and Odisha.

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2.13 MAJOR PROBLEMS FACED BY INDIAN AGRICULTURE

If we look at the challenges faced by Indian agriculture, we can broadly group them
into two categories. One category belongs to the problems that have been long standing.
Second category of problems is new and has been emerging from the prevailing agricultural
practices, system, changing climate and economy. Let us discuss the major challenges in
detail:

 Stagnation in Production of Major Crops: Production of some of the major staple food
crops like rice and wheat has been stagnating for quite some time. This is a situation which
is worrying our agricultural scientists, planners and policy makers. If this trend continues,
there would be a huge gap between the demand of ever growing population and the
production. Nobody wants India to go back to a situation that was prevailing in our country
prior to Green Revolution. Try to find out what was the situation during pre-Green
Revolution period.
 High cost of Farm Inputs: Over the years rates of farm inputs have increased manifold.
Farm inputs include fertilizer, insecticide, pesticides, HYV seeds, farm labour cost etc. Such
an increase puts low and medium land holding farmers at a disadvantage.
 Soil Exhaustion: On one hand green revolution has played a positive role in reducing
hunger from India. On the other hand it has also led to negative consequences. One of which
is Soil exhaustion. Soil exhaustion means loss of nutrients in the soil from farming the same
crop over and over again. This usually happens in the rain forest.
 Depletion of Fresh Ground Water: The second major negative consequence of green
revolution is depletion of fresh ground water. You would remember that areas where green
revolution was successful, it was due to the use of chemical fertilizers and irrigation. Most
of the irrigation in dry areas of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh was carried out
by excessive use of ground water. Today fresh ground water situation in these states is
alarming. In the coming few years if this type of farming practice continues, these states are
going to face water famine.
 Adverse impact of Global Climatic Change: Among various challenges, global
climatic change is the recent one. It has been predicted that its impact on agriculture would
be immense. Since, 70% of Indian population is engaged in agricultural activities, you can

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 imagine the consequences. It is predicted that due to climate change, temperature would
increase from 2°C to 3°C, there would be increase in sea level, more intense cyclones,
unpredictable rainfall etc These changes would adversely affect the production of rice and
wheat. Specifically, rise in temperature in winter would affect production of wheat in north
India. Production of rice would be affected in coastal areas of India due to ingress of saline
water and increase of frequency of cyclones.
 Impact of Globalisation You can see the effect of globalisation on the farm sector in
India. All developing countries have been affected by it. The most evident effect is the
squeeze on farmer‘s income and the threat to the viability of cultivation in India. This is due
to the rising input costs and falling output prices. This reflects the combination of reduced
subsidy and protection to farmers. Trade liberalization exposes these farmers to
competition from highly subsidized production in the developed world.

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 Unit-3

Distribution of metallic and non-metallic minerals - Power resources - Major Industries:

iron and steel, cement, paper, cotton, chemical, engineering & electronics, automobile and
software industries – Major Industrial Regions

3.1 Metallic minerals

Metallic minerals are the minerals which contain one or more metallic elements. They occur in
rare, naturally formed concentrations known as mineral deposits. Metallic minerals available
from India are gold, zinc, iron ore, manganese ore, bauxite, silver, lead, tin, copper and chromite.

3.1.1 Gold

As per United States Geological Survey (USGS) Minerals Resources Program, India's gold
production was 1800 kilogram by year 2012. Total in situ reserves of gold ore are estimated at
22.4 million tonnes and 116.5 tonnes of metal. India has only 0.75% of total world gold
production.

3.1.2 Copper

Copper has been used since ancient times. Details of copper mining and metallurgy are available
in ancient works like Arthashastra. Copper is mainly used in industrial applications,
electrical/electronic equipment and Consumer products such as utensils. Major resources of
copper are available at Rajasthan, Madhya pradesh and Jharkhand. As of 2010, India has the
world's largest copper reserve beating Russia. However as of 2019, China has the highest copper
reserves. It is called Mihid and has about 10,000 workers to this day. India is one of the 20
major copper producers. In 2008, India produced 7,10,000 tonnes of copper. Hindustan Copper
Limited, a public sector company, is the only producer of primary refined copper. Post-pillar
method and blast hole stoping method are used for mining. Some of the domestic demand is met
through scrap recycling. In India, copper scrap is recycled to make 4 wheeled cycles, which is a
hazardous process. It is used in several alloys such as: - with iron and nickel to make stainless
steel. - with tin to make bronze. - with zinc to form brass.

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3.1.3 Manganese

Manganese is used in the manufacture of steel, paint, glass, bleaching powder, dry cell, batteries
and also present in certain enzymes of the human body. It is used to for a number of alloys. It is
important for several biological processes and essential for plant growth. It is also responsible for
the human immune System and necessary for bone development. Manganese is necessary for the
manufacture of steel as it prevents rusting and is also in high demand in India, thus it is an
important contributor to the Indian economy. Found in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra.

3.1.4 Zinc

Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal. It is also a fair conductor of electricity.

References to medicinal uses of zinc are present in the Charaka Samhita. Ancient zinc smelting
technique was found at a zinc production site in Zawar, Rajasthan. Zinc is recovered from a
number of different zinc ores. The types of zinc ores include sulfide, carbonate, silicate and
oxide. It is used in corrosive resistant coatings for iron and steel, and in the automotive, electrical
and machinery industries. India has the World's fourth largest zinc reserve as in 2013. Hindustan
Zinc Limited is the main producer of zinc in India. Most of the resources are available in
Rajasthan. A minor amount of resources are available in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar and Maharashtra states.

3.1.5 Iron ore

India is the world's third biggest exporter of iron ore as of 2013.As of 2010, India had 27 billion
tonnes of resource (including hematite and magnetite). The major amount of hematite is found in
Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Goa. Minor amounts of hematite are found in
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh. Most magnetite is found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
Minor amounts of magnetite are found in Assam, Bihar, Goa, Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharashtra,
Meghalaya and Nagaland. Mining is done by the opencast method. Iron ore is mainly used for
manufacturing of pig iron, sponge iron and steel. It is also used in coal washeries, cement and
glass industries. Public sector companies like National Mineral Development Corporation and

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Steel Authority of India contribute to 25% of the total production. Private companies including
Tata Steel provide major contribution.

3.1.6 Chromite

Chromite is an oxide of chromium and iron. It is the only commercial source of chromium. As of
2010, India had 200 million tonnes of resource. Major amount of resources are available from
Orissa (Cuttack and Jajpur districts). Minor amount of resources are available from Manipur,
Nagaland, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. In 2009–2010,
India produced 3.41 million tonnes and ranked second in world production. It is mostly mined by
opencast method. Chromium provides additional strength to the alloys and it is resistant to
corrosion, so it is mainly used in metallurgical applications. It can withstand sudden temperature
changes, so it is used in refractories. It is also used in chemical applications.

3.2 Non-metallic minerals

Non-metallic minerals are those which do not yield new products on melting. They are generally
associated with sedimentary rocks. Non-Metallic minerals available from India are phosphorite,
dolomite, gypsum, garnet, wollastonite, vermiculite, ochre, perlite, bentonite, asbestos, cadmium,
felspar, soapstone, kaolin, sillimanite, limestone, diatomite, pyrophyllite, fluorite, vanadium,
dunite, ilmenite, gallium and Zircon

3.2.1 Garnet group

It is a group of complex silicate minerals and has similar chemical compositions. There are three
groups of garnet - aluminum-garnet group, chromium-garnet group, and iron-garnet group. The
minerals in aluminium-garnet group are almandine, grossularite, pyrope, and spessartine. The
mineral in Iron-garnet group is andradite. The mineral in chromium-garnet group is uvarovite.
Garnet group minerals occur in different rock types.It is a hard substance. It is resistant to
chemical exposure. It is used as a semi-precious stone and also in abrasives, sand blasting, water
filtration materials and water jet cutting. Garnets are available in Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Kerala, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. It is also found in beach sands of Kerala,
Orissa and Tamil Nadu states. In 2007–08, India produced 8,73,000 tonnes.

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3.2.2 Wollastonite

It is a meta-silicate of calcium. It is mostly white in color and occurs as bladed or needle like
crystals. In 2010, India had 16 million tonnes of resource. Most of the deposits are available in
Rajasthan (Dungarpur, Pali, Sirohi and Udaipur districts). Minor amount of deposits are found in
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. It is mainly used in ceramic industries and metallurgical applications. It
is also used as a filler in wall tiles, paint, rubber and plastic. India is one of the largest reserves.
In 2011, India produced 150,000 tons. It is mined by opencast method. It is also used as a
substitute for short-fibre asbestos in brake-linings. Central Building Research Institute has found
that wollastonite can be used as substitute for chrysotile asbestos in cement products.

3.2.3 Sillimanite group

It is a group of metamorphic minerals - sillimanite, kyanite and andalusite. These are polymorphs
of alumino-silicate. These are formed under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions. The
three minerals are calcined to form mullite. Mainly used as refractory materials. As of 2010,
India had 66 million tonnes of sillimanite, 100 million tonnes of Kyanite and 18 million tonnes
of Andalusite as a resource. Most of the resources are found in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Uttar
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Assam. A minor amount of resources are found in
Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and West Bengal.
Granular sillimanite is available in beach sands of South India. Sillimanite refractory bricks are
used in steel, glass and petrochemical industries. In 2004, India produced 14,500 tonnes of
sillimanite and 6200 tonnes of kyanite.

3.2.4 Ilmenite

It is a compound of iron and titanium. It will be iron-black or steel-gray in color. It is a non-toxic

material used in biomedical substances. Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology has
developed an environmentally friendly technology for processing ilmenite. It is also used in
production of titanium dioxide pigment. It is available in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Orissa. Mining
is done at Chavara, Chatrapur, Aluva and Manavalakurichi by Indian Rare Earths limited. As of
2013, India has 21% of the world's reserves and constitutes 6% of the world's production.

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3.2.5 Pyrophyllite

It is a hydrous alumino-silicate. It is chemically inert, has high melting point and low electrical
conductivity. It is used in refractories, foundry dressings, pesticides, ceramics and rubber. It is
available as hydrothermal deposits. The physical and optical properties are pyrophyllite are
similar to talc. It is also used in electrical insulators, sanitary-ware and in the glass industry. As
of 2010, India had 56 million tonnes of this resource. Most of the resources are found in Madhya
Pradesh (Chhatarpur, Tikamgarh and Shivpuri districts). The remaining resources are found in
Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. In 2010, India produced 1.5
million tonnes.

3.3 Power Resources of India

Energy is a basic requirement for economic development. Every sector of the national economy
– agriculture, industry, transport, commercial and domestic – needs inputs of energy. The
economic development plans implemented since Independence necessarily required increasing
amounts of energy to remain operational. The energy resources can be divided into two types-
Renewable energy resources: It includes Biomass, Wind, Hydro-power, Geothermal and Solar
sources. It can be used again and again. Non- renewable energy resources: It is that energy which
is extracted from from the fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, natural gas) and uranium.

3.4 The Iron and Steel Industry The development of the iron and steel industry opened the
doors to rapid industrial development in India. Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend
heavily on the iron and steel industry for their basic infrastructure. Can we make tools to be used
in agriculture without iron? The other raw materials besides iron ore and coking coal, essential
for iron and steel industry are limestone, dolomite, manganese and fire clay. All these raw
materials are gross (weight losing), therefore, the best location for the iron and steel plants is
near the source of raw materials. In India, there is a crescent shaped region comprising parts of
Chhattisgarh, Northern Orissa, Jharkhand and western West Bengal, which is extremely rich in
high grade iron ore, good quality coking coal and other supplementing raw materials. The Indian
iron and steel industry consists of large integrated steel plants as well as mini steel mills. It also
includes secondary producers, rolling mills and ancillary industries.

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3.4.1 TISCO

The Tata Iron and Steel plant lies very close to the Mumbai-Kolkata railway line and about 240
km away from Kolkata, which is the nearest port for the export of steel. The rivers Subarnarekha
and Kharkai provide water to the plant. The iron ore for the plant is obtained from Noamundi and
Badam Pahar and coal is brought from Joda mines in Orissa. Coking coal comes from Jharia and
west Bokaro coalfields.

3.4.2 IISCO

The Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) set up its first factory at Hirapur and later on
another at Kulti. In 1937, the Steel Corporation of Bengal was constituted in association with
IISCO and set up another iron and steel producing unit at Burnpur (West Bengal). All the three
plants under IISCO are located very close to Damodar valley coal fields (Raniganj, Jharia, and
Ramgarh). Iron ore comes from Singhbhum in Jharkhand. Water is obtained from the Barakar
River, a tributary of the Damodar. All the plants are located along the Kolkata-Asansol railway
line. Unfortunately, steel production from IISCO fell considerably in 1972-73 and the plants
were taken over by the government.

3.4.5 Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL)

The third integrated steel plant, the Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works, initially called the
Mysore Iron and Steel Works, is located close to an iron ore producing area of Kemangundi in
the Bababudan hills. Limestone and manganese are also locally available. But this region has no
coal. At the beginning, charcoal obtained by burning wood from nearby forests was used as fuel
till 1951. Afterwards, electric furnaces were installed which use hydroelectricity from the Jog
Falls hydel power project. The Bhadravati river supplies water to the plant. This plant produces
specialised steels and alloys. After independence, during the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61),
three new integrated steel plants were set up with foreign collaboration: Rourkela in Orissa,
Bhilai in Chhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal. These were public sector plants under
Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL). In 1973, the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was
created to manage these plants.

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3.4.6 Rourkela Steel Plant

The Rourkela Steel plant was set up in 1959 in the Sundargarh district of Orissa in collaboration
with Germany. The plant was located on the basis of proximity to raw materials, thus,
minimising the cost of transporting weight losing raw material. This plant has a unique locational
advantage, as it receives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand) and iron ore from Sundargarh and
Kendujhar. The Hirakud project supplies power for the electric furnaces and water is obtained
from the Koel and Sankh rivers.

3.4.7 Bhilai Steel Plant

The Bhilai Steel Plant was established with Russian collaboration in Durg District of
Chhattisgarh and started production in 1959. The iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara mine, coal
comes from Korba and Kargali coal fields. The water comes from the Tanduladam and the power
from the Korba Themal Power Station. This plant also lies on the Kolkata-Mumbai railway
route. The bulk of the steel produced goes to the Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam.

3.4.8 Durgapur Steel Plant

Durgapur Steel Plant, in West Bengal, was set up in collaboration with the government of the
United Kingdom and started production in 1962. This plant lies in Raniganj and Jharia coal belt
and gets iron ore from Noamundi. Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhi railway route. Hydel
power and water is obtained from the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).

3.4.9 Bokaro Steel Plant

This steel plant was set up in 1964 at Bokaro with Russian collaboration. This plant was set up
on the principle of transportation cost minimisation by creating Bokaro-Rourkela combine. It
receives iron ore from the Rourkela region and the wagons on return take coal to Rourkela. Other
raw materials come to Bokaro from within a radius of about 350 km. Water and Hydel power is
supplied by the Damodar Valley Corporation.

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3.4.10 Other Steel Plants

New steel plants which were set up in the Fourth Plan period are away from the main raw
material sources. All the three plants are located in South India. The Vizag Steel Plant, in
Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh is the first port based plant which started operating in 1992.
Its port location is of advantage. The Vijaynagar Steel Plant at Hospet in Karnataka was
developed using indigenous technology. This uses local iron ore and limestone. The Salem Steel
Plant in Tamil Nadu was commissioned in 1982.

Apart from these major steel plants, there are more than 206 units located in different parts of the
country. Most of these use scrap iron as their main raw material, and process it in electric
furnaces.

3.5 Cement industries

India is the second largest cement producer in the world and accounted for over 7% of the global
installed capacity. India’s overall cement production capacity was nearly 545 million tons (MT)
in FY20. Of the total capacity, 98% lies with the private sector and the rest with public sector.
The top 20 companies account for around 70% of the total cement production in India. As India
has a high quantity and quality of limestone deposits through-out the country, the cement
industry promises huge potential for growth.

The demand of cement industry is expected to reach 550-600 MT per annum (MTPA) by 2025
because of the expanding demand of different sectors, i.e., housing, commercial construction,
and industrial construction.

Several government schemes such as MGNREGA, PM Garib Kalyan Rozgar Abhiyan and state-
level schemes such as Matir Srisht (West Bengal) and public work schemes (Jharkhand) have
aided demand

According to CLSA (institutional brokerage and investment group), the Indian cement sector is
witnessing improved demand. Key players reported by the company are ACC, Dalmia and
Ultratech Cement. In the second quarter of FY21, Indian cement companies reported a sharp
rebound in earnings and demand for the industry increased, driven by rural recovery. With the

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rural markets normalising, the demand outlook remained strong. For FY21, CLSA expects a 14%
YoY increase in EBITDA in the cement market for its coverage stocks.

3.6 Paper Industries

3.6.1 Tamilnadu Newsprint & Papers Ltd

Tamil Nadu Newsprint and Papers Ltd was founded in the year 1979. It is headquartered in
Chennai, Tamil Nadu. The company’s registered office is located in Guindy, Chennai. The
company has a huge production capacity. The company is engaged in the business of printing
and writing paper. The Company’s segments include paper, energy and cement. It also produces
newsprints. The Company’s products include Print Vista, TNPL Elegant Maplitho, Hi-Tech
Maplitho, TNPL Pigment Paper, Radiant Printing, TNPL Offset Printing, Creamwove, Copy
Crown, TNPL Copier, Students’ Favourites, Super Print Maplitho, Hardbound Notebook, Perfect
Copier and Ace Marvel. It caters to the requirements of multifunctional printing processes, such
as sheet-fed, web offset, and digital printers. The Company also exports its products to over 50
countries. It is one of the top 10 Paper Mills, Paper Manufacturing Companies in India.

3.6.2 Ballarpur Industries Ltd (Avantha)

Ballarpur Industries Ltd was founded in the year 1945 by Lala Karamchand Thapar. The leading
paper mill is headquartered in Gurgaon, India. It is a leading manufacturer of writing and
printing paper. It is one of the top 10 Paper Mills, Paper Manufacturing Companies in India. It
has manufacturing units in different locations including

 Ashti, Gadchiroli, Maharashtra

 Bhigwan, Pune District, Maharashtra
 Sewa, Jeypore, Orissa
 Ballarpur or Ballarshah, Chandrapur District, Maharashtra
 Yamuna Nagar, Yamuna Nagar District, Haryana
 Kamalapuram, Warangal District, Telangana

3.6.3 International Paper APPM Ltd

International Paper APPM Ltd was founded in the year 1964 and is headquartered in Hyderabad.
The leading paper mill is involved in the production of writing, printing and copier papers for
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foreign and domestic markets. It is headquartered in Hyderabad. The company is one of the
largest integrated paper and pulp manufacturers in India. It is one of the top 10 Paper Mills,
Paper Manufacturing Companies in India.

3.6.4 JK Paper Ltd

JK Paper Ltd is having manufacturing units including Central Pulp Mills, Songadh, Gujarat, and
JK Paper Mills, Rayagada. It is the leading market in the Branded Copier Paper segment. It is
one of the top 10 Paper Mills, Paper Manufacturing Companies in India.

The different product range of JK paper Ltd includes-

 Office Papers
 Packaging Boards
 Printing and Writing Papers
 Speciality Papers include Parchment, Cedar Digital and MICR Cheque Paper etc.

3.6.5 Seshasayee Paper & Boards Ltd

Seshasayee Paper & Boards Ltd was founded in the year 1960 by Sri S Viswanathan. The
company is manufacturing a different range of products through its advanced manufacturing
facilities. The company belongs to The ESVIN GROUP. The company commenced commercial
production in December 1962. SPB is in receipt of various Awards awarded by the Government
of India, the Government of Tamil Nadu, Industry Associations, etc. It is one of the top 10 Paper
Mills, Paper Manufacturing Companies in India.

3.6.6 The West Coast Paper Mills Ltd (SKB)

The company was founded in 1955 and is headquartered in Kolkata. The West Coast Paper Mills
Ltd is one of the oldest and largest producers of paper for printing, writing and packaging in
India. The company provides premium printing papers, business stationery, coated duplex boards
and machine glazed varieties. The company also offers cup stock board for paper cups and
folding box boards for the packing segment.

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3.6.7 Kushal Ltd

Kushal Limited was founded in the year 2000 and is one of the largest suppliers of papers and
paper products in India. The company’s newsprint is used daily by the world’s largest selling
English newspaper circulated out of India. Besides manufacturing paper products, the company
is a global provider of coal, metals & minerals, chemicals, drug APIs, base oils, electronics &
home appliances, textiles & garments, capital goods, and agricultural products. It is one of the
top 10 Paper Mills, Paper Manufacturing Companies in India.

3.6.8 Emami Paper Mills Ltd

The company was founded in the year 1981. The Emami Paper Mills is one of the leading paper
mills in India. The company has 3 production units namely- PM1, PM2, AND PM3. The
company is a part of the Emami Group of Industries and has its paper mills located at Balasore
(Odisha) and Dakshineswar (Kolkata). With over 22,000 newspapers, of which 1800 are dailies,
its media market is the second largest in the world. Also, the company is known as the largest
newsprint manufacturer in India. Its paperboard has a good reputation in the export market. It is
one of the top 10 Paper Mills, Paper Manufacturing Companies in India.

3.6.9 Kuantum Papers Ltd

Kuantum Papers Ltd was founded in the year 1997. The company has its registered office located
in Sailakhurd. Kuantum Papers Ltd produces wood free writing and printing paper in India. The
company’s products include Maplitho, Coloured Paper, Ledger, Cartridge, Parchment,
Duplicating Paper, and wood-free speciality papers. The company provides writing and printing
papers of high quality.

3.6.10 Satia Industries Ltd

Satia Industries Ltd is one of the biggest wood and agro-based paper plants in India. The
company manufactures paper using wood chips, veneer waste, wheat straw, sarkhanda, etc. The
company provides quality printing and writing papers. The company was founded in the year
1980 by Dr.Ajay Satia. The company commenced commercial operations in August 1984. The
company’s products include Super snow white, snow white, Map litho, coloured paper, ledger

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paper, cartridge paper, duplicating bond, and chromo paper. It is one of the top 10 Paper Mills,
Paper Manufacturing Companies in India

3.7 The cotton textile industry

The cotton textile industry is one of the traditional industries of India. In the ancient and the
medieval times, it used to be only a cottage industry. India was famous worldwide for the
production of muslin, a very fine variety of cotton cloth, calicos, chintz and other different
varieties of fine cotton cloth. The development of this industry in India was due to several
factors. One, it is a tropical country and cotton is the most comfortable fabric for a hot and humid
climate. Second, large quantity of cotton was grown in India. Abundant skilled labour required
for this industry was available in this country. In fact, in some areas the people were producing
cotton textiles for generations and transferred the skill from one generation to the other and in the
process perfected their skills. Initially, the British did not encourage the development of the
indigenous cotton textile industry. They exported raw cotton to their mills in Manchester and
Liverpool and brought back the finished products to be sold in India. This cloth was cheaper
because it was produced at mass scale in factories in U.K. as compared to the cottage based
industries of India.

In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was established in Mumbai. This city had several
advantages as a cotton textile manufacturing centre. It was very close to the cotton producing
areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Raw cotton used to be brought to Mumbai port to be
transported to England. Therefore, cotton was available in Mumbai city itself. Moreover,
Mumbai even then was the financial centre and the capital needed to start an industry was
available there. As a large town, providing employment opportunities attracted labour in large
numbers. Hence, cheap and abundant labour too was available locally. The machinery required
for a cotton textile mill could be directly imported from England. Subsequently, two more mills,
the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Mill were established in Ahmedabad. By 1947, the number of
mills in India went up to 423 but the scenario changed after partition, and this industry suffered a
major recession. This was due to the fact that the most of the good quality cotton growing areas
had gone to West Pakistan and India was left with 409 mills and only 29 per cent of the cotton
producing area. After Independence, this industry gradually recovered and eventually flourished.

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In 1998, India had 1782 mills; of which, 192 mills were in the public sector and 151 mills in the
cooperative sector. The largest number, that is, 1,439 mills were in the private sector.

The cotton textile industry in India can be broadly divided into two sectors, the organised sector
and the decentralised sector. The decentralised sector includes cloth produced in handlooms
(including Khadi) and powerlooms. The production of the organized sector has drastically fallen
from 81 per cent in the mid-twentieth century to only about 6 per cent in 2000. At present, the
powerlooms on the decentralised sector produce more than 59 per cent and the handloom sector
produces about 19 per cent of all cotton cloth produced in the country.

Cotton is a ―pure raw material which does not lose weight in the manufacturing process. so
other factors, like, power to drive the looms, labour, capital or market may determine the
location of the industry. At present the trend is to locate the industry at or close to markets, as it
is the market that decides what kind of cloth is to be produced. Also the market for the finished
products is extremely variable, therefore, it becomes important to locate the mills close to the
market. After the first mills were set up in Mumbai and Ahmedabad in the second half of the
nineteenth century, the cotton textile industry expanded very rapidly. The number of units
increased dramatically. The Swadeshi movement gave a major impetus to the industry as there
was a call for boycotting all British made goods in favour of Indian goods. After 1921, with the
development of the railway network other cotton textile centres expanded rapidly. In southern
India, mills were set up at Coimbatore, Madurai and Bangalore. In central India, Nagpur, Indore,
Solapur and Vadodara became cotton textile centres. Cotton textile mills were set up at Kanpur
based on local investment. Mills were also set up at Kolkata due to its port facilities. The
development of hydro-electricity also favoured the location of the cotton textile mills away from
the cotton producing areas. The rapid development of this industry in Tamil Nadu is the result of
the abundant availability of hydel power for the mills. Lower labour costs at centres like Ujjain,
Bharuch, Agra, Hathras, Coimbatore and Tirunelveli also caused industries to be located away
from cotton producing areas. Thus, the cotton textile industry is located in almost every state in
India, where one or more of the locational factors have been favourable. The importance of raw
materials has given way to market or to a cheaper local labour force or it may be the availability
of power. Presently, the major centres of the cotton textile industry are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi,
Solapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore and Ujjain. All these centres are the traditional centres and

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are located close to the cotton producing regions. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu are the
leading cotton producing states. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, and Punjab are the other
important cotton textile producers.

Tamil Nadu has the largest number of mills and most of them produce yarn rather than cloth.
Coimbatore has emerged as the most important centre with nearly half the mills located there.
Chennai, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Thanjavur, Ramanathapuram and Salem are the other
important centres. In Karnataka, the cotton textile industry has developed in the cotton producing
areas in the north-eastern part of the state. Davangere, Hubli, Bellary, Mysore and Bangalore are
important centres. In Andhra Pradesh, the cotton textile industry is located in the cotton
producing Telengana region, where most of the mills are spinning mills producing yarn. The
important centres are Hyderabad, Secunderabad, Warangal and Guntur. In Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur
is the largest centre. Some of the other important centres are Modinagar, Hathras, Saharanpur,
Agra and Lucknow. In West Bengal, the cotton mills are located in the Hugli region. Howrah,
Serampur, Kolkata and Shyamnagar are the important centres. Production of cotton cloth
increased almost five times from 1950-51 to 1999-2000. Cotton textile has been facing tough
competition from synthetic cloth.

3.8 Chemical industries

The chemical industry of India is a major contributor to the Indian economy, contributing 7% of
the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). India's chemical industry ranks as sixth largest in
world, and third in Asia. The value of the chemical industry in India was estimated at 100 billion
dollars in 2019. The chemical industry of India generates employment for five million people.
The Indian chemical industry produces 80,000 different chemical products. India was also the
third largest producer of plastic in 2019. As of September 2019, the alkali chemical industry
produced 71% of all chemicals produced in India. India's chemical industry accounts about 14%
of production in Indian industries

The Indian chemical industry mainly produces basic types of chemicals as well as knowledge
type chemicals and specialty type chemicals as of 2018. In India, Gujarat was the largest state
contributor to the chemical industry of India in 2018.India also produces products related to
petrochemicals, fertilizers, paints, varnishes, glass, perfumes, toiletries, pharmaceuticals, etc. The
India chemical industry is divided into six sub-segments. These sub-segments are Basic Organic

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Chemicals, Specialty Chemicals, Chlor-alkali, Pesticides, Dyestuff, and alcohol-based chemicals.
India is a major producer of basic organic chemicals.

3.9 Electronics

Electronics manufacturing is a growing industry in Tamil Nadu. Chennai has emerged as EMS
Hub of India. Companies like Flextronics, Motorola, SonyEricsson, Foxconn, Samsung, Cisco,
and Dell have chosen Chennai as their South Asian manufacturing hub. Products manufactured
include circuit boards and cellular phone handsets. Ericsson also has a Research and
Development facility in Chennai. Big EPC companies have set up their Engineering centres
which include Saipem India Projects Ltd,Technip, Foster Wheeler, Schneider Electric, Mott
MacDonald, Petrofac, Austrian company "Austrian Energy and Environment" have also a design
office here besides local giant ECC Larsen & Toubro. Sanmina-SCI is the latest company to
invest in Tamil Nadu to create a state-of-the-art manufacturing facility. The state has a high
mobile market share in India. Electronics is an industry which is getting priority attention in
recent years. Apart from computers and associated hardware, there has been a boom in consumer
electronics giving rise to a wide range of consumer products. Software development is currently
an attractive industry in Tamilnadu with several foreign companies entering into collaboration
and joint ventures. Today, Indian software professionals are considered among the world's best.
Chennai is fast emerging as the second Silicon Valley. Chennai has the largest number of
Software professionals in India. It has abundant highly skilled professionals as computer science
& software development have been introduced as part of curriculum in almost every technical
educational institution in Tamilnadu. Chennai has the largest mainframe computing capacity.
Again, Chennai is the largest exporter computer hard-discs. Chennai is the center for
development of advanced multimedia applications & communications software.

Tamil Nadu has over 23 Electronic Hardware Technological Parks highways, State highways
and railways. located in major IT centric Special Economic Zones (SEZs) of Sriperumbudur,
Oragadam, and Mahindra World City.The total investment in the electronic hardware industry in
Tamil Nadu is 711 million USD employing more than 40,000 workers in both organized and
unorganized sector. Tamil Nadu stands 1st in terms of Electronic exports in India.

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3.10 Automobile industry

Automobile Industry shows a steady performance in the State with Governments constant
support which has nurtured Chennai as a very cost-effective manufacturing hub for automobiles.
The capital city, Chennai, dons the ubiquitous name of Detroit of Asia due to the presence of the
top Global Automobile majors like Ford, Hyundai, BMW, Renault, Nissan and Mitsubishi HM•
Chennai producing over 40% of the country's auto parts and vehicles have an installation
capacity to produce 1,280,000 cars and about 350,000 commercial vehicles each year.
Government of India is currently implementing a project "National Automotive Testing R&D
Infrastructure Project" (NATRIP) in Oragdam near Chennai at a project cost of about Rs.450
crores. This project aims at facilitating introduction of world-class automotive safety, emission
and performance standards in India as also ensure seamless integration of our automotive
industry with the global industry.

3.11 Information Technology

As per NASSCOM, the Southern States continue to account for more than half of the country's
total export of software. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been a major
growth driver for the Indian economy in the last few years. In 2006-07 the industry grew to a
size of US $ 51 Billion. Tamil Nadu has been amongst the top three States in terms of ICT
investments and production. It has emerged as a hub for software, hardware and R&D.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been a major growth driver for the
Indian economy. Tamil Nadu shall be the ICT Hub of South Asia by creating a knowledge
driven ecosystem, leveraging entrepreneurship and promoting socially inclusive growth to
achieve a 25% production share of the Indian ICT industry.
3.12 Industrial Regions in India
India has several industrial regions like Mumbai- Pune cluster, Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region,
Hugli region, Ahmedabad-Baroda region, Chottanagpur industrial belt, Vishakhapatnam-Guntur
belt, Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut region and the Kollam Thiruvanathapuram industrial cluster(see
figure 3.1). The Industrial region are discussed below:
 Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region
 Hugli Industrial Region.
 Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Industrial Region

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  Gujarat Industrial Region
 Chotanagpur Industrial Region
 Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Industrial Region
 Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Industrial Region
 Kolfam-Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Region.
3.12.1 Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region:
This region extends from Thane to Pune and in adjoining districts of Nashik and Solapur. In
addition, industries have grown at a rapid pace in Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli and
Jalgaon districts also. This region owes its origin to the British rule in India.
The seeds of its growth were sown in 1774 when the island-site was obtained for construction of
Mumbai port. The opening of the first railway track of 34 kms between Mumbai and Thane in
1853, opening of the Bhor and Thai Ghats respectively to Pune and Nashik and that of Suez
Canal in 1869 led to the development of Mumbai. The growth of this industrial region is fully
connected with the growth of cotton textile industry in India. As the coal was far removed, hydel
power was developed in Western Ghats. Cotton was cultivated in the black cotton soil area of the
Narmada and Tapi basins. Cheap labour-force came from the hinterland, the port facilities for
export-import and communication links with the peninsular hinterland made Mumbai the
‘Cottonopolis of India’. With the development of cotton textile industry, the chemical industry
developed too.Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field and erection of nuclear energy
plants added additional magnetic force to this region. Now the industrial centres have developed,
from Mumbai to Kurla, Kolaba, Thane, Ghatkopar, Ville Parle, Jogeshwari, Andheri, Thane,
Bhandup, Kalyan, Pimpri, Pune, Nashik, Manmad, Solapur, Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli.
In addition to cotton textile and chemical industries, engineering goods, leather, oil refineries;
petrochemicals, synthetic and plastic goods, chemicals, drugs, fertilizers, electricals, electronics,
software, ship-building, transport and food industries have also developed here.
The partition of the country in 1947 adversely affected this region because 81% of the total
irrigated cotton area growing long staple cotton went to Pakistan. Mumbai, the nucleus of this
industrial region, is facing the current limitation of space for the expansion of the industry.
Dispersal of industries is essential to bring about decongestion.
3.12.2 The Hugli Industrial Region:
Located in West Bengal, this region extends as a narrow belt running along the river Hugli for a

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distance of about 100 km from Bansbaria and Naihati in the north to Birlanagar in the south.
Industries have also developed in Midnapur district in the west. The river Hugli offered the best
site for the development of an inland river port as nucleus for the development of Hugli
industrial region. The old trading centre of late 17th century has developed into the present
industrial hub of Kolkata. Thus Kolkata-Haora forms the nucleus of this region. It is very well-
connected by the Ganga and its tributaries with the rich hinterland of Ganga-Brahmaputra plains.
Besides navigable rivers, roads and the railways provided subsequent links to the great benefit of
Kolkata port. The discovery of coal and iron ore in Chotanagpur plateau, tea plantations in
Assam and northern parts of West Bengal and the processing of deltaic Bengal’s jute led to the
industrial development in this region. Cheap labour could be found easily from the thickly
populated states of Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand and eastern part of U.P. Kolkata, having been
designated capital city of the British India (1773-1912) attracted large scale British investment of
capital. Establishment of first jute mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of modem industrial
clustering in this region. A chain of jute mills and other factories could be established on either
side of Hugli River with the help of Damodar valley coal. The port site was best-suited for export
of raw materials to England and import of finished goods from that country. Kolkata’s industries
have established by drawing in the raw materials from adjoining regions and distributing the
finished goods to consuming points. Thus, the role of transport and communication network has
been as important as the favourable locational factors in the growth of this region. By 1921,
Kolkata-Hugli region was responsible for two-thirds of factory employment in India. Just after
the partition of old Bengal province in 1947, the region faced, for some years, the problem of
shortage of jute as most of the jute-growing areas went to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). The
problem was solved by gradually increasing home production of jute. Cotton textile industry also
grew along with jute industry. Paper, engineering, textile machinery, electrical, chemical,
pharmaceuticals, fertilizers and petrochemical industries have also developed in this region.
Factory of the Hindustan Motors Limited at Konanagar and diesel engine factory at Chittaranjan
are landmarks of this region. Location of petroleum refinery at Haldia has facilitated the
development of a variety of industries. The major centres of this industrial region are Kolkata,
Haora, Haldia, Serampur, Rishra, Shibpur, Naihati, Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur,
Budge Budge, Birlanagar, Bansbaria, Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc. Alarming rate of
silting of the Hugli River was a very serious problem. The depth of water in the channel from

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bay head to Kolkata docks must be kept at 9.2 metres for big ocean ships to come in. Dredging
out of the silt rapidly filling up the water channel was very costly and not a permanent solution to
save the life of Kolkata port. The construction of Farakka barrage about 300 kms upstream on
Ganga and flushing of the channel are the only possible answers. The construction of Haldia port
in the lower reaches of Hugli to the south of Kolkata is another landmark in relieving the great
pressure of cargo ships on the port of Kolkata. However, the industrial growth of this region has
slowed down as compared to the other regions. There are several reasons for this sluggish growth
but decline in jute industry is said to be one of the main reasons.
3.12.3 Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Industrial Region:
Spread in two states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, this region experienced the fastest industrial
growth in the post-independence era. Till 1960, industries were confined to Bangalore district of
Karnataka and Salem and Madurai districts of Tamil Nadu. But now they have spread over all
the districts of Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram. This region is a cotton-growing tract and is
dominated by the cotton-textile industry. In fact cotton textile industry was the first to take roots
in this region. But it has large number of silk- manufacturing units, sugar mills, leather industry,
chemicals, rail wagons, diesel engines, radio, light engineering goods, rubber goods, medicines,
aluminium, cement, glass, paper, cigarette, match box and machine tools, etc.
This region is away from the main coal-producing areas of the country but cheap hydroelectric
power is available from Mettur, Sivasamudram, Papanasam, Pykara and Sharavati dams. Cheap
skilled labour and proximity to vast local market as well as good climate have also favoured the
concentration of industries in this region. Coimbatore has grown rapidly mainly owing to its
industrial growth based on Pykara power, local cotton, coffee mills, tanneries, oil presses and
cement works. Coimbatore is known as Manchester of Tamilnadu because of its large-scale
cotton textile industry. The establishment of public sector units at Banglore like Hindustan
Aeronautics, Hindustan Machine Tools, Indian Telephone Industry and Bharat Electronics etc.
has further pushed up the growth of industries in the region. Madurai is known for its cotton
textiles. Visvesvarayya Iron and Steel Works is located at Bhadravati. The other important
centres of this region are Sivakasi, Tiruchirapalli, Madukottai, Mettur, Mysore and Mandya.
Petroleum refinery at Chennai and Narimanam and iron and steel plant at Salem are recent
developments.

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3.12.4 Gujarat Industrial Region:
The nucleus of this region lies between Ahmedabad and Vadodara as a result of which it is also
known as Ahmedabad-Vadodara industrial region. However, this region extends upto Valsad and
Surat in the south and Jamnagar in the west. The region corresponds to the cotton growing tracts
of the Gujarat plains and the development of this region is associated with the location of textile
industry since 1860s. This region became important textile region with the decline of cotton
textile industry in Mumbai. Mumbai has the disadvantage of paying double freight charges for
first bringing the raw cotton from the peninsular hinterland and then despatching the finished
products to inland consuming points in India.
But Ahmedabad is nearer the sources of raw material as well as the marketing centres of the
Ganga and Satlui plains. Availability of cheap land, cheap skilled labour and other advantages
helped the cotton textile industry to develop. This major industrial region of the country, mainly
consisting of cotton textile industry, is expanding at a much faster rate in providing a greater
factory employment. The discovery and production of oil at a number of places in the Gulf of
Khambhat area led to the establishment of petrochemical industries around Ankleshwar,
Vadodara and Jamnagar. Petroleum refineries at Koyali and Jamnagar provide necessary raw
materials for the proper growth of petrochemical industries. The Kandla port, which was
developed immediately after independence, provides the basic infrastructure for imports and
exports and helps in rapid growth of industries in this region. The region can now boast of
diversified industries. Besides textiles (cotton, silk and synthetic fibres) and petrochemical
industries, other industries are heavy and basic chemicals, dyes, pesticides, engineering, diesel
engines, textile machinery, pharmaceuticads, dairy products and food processing. The main
industrial centres of this region are Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, Koyali, Anand, Khera,
Surendranagar, Surat, Jamnagar, Rajkot and Valsad. The region may become more important in
the years to come.
3.12.5 Chotanagpur Industrial Region:
As its name indicates, this region is located on the Chotanagpur plateau and extends over
Jharkhand, Northern Orissa and Western part of West Bengal. The birth and growth of this
region is linked with the discovery of coal in Damodar Valley and iron ore in the Jharkhand-
Orissa mineral belt. As both are found in close proximity, the region is known as the ‘Ruhr of
India’. Besides raw materials, power is available from the dam sites in the Damodar Valley and

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the thermal power stations based on the local coal. This region is surrounded by highly populated
states of Jharkhand, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal which provide cheap labour. The Kolkata
region provides a large market for the goods produced in the Chotanagpur region. It also
provides the port facility to the region. It has the advantages for developing ferrous metal
industries. The Tata Iron and Steel Company at Jamshedpur, Indian Iron Steel Co., at Bumpur-
Kulti, Hindustan Steel Limited at Durgapur, Rourkela and Bokaro are the important steel plants
located in this region. Heavy engineering, machine tools, fertilizers, cement, paper, locomotives
and heavy electricals are some of the other important industries in this region. Important nodal
centres of this region are Ranchi, Dhanbad, Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribagh, Jamshedpur,
Daltonganj, Garwa and Japla.
3.12.6 Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Industrial Region:
This industrial region extends from Vishakhapatnam district in the north-eastern part of Andhra
Pradesh to Kurnool and Prakasham districts in the south-east and covers most of the coastal
Andhra Pradesh. The industrial development of this region mainly depends upon
Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam ports. Developed agriculture and rich mineral resources in
the hinterlands of these ports provide solid base to the industrial growth in this region. Coal
fields of the Godavari basin are the main source of energy. Hindustan Shipyard Ltd. set up at
Vishakhapatnam, set up in 1941 is the main focus. Petroleum refinery at Vishakhapatnam
facilitated the growth of several petrochemical industries. Vishakhapatnam has the most modern
iron and steel plant which have the distinction of being the only plant in India having coastal
location. It uses high quality iron ore from Bailadila in Chhattisgarh. One lead-zinc smelter is
functioning in Guntur district. The other industries of this region include sugar, textiles, paper,
fertilizers, cement, aluminium and light engineering. The important industrial centres of this
region are Vishakhapatnam, Vijaywada, Vijaynagar, Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Elum and Guntur.
Recent discovery of natural gas in Krishna- Godavari basin is likely to provide much needed
energy and help in accelerated growth of this industrial region.
3.12.7 Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Industrial Region:
This region developed after independence, but is one of the fastest growing regions of India. It
consists of two industrial belts adjoining Delhi. One belt extends over Agra-Mathura-Meerut and
Saharanpur in U.P. and the other between Faridabad-Gurgaon- Ambala in Haryana. The region is
located far away from the mineral and power resources, and therefore, the industries are light and

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market oriented. The region owes its development and growth to hydro- electricity from Bhakra-
Nangal complex and thermal power from Harduaganj, Faridabad and Panipat. Sugar, agricultural
implements, vanaspati, textile, glass, chemicals, engineering, paper, electronics and cycle are
some of the important industries of this region. Software industry is a recent addition, Agra and
its environs have glass industry. Mathura has an oil refinery with its petro-chemical complex.
One oil refinery has been set up at Panipat also. This will go a long way to boost the industrial
growth of this region. Gurgaon has Maruti car factory as well as one unit of the IDPL. Faridabad
has a number of engineering and electronic industries. Ghaziabad is a large-centre of agro-
industries. Saharanpur and Yamunanagar have paper mills. Modinagar, Sonipat, Panipat and
Ballabhgarh are other important industrial nodes of this region.
3.12.8 Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Region:
This is comparatively small industrial region and spreads over Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam,
Alwaye, Emakulam and Allapuzha districts of south Kerala. The region is located far away from
the mineral belt of the country as a result of which the industrial scene here is dominated by
agricultural products processing and market oriented light industries. Plantation agriculture and
hydroelectricity provide the industrial base to this region. The main industries are textiles, sugar,
rubber, match box, glass, chemical fertilizers, food and fish processing, paper, coconut coir
products, aluminium and cement. Oil refinery set up in 1966 at Kochi provides solid base to
petrochemical industries. Important industrial centres are Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Alluva,
Kochi, Alappuzha and Punalur.

Fig 3.1

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 Unit-4

Population growth and distribution - Transport: surface (Road & Rail), air, water and
pipelines – Major ports and harbours - Principal imports and export items

4.1 Growth and Distribution of Population

One of the important features of the present decade is that, 2001-2011 is the first decade (with
the exception of 1911-1921) which has actually added lesser population compared to the
previous decade. This implies that as a result of the combination of population momentum and
somewhat impeded fertility, although India continues to grow in size, its pace of net addition is
on the decrease.

In absolute terms, the population of India has increased by about 181 million during the decade
2001-2011. Although, the net addition in population during each decade has increased
consistently, the changes in net addition has shown a steady declining trend over the decades
starting from 1961. While 27.9 million more people were added between the decade 1981-1991
than between 1971- 1981, this number declined to 19.2 million for the decades between 1981-
1991 and 1991-2001. • e provisional results of 2011 shows that between 2001 and 2011, the net
addition is less than that of the previous decade by 0.86 million.

It is significant that the percentage decadal growth during 2001-2011 has registered the sharpest
decline since independence. It declined from 23. 87 percent for 1981-1991 to 21.54 percent for
the period 1991-2001, a decrease of 2.33 percentage point. For 2001-2011, this decadal growth
has become 17.64 percent, a further decrease of 3.90 percentage points. Similarly, the average
exponential growth rate for 2001-2011 has declined to 1.64 percent per annum from 1.97 percent
per annum during 1991-2001. The average annual exponential growth rate during 1981-1991
was 2.16. Following figure depicts the percentage decadal growth rate of independent India.

During 2001-2011, the growth rates of almost all States and Union Territories have registered a
lower figure compared to the previous decade, namely, 1991- 2001. The percentage decadal
growth rates of the six most populous States, namely, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West
Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have all fallen during 2001-2011 compared to
1991-2001, the fall being the lowest for Andhra Pradesh (3.5 percentage points) and highest for

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Maharashtra (6.7 percentage points). Tamil Nadu (3.9 percentage points) and Puducherry (7.1
percentage points) have registering some increase during 2001-2011 over the previous decade.

4.1.1 Population Distribution

Uttar Pradesh continues to be the most populous State in the country with almost 200 million
people living here, which is more than the population of Brazil, the most populous country in the
world. Twenty States and Union Territories now have a population of over ten million.

Total P
Sl. Name of ercenta
Population
No. State
Pe M F ge of
rsons ales emales Total
Populat
ion
0 Jammu & 1 6 5 1
1 Kashmir 2548926 66556 88336 .04
1 5
0 Himachal 6 3 3 0
2 Pradesh 856509 47389 38261 .57
2 7
0 Punjab 2 1 1 2
3 7704236 46348 30694 .29
19 17
0 Chandigarh 1 5 4 0
4 054686 80282 74404 .09
0 Utarakhand 1 5 4 0
5 0116752 15417 96257 .84
8 4
0 Haryana 2 1 1 2
6 5353081 35051 18479 .09
30 51
0 NCT of Delhi 1 8 7 1
7 6753235 97641 77682 .38
0 5
0 Rajasthan 6 3 3 5
8 8621012 56200 30009 .67
86 26
0 Uttar Pradesh 1 1 9 1

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 9 9958147 04596 49850 6.49
7 415 62
1 Bihar 1 5 4 8
0 0380463 41853 96192 .58
7 47 90
1 Sikkim 6 3 2 0
1 07688 21661 86027 .05
2 Arunachal 1 7 6 0
Pradesh 382611 20232 62379 .11
1 Nagaland 1 1 9 0
3 980602 02570 54895 .16
7
1 Manipur 2 1 1 0
4 721756 36976 35199 .22
4 2
1 Mizoram 1 5 5 0
5 091014 52339 38675 .09
1 Tripura 3 1 1 0
6 671032 87186 79916 .30
7 5
1 Meghalaya 2 1 1 0
7 964007 49266 47133 .24
8 9
1 Assam 3 1 1 2
8 1169272 59549 52143 .58
27 45
1 West Bengal 9 4 4 7
9 1347736 69273 44203 .55
89 47
2 Jharkhand 3 1 1 2
0 2966238 69316 60345 .72
88 50
2 Orissa 4 2 2 3
1 1947358 12016 07456 .47
78 80
2 Chhattisgarh 2 1 1 2
2 5540196 28279 27122 .11
15 81
2 Madhya 7 3 3 6
3 Pradesh 2597565 76129 49846 .00
20 45
2 Gujarat 6 3 2 4
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 4 0383628 14822 89013 .99
82 46
2 Daman & Diu 2 1 9 0
5 42911 50100 2811 .02
2 Dadra & 3 1 1 0
6 Nagar Haveli 42853 93178 49675 .03
2 Maharashtra 1 5 5 9
7 1237297 83613 40115 .29
2 97 75
2 Andhra 8 4 4 7
8 Pradesh 4665533 25098 21556 .00
81 52
2 Karnataka 6 3 3 5
9 1130704 10577 00729 .05
42 62
3 Goa 1 7 7 0
0 457723 40711 17012 .12
3 Lakshadweep 6 3 3 0
1 4429 3106 1323 .01
3 Kerala 3 1 1 2
2 3387677 60212 73663 .76
90 87
3 Tamil Nadu 7 3 3 5
3 2138958 61588 59800 .96
71 87
3 Puducherry 1 6 6 0
4 244464 10485 33979 .10
3 Andaman & 3 2 1 0
5 Nicobar Islands 79944 02330 77614 .03

4.1.2 Density

The States and Union Territories of our country vary widely in terms of their density due to
differences in climatic conditions, geo-physical characteristics, availability of resources etc. As
per the provisional population totals of Census 2011, the population density of India has gone up
to 382 persons per square kilometre from 325 persons per square kilometer in 20011. On an
average, 57 more people inhabit every square kilometre in the country as compared to a decade
ago.

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 Ra States 2
nk _2011 011 2001 Rank_2001
1 Bihar 1 8 2
,102 81
2 West Bengal 1 9 1
,029 03
3 Kerala 8 8 3
59 19
4 Uttar Pradesh 8 6 4
28 90
5 Haryana 5 4 7
73 78
6 Tamil Nadu 5 4 6
55 80
7 Punjab 5 4 5
50 84
8 Jharkhand 4 3 10
14 38
9 Assam 3 3 9
97 40
10 Goa 3 3 8
94 64
11 Maharashtra 3 3 11
65 15
12 Tripura 3 3 12
50 05
13 Karnataka 3 2 14
19 76
14 Andhra 3 2 13
Pradesh 08 77
15 Gujarat 3 2 15
08 58
16 Orissa 2 2 16
69 36
17 Madhya 2 1 17
Pradesh 36 96
18 Rajasthan 2 1 18
01 65
19 Uttarakhand 1 1 19
89 59
20 Chhattisgarh 1 1 20
89 54
21 Meghalaya 1 1 23
32 03
22 Jammu & 1 1 25
Kashmir 24 00
23 Himachal 1 1 22
Pradesh 23 09
24 Manipur 1 1 24
22 03
25 Nagaland 1 1 21

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 19 20
26 Sikkim 8 7 26
6 6
27 Mizoram 5 4 27
2 2
28 Arunachal 1 1 28
Pradesh 7 3
IND 3 3
IA 82 25

The geographical distribution of population density of India is shown in the figure 4.1

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 Fig 4.1

India accounts for a meagre 2.4 percent of the world surface area of 135.79 million square kms.
On the other hand, it supports and sustains 17.5 per cent of the world population. In contrast, the
USA accounts for 7.2 per cent of the surface area with only 4.5 per cent of the world population.
As such, among the ten most populous countries of the world, only Bangladesh has a higher
population density compared to India.

The Statement given above reveals that the first two States have interchanged their places. Bihar
is at the top pushing West Bengal to second rank. Kerala and Uttar Pradesh have retained their
rankings of third and fourth respectively. Haryana on the other hand has advanced by two ranks
from Rank 7 to Rank 5 replacing Punjab which has fallen by two ranks from 5 to 7. Jharkhand
similarly has risen by two places from Rank 10 to 8 replacing Goa which has declined from
Rank 8 to 10. Karnataka has moved up by one place while Andhra Pradesh has fallen by one
place from 13 to 14. Meghalaya has moved up by 2 ranks; Jammu & Kashmir has moved up by 3
ranks; Himachal Pradesh dropped by 1 rank; Nagaland dropped by 4 ranks. Other states namely,
Tamil Nadu, Assam, Maharashtra, Tripura, Gujarat, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Manipur, Sikkim, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh have retained
their rankings.The ranking of UTs as per Population Density remains by and large the same with
the exception of Daman & Diu and Lakshadweep who have exchanged places with each other.
NCT of Delhi continues to head the UTs, while Andaman & Nicobar Islands brings up the rear.

4.2 Transportation

We use different materials and services in our daily life. Some of these are available in our
immediate surroundings, while other requirements are met by bringing things from other places.
Goods and services do not move from supply locales to demand locales on their own. The
movement of these goods and services from their supply locations to demand locations
necessitates the need for transport. Some people are engaged in facilitating these movements.
These are known to be traders who make the products come to the consumers by transportation.
Thus, the pace of development of a country depends upon the production of goods and services
as well as their movement over space. Therefore, efficient means of transport are pre-requisites
for fast development. Movement of these goods and services can be over three important

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domains of our earth i.e. land, water and air. Based on these, transport can also be classified into
land, water and air transport.

For a long time, trade and transport were restricted to a limited space. With the development in
science and technology, the area of influence of trade and transport expanded far and wide.
Today, the world has been converted into a large village with the help of efficient and fast
moving transport. Transport has been able to achieve this with the help of equally developed
communication system. Therefore, transport, communication and trade are complementary to
each other. Today, India is well-linked with the rest of the world despite its vast size, diversity
and linguistic and socio-cultural plurality. Railways, airways, water ways, newspapers, radio,
television, cinema and internet, etc. have been contributing to its socio-economic progress in
many ways. The trades from local to international levels have added to the vitality of its
economy. It has enriched our life and added substantially to growing amenities and facilities for
the comforts of life. In this chapter, you will see how modern means of transport and
communication serve as life lines of our nation and its modern economy. It is thus, evident that a
dense and efficient network of transport and communication is a pre-requisite for local, national
and global trade of today.

4.2.1 Road transport

A good road network is a critical infrastructure requirement for economic

development of the country. It provides connectivity to remote areas, provides accessibility
to markets, schools, and hospitals; and opens up backward regions to trade and investment.
Roads also play an important role in inter-modal transport development, establishing links
with airports, railway stations, and ports.
National 93,051
Highways/Expressways km
State Highways 1,54,5
22 km
Major and Other District 25,77,
Roads 396 km
Rural Roads 14,33,
577 km

India has the 2nd largest road network in the world with over 4.24 million km at present,
consisting of National Highways, Expressways, State Highways, Major District Roads.(see

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figure 4.2) The National Highways facilitate medium and long distance inter-city passenger and
freight traffic across the country. The State Highways are intended to carry the traffic along
major centers within the State. Other District Roads and Village Roads provide villages
accessibility to meet their social needs as also the means to transport agriculture produce from
village to nearby markets. Major District Roads provide the secondary function of linkage
between main roads and rural roads.

The development of roads got a big boost with the launching of the NHDP and the Pradhan
Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY). While NHDP aimed at primarily strengthening and
widening high-density corridors of National Highways, PMGSY was designed to improve the
accessibility of habitations in rural areas. The development of National Highways and rural roads
received special attention of the planners.

The length of National Highways (NH) reported a CAGR of 2.2 per cent between 1951 and
2011. NHDP has contributed largely towards improving the capacity and road quality of NHs.
The length of NHs with two lanes increased from 25,395 km in 1996 to 41,518 km in 2012, and
those with four lanes and above from 1,170 km to 17,774 km. During the same period, the
combined network of State Highways and other PWD roads posted a sevenfold expansion in
length with a CAGR of 3.2 per cent.

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 Fig 4.2

4.2.2 Railways

The Indian Railways had a modest beginning in 1853 when the first train journeyed from
Mumbai to Thane, covering a distance of 34 km. Since the beginning of the Plan era, the route
length increased to 64,600 km by 2011-12 an overall growth of about 20.53 per cent. Today,
Indian Railways (IR) occupies a unique and crucial place in the country‘s transport infrastruc-
ture. IR, managed directly by the Ministry of Railways, is the third largest railway network in the
world under a single management with 7,500 railway stations, 9,549 locomotives, 55,339
passenger coaches, 2,39,321 freight cars and 64,600 route km. IR operates 12,000 passenger
trains every day and 7,000 freight trains. It transports 2.8 million tonnes of freight traffic and 25

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million passengers every day. Currently, broad gauge (BG) contributes about 91 per cent of total
track km, while it forms about 86.62 per cent of total route km. The rest of the network, barring
hill/heritage railways, is progressively getting converted to BG. The BG network accounts for
97.9 per cent of passenger and almost 100 per cent of the freight traffic. Almost all
double/multiple track sections and electrified routes are broad gauge. Between 1950-51 and
2010-11, traffic density (million gtkm per running track km) increased from 4.29 to 23.17 on
BG.Indian Railways serves and connects rail users in every part of the country. IR is
administered through 17 zonal railways. The zonal railways are further divided into smaller
operating units called divisions. There are 68 operating divisions at present.(see figure 4.3)

Over the years, there has been improvement in design and capacity of locomotives, wagons and
coaches through introduction of new technology. While the number of wagons has come down,
total capacity has gone up. Similarly, seating capacity per coach has risen. Passenger traffic
increased by about 1,460 per cent, from 67 billion in 1950-51 to 1,047 bpkm in 2011-12. Freight
traffic grew by about 1,400 per cent, from 44 to 668 BTKM during the same period.

The bulk of freight traffic is accounted for by 11 commodities. These include coal, foodgrains,
iron and steel, iron ore, cement, POL, fertilisers, limestone and dolomite, stone (including
gypsum) other than marble, salt and sugar. These commodities together accounted for 91.1 per
cent of total freight traffic in 2011-12.

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 Fig 4.3

4.2.3 Airways

Airways in India play a very important role because of its unmatched speed, long-distance
operation and time-saving lineaments. Air transportation is important as it helps reach remotest
areas, such as forests, deserts, mountains, etc., easily and in lesser time span. It also helps in
difficult situations such as famines, earthquakes, floods, epidemics, etc. The first air mail service
began in India in 1911. In 1920, some aerodromes were built in the country. In 1928, flying
clubs were constructed in some cities.

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Once the airlines began in India, the Government of India set up two different corporations in
1953:

(i) Air India International to cater to international air routes.

(ii) Indian Airlines for domestic air transport.

Air travel in India has undergone a revolutionary change ever since private airlines came into the
picture. Now the proliferation of private airlines has considerably brought down fares that are
now within the reach of common people.the air network of India is shown in the figure 4.4

Fig 4.4

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4.2.4 Waterway

Water transport in India has played a significant role in the country's overall economy and is
indispensable to foreign trade. India is endowed with an extensive network of waterways in the
form of rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks and a long coastline accessible through the seas and
oceans. It has the largest carrying capacity of any form of transport and is most suitable for
carrying bulky goods over long distances. It is one of the most cheap modes of transport in India,
as it takes advantage of natural track and does not require huge capital investment in construction
and maintenance except in the case of canals. Its fuel efficiency contributes to lower operating
costs and reduced environmental impact due to carbon. India has 14500 km of inland waterways.
Out of which only 5685 km are navigable by mechanized vessels.

Since 1947 , India has made great progress in shipping and gradually became the second largest
shipping country in Asia and sixth largest in the world. Indian ships ply on most of the shipping
route of the world . India has a longer coastline of 6100 km long and have only 11 major ports.
They are Mumbai , Kandla , Marmagaon , New Mangalore , Kochi in the west and Kolkata ,
Chennai , Haldia , Paradeep , Vishakhapatnam and Tuticorin in the east coast.

4.2.5 Pipeline

Pipeline transport is the long-distance transportation of a liquid or gas through a system of pipes
typically to a market area for consumption. There are six major pipeline projects in India they are

i). Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni Pipeline:

This was the first pipeline constructed in India to bring crude oil from Naharkatia oilfield to
Nunmati. It was later extended to transport crude oil to refinery at Barauni in Bihar. It is 1,167
km long. It is now extended to Kanpur in U.P. The pipeline between Naharkatia and Nunmati
became operative in 1962 and that between Nunmati and Barauni in 1964. Construction work on
pipeline from Barauni to Kanpur and Haldia was completed in 1966. It has a number of pumping
stations and subsidiary pipelines.

 Nunmati-Siliguri pipeline transport oil from Nunmati (Guwahati) in Assam to Siliguri in

West Bengal.

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  Lakwa-Rudrasagar-Barauni pipeline has been constructed to carry crude oil from Lakwa
and Rudrasagar to oil refinery at Barauni.
 Barauni-Haldia pipeline, completed in 1966, transports refined petroleum products to
Haldia port and bring back crude oil to Barauni refinery.
 Barauni-Kanpur pipeline carries refined petroleum products from Barauni to Kanpur.
 Nunmati-Bangaigaon section of this pipe is used to transport raw materials for
Bongaigaon petro-chemical complex.
 Haldia-Rajbandh-Maurigram pipeline has been constructed to meet the requirements of
southern part of West Bengal.

ii). Mumbai High-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Kayoli Pipeline:

This pipeline connects oilfields of Mumbai High and Gujarat with oil refinery at Koyali. A 210
km long double pipeline connects Mumbai with Mumbai High. It provides facilities for
transporting crude oil and natural gas. Ankleshwar-Koyali pipeline was completed in 1965. It
transports crude oil from Ankleshwar oilfield to Koyali refinery.

iii). Salaya-Koyali-Mathura Pipeline:

An important pipeline has been laid from Salaya in Gujarat to Mathura in U.P. via Viramgram.
This is 1,256 km long pipeline which supplies crude oil to refineries at Koyali and Mathura.
From Mathura, it has been extended to the oil refinery at Panipat in Haryana and further to
Jalandhar in Punjab. It has an offshore terminal for imported crude oil.

iv) Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas Pipeline:

This pipeline has been constructed by Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) to transport gas. It
is 1,750 km long and connects Hazira in Maharashtra to Bijapur in M.P. and Jagdishpur in U.P.
It carries 18 million cubic metres of gas everyday to three power houses at Kawas (Gujarat),
Anta (Rajasthan) and Auraiya (U.P.) and to six fertilizer plants at Bijapur, Sawai Madhopur,.
Jagdishpur, Shahjahanpur, Aonla and Babrala.

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Each of the fertilizer plants has a capacity of producing 1,350 tonnes of ammonia per day. The
construction of this pipeline is a unique engineering feat and has been completed at an estimated
cost of over Rs. 1,700 crore. The pipeline passes through 343.7 km long rocky area, 56.3 km
long forest area, besides crossing 29 railway crossings and 75 big and small rivers.

This is the world largest underground pipeline and has brought about a big transformation in the
economy of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. It has been extended upto
Delhi so that enough gas is made available to meet the growing demand of the capital city.

v). Jamnagar-Loni LPG Pipeline:

This 1,269 km long pipeline has been constructed by Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) at
the cost of Rs. 1,250 crore. It connects Jamnagar in Gujarat to Loni near Delhi in U.P. and passes
through the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and U.P. This is the longest LPG pipeline of
the world. It is like transporting 3.5 lakh LPG gas cylinders across 1,269 km every day and its
capacity is being increased to 5.0 lakh cylinder per day. It will result in net saving of Rs. 500
crore per year by eliminating road tanker movement and lead to reduction of about 10,000 tonnes
of pollutant emission per year. This is the first time that cross-country pipeline has been used to
transport LPG adding to availability of supplies, safety in transportation and wider distribution.
LPG is received at various points along the route for bottling in Ajmer and Jaipur (Rajasthan),
Piyala (Haryana), Madanpur Khadar (Delhi) and Loni (U.P.). Phase-I of the pipeline was
completed in 2001 and Phase-II was completed in 2003. Its capacity will be expanded from the
current level of 1.7 million tonnes to 2.5 million tonnes.

vi). Kandla-Bhatinda Pipeline:

This 1,331 km long pipeline is proposed to be constructed for transporting crude oil to the
proposed refinery at Bhatinda. It is to be constructed by IOC at the estimated cost of Rs. 690
crore.

4.3 Major ports and Harbour

Today, India has 12 Major Ports and 200 notified Non-Major Ports along the coastline and
islands. Major Ports are administered by the Union Government under the Major Port Trusts Act
of 1963, with one exception, Ennore Port, which is administered under the provisions of the

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Companies Act, 1956. Non-Major Ports are administered by nine maritime states and three union
territories within their respective coastlines. In keeping with the general policy of economic
liberalisation, the port sector was opened to private sector participation in 1997 through an
amendment in the Major Port Trusts Act. Accordingly, a regulatory body known as Tariff
Authority for Major Ports (TAMP) was introduced for regulating both vessel-related and cargo-
related tariffs. TAMP was also made responsible for regulating rates for lease of properties in
respect of Major Port Trusts and private operators.

In 1950-51, there were six Major Ports in India: Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Cochin, Mormugao
(Goa) and Vishakhapatnam. Subsequently, Kandla, New Mangalore, Paradip, Haldia and
Tuticorin were declared Major Ports. In 1989, another major port, Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust
(JNPT), Mumbai came into existence, followed by Ennore in 2001. During 2011-12, total cargo
handled by Major and Non- Major ports was 914 million tonnes with the 13 Major Ports
handling nearly 61 per cent of it—560 million tonnes.

In 2000-01, Gujarat accounted for more than 80 per cent of the total traffic handled at the Non-
Major Ports and continued to hold more than 73 per cent share in 2011-12, followed by Andhra
Pradesh (13 per cent), Maharashtra (5.6 per cent), Goa (4.1 per cent), Odisha (1.4 per cent) and
Tamil Nadu (0.3 per cent). The remaining 2.4 per cent was handled by all the other maritime
states/union territories (UTs).

4.4 Principal imports and export items

No country self-sufficient in all the goods & services that it requires.It has to Depend on other
countries for what it lacks.The exchange of goods or merchandise or their sale. Purchase is
known as trade. Trade is of three types: (1) Local Trade, (2) Regional Trade & (3) Foreign
Trade. When one country exchanges goods or merchandise with another country,it is known as
Overseas Trade.Advancement of foreign trade of a country leads to it's economic prosperity. It is
important both as a source of imports & as an outlet for exports.‖International trade of a country
is rightly known as its Economic Barometer". India has been maintaining trade links with china,
Myanmar, Indonesia, Thailand, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Greece, etc. Since
ancient times, with the establishment of British rule in India,our trade ties becomes stronger with
Britain.India used to export raw materials such as Cotton,Tea,Iron Ore,etc. to Britain & import
manufactured goods,machinery,medicines,etc.from that country. If exports are more than

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imports.it is called trade surplus & if imports are more,it is called trade deficit.India almost every
year since dependence had a trade deficit.

Overseas trade depends upon several factors.Some important factors as discussed as under…

(I) Difference in natural resource :

There are variation in relief, structure, geology, climate & soil from one country to the
other.These variation lead to variations in natural resources.Some countries produce certain
things more than their requirement & export them while some other countries may be lacking
them & import those commodities.

(II) Marketable surplus:

Some countries are capable of producing certain things more than internal consumption. In ether
words, these countries have marketable surplus which they trade with those countries having
demand for such products. For example-Tea form India,Coffee from Brazil,Jute from
Bangladesh,Paper & Pulp from Norway & Sweden, Wood from Australia & Petroleum advanced
countries like U.S.A.,U.K.,Russia,Germany & Japan Export finished goods.

(III) Scarcity of goods:

There is not even a single country in the world which does not have scarcity of one commodity
or the other.Japan & Britain do not have raw materials.Hence these countries have to import raw
materials from a large number of countries.Thus scarcity of goods also encourages international
trade.Japan depends heavily on Iron Ore supplies from India.

(IV) Transport & communication:-

Trade involves exchange of goods which requires paper arrangement for transportation &
communication.Land water & air transport have helped international trade to a great
extent.Countries with poor transport system have not been able to develop international trade.
Realizing the significant role played by transport system for promoting trade.India has launched
an ambitious programme to improve surface transport.In addition certain ports like Jawaharlal
Nehru, Kandla, Ennore, Haldia, etc have either been developed or improved.

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(V) Disparities in economic growth:

There are disparities in economic growth in different parts of the world.Some countries all still
engaged in primary activities such as agriculture,mining,etc.These countries mainly export
minerals & agricultural raw materials.India's export consisted of raw materials for a pretty long
time even after independence.It is only recently that India has been able to Diversify it's exports
as a result of diversification of her economic activities.

(VI) Trade policy:

Free trade policy encourages Foreign trade whereas restrictions of the trade discourage it.E.g.
India has the export of some soil – seeds to meet the domestic demand .similarly, India has
imposed heavy import duty as certain finished good to encourage industries at home.

(VII) War and peace:

Peace is the most important condition for the development of international trade.international
trade gets disrupted during the time of war

(VIII) Political relations :

Countries having cordial relations have better exchange of goods which encourages international
trade. for example,India and Russia have good political relations and trade between two
countries has increased . On the other hand , U.S.A. and Russia have strained political relations
and trade between these two big countries is at low level.

Year Export Import Balance

Trade
(Balance Growth In %)
2000-01 27.58 7.26 -50.97
2002-03 22.06 21.21 16.27
2005-06 21.6 31.8 62.25
2008-09 28.19 35.77 49.72
2010-11 35.17 23.45 4.31

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 Unit-5

Geography of Tamil Nadu: Physiography, drainage, soil, climate, agriculture, minerals,

industries and population

5.1 Geography of Tamil Nadu

5.1.1 Location:

Tamil Nadu is bounded on north by Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka on west by Kerala, on east
by the Bay of Bengal and on South by the Indian Ocean. The State of Tamil Nadu is located in
the Northern hemisphere in the hot zone between 8°4’N to 13°35’N latitudes and from 76°18’E
to 80°20’E longitudes. Its eastern and western extremities are defined by the Point Calimere and
the hills of Anaimalai respectively. The northern extremity of the state is marked by Pulicat lake
and the southernmost point is Cape Comorin. It covers an area of 1,30,058 sq.km and is the 11th
largest state in India. It covers 4% of the area of our country. Within the boundaries of Tamil
Nadu, the union territory of Pondicherry is a tiny pocket near Cuddalore district; Karaikal. The
state has 1,076 km long coastline, the second-longest in India after Gujarat.

5.1.2 Districts of Tamil Nadu

At the time of Independence, Madras Presidency in India was made up of 26 districts, of which
12 districts were found in the present-day Tamil Nadu, namely, Chingleput, Coimbatore,
Nilgiris, North Arcot, Madras, Madura, Ramnad, Salem, South Arcot, Tanjore, Tinnevely, and
Trichinopoly. After Indian Independence, the Madras Presidency under British rule became the
Madras Province on 15 August 1947. After Indian independence in 1947, the Pudukkottai
Princely State was amalgamated with Indian Union on 4 March 1948 and became a division in
Trichinopoly district. The new Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950,
made India a sovereign democratic republic. The new republic was also declared to be a "Union
of States". According to this act, on 26 January 1950, Madras Province was formed as Madras
State by the Government of India.On 22 November 2019, Tenkasi district was bifurcated from
the erstwhile Tirunelveli district comprising Tenkasi, Sengottai, Kadayanallur, Sivagiri,
Veerakeralampudur, Sankarankovil, Thiruvenkatam and Alangulam taluks.On 26 November
2019, Kallakurichi district was bifurcated from the erstwhile Viluppuram district comprising
Kallakurichi, Sankarapuram, Chinnasalem, Ulundurpet, Thirukovilur and Kalvarayanmalai

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taluks.On 29 November 2019, Tirupattur and Ranipet districts were trifurcated from the
erstwhile Vellore district with Tirupattur district comprising Tirupattur, Vaniyambadi,
Natrampalli and Ambur taluks and Ranipet district comprising Walajah, Arcot, Nemili and
Arakkonam taluks.On 30 November 2019, Chengalpattu district was bifurcated from the
erstwhile Kanchipuram district comprising Tirukalukundram, Chengalpattu, Madurantakam,
Cheyyar, Tiruporur, Tambaram, Pallavaram, and Vandalur taluks.On 24 March 2020,
Mayiladuthurai district was bifurcated from the erstwhile Nagapattinam district comprising
Mayiladuthurai, Sirkazhi, Tharangambadi and Kuthalam taluks.The District map of Tamil Nadu
is shown in the figure 5.1

Fig 5.1

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5.2 Physiography

The land can be divided into five major physical divisions - the Kurinji or mountainous region,
the Mullai or forest region, the Palai or arid region, the Marudham or the fertile plains and the
Neidhal or coastal region.

Tamil Nadu is divided naturally between the flat country along the eastern coast and the hilly
regions in the north and west. The broadest part of the eastern plains is the fertile Kaveri
(Cauvery) River delta; farther south are the arid flatlands surrounding the cities of
Ramanathapuram and Madurai (Madura). The high peaks of the Western Ghats run along the
state’s western border. Various segments of this mountain range— including the Nilgiri,
Anaimalai, and Palni hills—have peaks exceeding 8,000 feet (2,400 metres) in elevation. Anai
Peak, at 8,842 feet (2,695 metres) in the Anaimalai Hills, is the highest mountain in peninsular
India. The lower peaks of the Eastern Ghats and their outliers—locally called the Javadi,
Kalrayan, and Shevaroy hills—run through the centre of the region.

Western Ghats

Western Ghats extends from the Niligris in the north to Marunthuvazh Malai at Swamithope in
Kanyakumari district in the south. Height of the Western Ghats ranges from 2,000 to 3,000
metres. It covers an area of about 2,500 sq.km. Though the Western Ghats is a continuous range,
it has some passes. The passes are Palghat, Shencottah, Aralvaimozhi, and Achankoil. The
Niligris, Anaimalai, Palani hills, Cardamom hills, Varusanadu, Andipatti and Agasthiyar hills are
the major hills of Western Ghats .

Nilgiri Hills

The Nilgiri hills is located in the Northwestern part of Tamil Nadu. It consists of 24 peaks with
more than 2,000 metres height. Doddabetta is the highest peak (2,637 metres) of this hill
followed by Mukkuruthi (2,554 metres). Ooty and Coonoor are the major hill stations located on
this hill. It has more than 2,700 species of flowering plants and the state animal Nilgiri Tahr is
found in this hill. Much of the Nilgiris natural montane grasslands and shrublands have been
disturbed or destroyed by extensive tea plantations and cattle grazing.

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Anaimalai

Anaimalai is located in the border of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It is located to the south of Palghat
Gap. Anaimalai Tiger Reserve, Aliyar Reserved Forest, Valparai hill station, Kadamparai
hydroelectric Power Plant are located on this hill. Aliyar and Tirumurthy dams are located at the
foothills of this range.

Palani Hills

Palani hills are the eastward extension of the Western Ghats. Except its western part, these hills
are located in Dindigul district. Vandaravu (2,533 metres) is the highest peak in the Palani hills.
Vembadi Shola (2,505 metres) is its second highest peak. The hill station of Kodaikanal (2,150
metres) lies in the south-central portion of the range.

Cardamom Hills

These hills are also known as Yela Mala hills located in the southwestern part of Tamil Nadu. It
acquires its name from the cardamom spice, which is commonly grown here. Pepper and coffee
are the other crops cultivated over the hills. They meet the Anaimalai hills in the northwest, the
Palani hills in the northeast and Varusanadu and Andipatti hills in the southeast.

Varusanadu and Andipatti Hills

Another eastward extension of Western Ghats is Varusanadu and Andipatti hills. Megamalai
(the highway mountain), Kalugumalai, Kurangani hill station, and Suruli and Kumbakarai
waterfalls are found on these hills. Srivilliputhur Grizzled Squirrel Wild life Sanctuary is located
in the southern slope of these hills in Virudhunagar district. Vaigai river and its tributaries
originate in this region.

Pothigai Hills

Its major part lies in Tirunelveli district with its southern slope in the Kanyakumari district.
Pothigai hills are called with different names such as the Shiva Jothi Parvath, Agasthiyar hills
and Southern Kailash. These hills feature richest biodiversity in the Western Ghats. This area is
known for its rich evergreen forest, waterfalls and ancient temples. Kalakkad Mundanthurai
Tiger Reserve is located in this region.

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Mahendragiri Hills

This continous range is situated along the border of Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli districts and is
a part of the southern range of the Western Ghats. Its average height is 1,645 metres. ISRO
Propulsion Complex, a test facility for Indian Space Research Organisation’s launch vehicles and
satellite propulsion systems, is situated on the lower slopes of this mountain.

The Eastern Ghats

Unlike Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats is a discontinuous and irregular one. It is dissected at many
places by the rivers, which drain into the Bay of Bengal. Its height ranges from 1,100 to 1,600
metres. These hills separate the plains from plateaus. Javadhu, Servarayan, the Kalrayan,
Kollimalai and Pachaimalai are the major hills of the Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu and are
located in northern districts of the state.

Javadhu Hills

Javadhu hills are an extension of the Eastern Ghats spread across parts of Vellore and
Tiruvannamalai districts and separates these two districts. Many peaks with the height of 1,100–
1,150 metres are located in this range. Melpattu is its highest peak. The Vainu Bappu
Observatory (VBO) Kavalur, which began operations in 1967, is located on these hills. Many
parts of this range are covered with bluish grey granites. It is noted for its fruit bearing trees,
medicinal herbs and sandalwoods. Due to illegal logging, sandalwood trees are disappeared now.

Kalvarayan Hills

The name ‘Kalvarayan’ comes from the word ‘Karalar’, the ancient name of the present tribes. It
is another major range of hills in the Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu. This range, along with the
Pachaimalai, Aralvaimalai, Javadhu and Servarayan hills, separates the river basins of Cauvery
and Palar. The height of this hill ranges from 600 to 1,220 metres. These hills have two sections.
The northern section is referred as the Chinna Kalvarayan and the southern one the Periya
Kalvarayan. The average height of Chinna Kalvarayan is 825 metres and the Periya Kalvarayan
is 1,220 metres.

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Servarayan Hills

It is a mountain range located near the Salem city with the height ranging from 1,200 to 1,620
metres. The name of the range comes from a local deity, Servarayan. The highest peak in the
southern part of the Eastern Ghats is located in this range. The peak is Solaikaradu and its height
is 1,620 metres. The hill station Yercaud, which is known as poor man’s Ooty, is located on this
range. Servarayan temple is its highest point (1623 metres).

Kolli Hills

It is a small mountain range located in Namakkal district. It covers an area of about 2,800 sq.km.
It rises up to 1300 metres. This is a mountain range that runs almost parallel to the east coast of
South India. Arpaleeswarar temple located on this range is an important pilgrim centre. It has the
largest cover of evergreen or shola forest when compared to other parts of the Eastern Ghats.
Several coffee plantations, fruits, flowers and silver oak estates are found in this region.

Pachaimalai

It is the lowest hill range, spreads over the districts of Perambalur, Tiruchirapalli and Salem. In
Tamil language, pachai means green. The vegetation in this range is greener than the vegetative
cover of the other hills in this region. Hence it is named as ‘Pachai malai’. Jackfruit is a popular
seasonal agricultural product of this hills.

5.2.1 Plateau Regions

Plateaus of Tamil Nadu are located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats. It is
roughly triangular in shape and covers an area of about 60,000 sq.km. Its height increases from
east to west. Its height ranges between 150 and 600 metres. This plateau is broader in the north
and very narrow in the south. It has many subdivisions. Bharamahal plateau is a part of the
Mysore plateau situated in the northwestern part of Tamil Nadu. Its height ranges from 350 to
710 metres. Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri districts are located in this region. Coimbatore plateau
lies between the Nilgiris and Dharmapuri districts. Its height varies from 150 to 450 metres. This
region includes Salem, Coimbatore and Erode districts. The area of this plateau is about 2,560
sq.km. Its height varies from 352 to 710 metres. Moyar river separates this plateau from the
Mysore plateau. Rivers like Bhavani, Noyyal and Amaravathi, which originate from Western

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Ghats, form valleys in this region. Many intermontane plateaus are found in the region of the
Nilgiris. Sigur plateau is one such plateau. Madurai plateau found in Madurai district extends up
to the foothills of the Western Ghats. Vaigai and Thamirabarani basins are located in this zone.

5.2.2 Plain Region

Plains of Tamil Nadu can be classified into two as coastal plains and river plains. The coastal
plains of Tamil Nadu extend to a length of 1000 km from Pulicat lake in the North to
Kanyakumari in the South and have an average height of 50 metres. The plains of Tamil Nadu
may be divided into two, namely inland plains and coastal plains. Inland plains are drained by
the rivers Palar, Ponnaiyar, Cauvery and Thamirabarani. Cauvery plains is one of the most
important fertile plains of the state. The plains of Cauvery is found in Salem, Erode, Karur,
Tiruchirapalli, Pudukottai, Thanjavur, Tiruvarur and Nagapattinam districts. Coastal plains of
Tamil Nadu are also called Coromandel or Cholamandalam (land of Cholas) plain, which
extends from Chennai to Kanyakumari. It is formed by the rivers that flow towards east drain in
the Bay of Bengal. It is more than 80 kilometres wide at some places. Though it is an emerged
coast, some parts are submerged into the sea. The sand dunes formed along the coast of
Ramanathapuram and Thoothukudi districts are called Teri. Coral rocks are found at the head of
Gulf of Mannar in the east coastal plain.

5.3 Drainage

Rivers of Tamil Nadu are its lifeline. Though it has many rivers, the rivers of Cauvery, Palar,
Ponnaiyar, Vaigai and Thamirabarani are the notable ones. Most of the rivers of Tamil Nadu
originate from Western Ghats and flow towards east and drain into the Bay of Bengal. All the
rivers of the state are non-perennial except Thamirabarani. It is perennial as it is fed by both the
southwest and northeast monsoons. The river map of Tamil Nadu is shown the figure 5.2

5.3.1 Cauvery

The river Cauvery originates at Talacauvery in the Brahmagiri hills of Kodagu(coorg) district of
Karnataka in the Western Ghats. About 416 km of its course falls in Tamil Nadu. It serves as the
boundary between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for a distance of 64 km. It forms Hogenakkal

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 waterfalls in Dharmapuri district. Mettur Dam, also called as the Stanley Reservoir, is located

Fig 5.2

across this river in Salem district. A tributary called Bhavani joins Cauvery on the right bank
about 45 km from the Mettur Reservoir. Thereafter, it takes easterly course to enter into the
plains of Tamil Nadu. Two more tributaries, Noyyal and Amaravathi, confluence the river on the
right bank at Thirumukkudal 10 km from Karur. The river is wider in this region, where it is

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called as ‘Agandra Cauvery’. In Tiruchirappalli district, the river branches into two parts. The
northern branch is called Coleroon or Kollidam and the southern branch remains Cauvery. From
here, the Cauvery delta begins. After flowing for about 16 km, the two branches join again to
form the ‘Srirangam Island’. The Grand Anaicut, also called as Kallanai was built across the
river Cauvery. After Kallanai, the river breaks into a large number of distributaries and forms a
network all over the delta. The network of distributaries within the delta of Cauvery in the coast
is called as the ‘Garden of Southern India’. It merges into Bay of Bengal to the south of
Cuddalore.

5.3.2 Palar

The Palar river rises beyond Talagavara village in the Kolar district of Karnataka. The Palar
drains an area of 17,871 sq.km, out of which nearly 57% lies in Tamil Nadu and the rest in the
states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Ponnai, Goundinya Nadhi, Malattar, Cheyyar and
Kiliyar are its major tributaries. Its total length is 348 km, out of which 222 km of its course falls
in Tamil Nadu. It flows through the districts of Vellore and Kancheepuram before entering into
Bay of Bengal near Kuvattur.

5.3.3 Then Pennaiyar/Then Ponnaiyar

It originates from the eastern slope of Nandi Durga hills in eastern Karnataka. It drains an area of
16,019 sq.km, of which nearly 77% lies in Tamil Nadu. It flows for a distance of 247 km in the
southeasterly direction in the districts of Krishnagiri, Dharmapuri, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai,
Cuddalore and Villupuram. It branches into two, viz. Gadilam and the Ponnaiyar near Tirukoilur
Anaicut. Gadilam joins the Bay of Bengal near Cuddalore and Ponnaiyar near the Union
Territory of Puducherry. Chinnar, Markandanadhi, Vaniar and Pambar are its tributaries. Heavy
rain at the river’s source cause sudden but short-lived floods. The river is extensively dammed
for irrigation, especially in Tamil Nadu. There are reservoirs at Krishnagiri and Sathanur across
this river. The Ponnaiyar is considered sacred by Hindus and festivals are held during the Tamil
month of Thai (January–February).

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5.3.4Vaigai

Vaigai river rises from the eastern slopes of the Varusanadu hills of Western Ghats of Tamil
Nadu. It drains an area of 7,741 sq.km, which lies entirely in the state of Tamil Nadu. It flows
through the districts of Madurai, Sivaganga and Ramanathapuram. Its length is 258 km. It
discharges its water into the Ramnad Big Tank and some other small tanks. The surplus water
from the tanks is finally discharged into Palk Strait near Ramanathapuram.

5.3.5 Thamirabarani

The name is interpreted as Thamiram (copper) and Varuni (streams of river). The water of this
river gives a copper like appearance due to the presence of dissolved suspended red soil. It
originates from a peak in Pothigai hills on the Western Ghats above Papanasam in the
Ambasamudram taluk. The origin of the river is associated with Sage Agasthiyar. It courses
through the districts of Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi and finally flow into the Bay of Bangal near
Punnaikayal in Thoothukudi district. Karaiyar, Servalar, Manimuthar, Gadananathi, Pachaiyar,
Chittar and Ramanathi are its main tributaries.

5.4 Soils of Tamil Nadu

Soil is the loose material mainly formed by the weathering and erosion of rocks. It forms an
important element of agriculture. It provides essential minerals and nutrients for the growth of
vegetation. Soil is one of the important non-renewable resources in the world. It takes 300–1,000
years to form two inches of soil. The soil of a place depends on the factors like climate, parent
rocks and vegetative cover of the respective places. The soils in Tamil Nadu are broadly
classified into five types according to their characteristics. They are alluvial, black, red, laterite
and saline soils. The soil map of Tamil Nadu is shown in the figure 5.3

5.4.1 Alluvial Soil

Alluvial soils are formed by the deposition of silt by the rivers. Alluvial soils are generally fertile
as they are rich in minerals such as lime, potassium, magnesium, nitrogen and phosphoric acid. It
is deficient in nitrogen and humus. It is porous and loamy. Paddy, sugarcane, banana and
turmeric are cultivated in this soil. It is found in the river valley regions and the coastal plains of
Tamil Nadu. Generally this type of soil is found in the districts of Thanjavur, Tiruvarur,

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Nagapattinam, Villupuram, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari. It is also found to a small
extent along the river valleys in few interior districts.

Fig 5.3

5.4.2 Black Soil

Black soils are formed by the weathering of igneous rocks. It is also known as regur soil. As
cotton grows well in this soil, it is also called as black cotton soil. This soil is developed over the
Deccan lava granite region under semiarid conditions. It is fine textured and clayey in nature. It

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is poor in phosphoric acid, nitrogen and organic matter. Chief minerals found in this soil are
calcium, magnesium, carbonates, potash and lime. Cotton, sorghum, cumbu and fodder crops are
the major crops cultivated in the black soil regions of Tamil Nadu. Black soils are found
extensively in the districts of Coimbatore, Madurai, Virudhunagar, Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi.

5.4.3 Red Soil

Red soils cover over two-thirds of the total area of Tamil Nadu. They are found particularly in
the central districts of the state. This soil is sandy and loamy in texture. However, the
characteristic features of the red soil vary according to its formation and climatic condition under
which the soil was formed. Red soil is porous, friable and non-retentive of moisture. The colour
of the soil is due to the presence of high content of iron oxides. This soil is poor in nitrogen,
phosphorus, acids and humus. paddy, ragi, tobacco and vegetables are the chief crops grown in
this soil. Almost all types of crops can be grown in this soil with the application of manure and
irrigation facilities. It is dominantly found in Sivagangai and Ramanathapuram districts.

5.4.4 Laterite Soil

This soil is formed by the process of intense leaching. Laterite soils are found in some parts of
Kancheepuram, Tiruvallur and Thanjavur districts and some patches over the mountainous
region in the Nilgiris. Crops grown in this soil are paddy, ginger, pepper and plantains. It is also
suitable for the cultivation of tea and coffee plants.

5.4.5 Saline Soil

Saline soils in Tamil Nadu are confined to the Coromandel coast. Vedaranyam has a pocket of
saline soil. However, the tsunami waves on December 26, 2004 brought a lot of sand and
deposited it all along the east coast of Tamil Nadu. The tsunami made the coastal areas
unsuitable for cultivation to a considerable extent.

5.5 Climate

The Tropic of Cancer divides India roughly into two equal parts and the state Tamil Nadu lies to
the south of Tropic of Cancer, which is near the Equator. As it receives vertical sunrays, the
temperature of the state is relatively high throughout the year. Though the state falls within the
hot climatic zone, the east coast of Tamil Nadu enjoys tropical maritime climate. The Bay of

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Bengal and Indian Ocean influence the climate of the coastal regions. The annual temperature
ranges from 18o to 43o and the annual rain fall is 958.5 mm. While the east coast experiences
tropical maritime climate, the western region of the state enjoys the mountainous climate. This
climate prevails over the Blue Mountains, Anaimalai and the Kodaikanal hills. Thick forests and
high altitude make the climate of these areas cool and pleasant. Thus stations in this region
attract thousands of people during the summer season. Low altitude and distance from the sea are
the reasons for high temperature and dry conditions in the central part of Tamil Nadu. The
migration of vertical sun’s rays leads to the formation of different seasons in Tamil Nadu as
follows.

5.5.1 Winter Season

During January and February, the vertical rays of the sun fall between the Tropic of Capricorn
and the Equator. Hence, Tamil Nadu and India on the whole receive slanting rays from the sun.
So, the weather is slightly cooler during these months. The difference between summer and
winter temperature is not very high. Winter temperature in Tamil Nadu varies from 15°C to
25°C. However, in the hill stations, the winter temperature drops below 5°C occasionally. Some
valleys in the Nilgiris record even 0°C. This drop in temperature leads to the formation of thick
mist and frost. This season is practically dry.

5.5.2 Summer Season

The apparent migration of the sun towards north during March, April and May results in the
reception of vertical sun’s rays by South India. Thus there is a steady rise in temperature from
the equator. Hence, Tamil Nadu located to the south of Tropic of Cancer, experiences high
temperature. Generally the temperature varies from 30°C to more than 40°C. During this season
particularly in the month of May, southern part of the state receives some rainfall from pre-
monsoon showers (Mango/Blossom showers) and some parts experience convectional rainfall.

5.5.3 Southwest Monsoon

The intense heating of the landmass of the north by the sun during March to May creates a well-
developed low pressure in North India, which draws wind from the Indian Ocean. This results in
the formation of southwest monsoon. During this season, Tamil Nadu is located in the rain
shadow region for the wind, which blows from the Arabian Sea. As a result, Tamil Nadu

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receives only a meagre rainfall from this monsoon. Rainfall during this season decreases from
west to east. Coimbatore plateau receives an average of 50 cm rainfall. However, the southern
districts like Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli and The Nilgiris record 50–100 cm rainfall during this
period. The rainfall is scanty in the eastern part of the state.

5.5.6 Northeast Monsoon

The northeast monsoon season commences from the month of October and lasts till mid-
December. The high pressure created over Central Asia and northern part of India becomes the
source for the northeast monsoon winds. The apparent migration of the sun from Tropic of
Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn causes a change in receiving temperature and air pressure
during this season. It makes the wind to blow towards Bay of Bengal from North India. After
reaching Bay of Bengal, the wind gets deflected by Coriolis force and takes the northeast
direction. Hence it is known as northeast monsoon. As the northeast monsoon is a part of
returning of southwest monsoon wind, it is also called as the retreating monsoon. This is the
main rainy season for Tamil Nadu, accounting for its 48% of annual rainfall. Coastal districts of
the state get nearly 60% of their annual rainfall and the interior districts get about 40–50% of the
annual rainfall during this season. Tropical cyclones are common during this season. Cyclone
originating from the Bay of Bengal bring heavy rainfall to the east coastal regions of Tamil
Nadu. More than 50% of the state’s rainfall is received from tropical cyclones during this period
and east coastal region receives 100 to 200 cm of rainfall. The rainfall received by the central
and northwestern parts is 50–100 cm. The cyclones sometimes disturb the cultivation of crops
and cause severe damage to life and property.

5.6 Agriculture

Agriculture continues to be the most predominant sector of the State economy, as 70% of the
population is engaged in Agriculture and allied activities for their livelihood. The State has as an
area of 1.3 Lakh sq.km with a gross cropped area of around 63 L.Ha.. The Government's policy
and objectives have been to ensure stability in agricultural production and to increase the
agricultural production in a sustainable manner to meet the food requirement of growing
population and also to meet the raw material needs of agro based industries, thereby providing
employment opportunities to the rural population. Tamil Nadu has all along been one of the

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states with a creditable performance in agricultural production with the farmers relatively more
responsive and receptive to changing technologies and market forces.

The Agriculture Department has taken up the challenge to achieve higher growth rate in
agriculture by implementing several development schemes and also propagation of relevant
technologies to step up the production. Intensive Integrated farming system, massive Wasteland
Development Programme, comprehensive watershed development activities, water management
through Micro irrigation systems, Organic farming, Soil health improvement through Bio-
fertiliser including Green Manuring, adoption of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) and
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) technologies are given priority through various programmes,
besides crop diversification to fetch better return and value addition to agricultural produce are
also given priority to improve the economic status of the farming community.

5.6.1 Major Crops

The principal food crops are rice, maize, jowar (cholam), bajra (cumbu), ragi, and pulses
(Bengalgram, Redgram, Greengram Blackgram and Horsegram). The cash crops include cotton,
sugarcane, oilseeds, coffee, tea, rubber, coconut, gingelly and chillies. The important
horticultural products are bananas and mangoes. The state is the largest producer of bananas,
flowers, tapioca, the second largest producer of mangoes,natural rubber, coconut, groundnut and
the third largest producer of coffee, sapota ,tea and sugarcane .Tamil Nadu's sugarcane yield per
hectare is the highest in India. The state has 17,000 hectares of land under oil palm cultivation,
the second highest in India. Paddy is grown in large excess because rice is the main staple food
of the state. There are three crops based on duration. The first one is the ‘Kuruvai’ (the short
term crop) with duration of three and a half to four months from June to July to Oct - Nov. The
second crop is called the ‘Thaladi’ that grown in 5 to 6 months Oct - Nov to Feb - March. Third
is 'Samba' and has duration of almost 6 months from Aug to January.

5.6.2 Plantation

Plantation crops are those crops, that are grown in an extensive scale in large contiguous areas
and the produce can be utilized only after processing. In Tamil Nadu major plantation crops are
Cashew, Coffee, Tea, Rubber, Betel vine, Areca nut, Coconut, Bamboo and Cocoa. Cashew is
known as the ‘Gold mine’ of wasteland grown in almost all kinds of soil. It is presumed that

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cashew was originally introduced into India from Brazil in the sixteenth century mainly for
checking soil erosion on the coast.. The major cashew growing districts are Ariyalur, Cuddalore,
Pudukkottai, Theni, Villupuram, and Sivagangai. India is the largest producer and consumer of
cashew nuts. Tea is first introduced in the Nilgiris from Assam in 1839 and was commercially
cultivated from 1853. Now it is predominantly grown in hill slopes in Coimbatore and The
Nilgris Districts. Coffee is grown in hill slopes of of Dindigul, The Nilgris, Salem, Theni and
Coimbatore districts. Rubber is exclusively cultivated in High Rainfall zones of Kanniyakumari.
Bamboo and cocoa are cultivated in Tamil Nadu only after the introduction of National Bamboo
Mission and National Horticulture Mission Programmes.

Most of the plantation crops are promoted through several Boards established by the
Government of India. The Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) is conducting
research in these crops. Tea Board of India, Coffee Board of India, Rubber Board, are
functioning under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Directorate of Cashew nut and Cocoa
Development are the agencies involved in the development of these crops in Tamil Nadu.

In anticipation of favourable monsoon rains during 2020-21, the Government of Tamil Nadu has
programmed to achieve 125 Lakh Metric Tonne of Food grain production and increased
production in other crops. This achievement is possible by adoption of farmer friendly
approaches and schemes besides focusing on timely availability of quality inputs and
technologies to farmers at their door steps.

The following steps will be taken during 2020-21 for the holistic development in Agriculture
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  Ensuring availability of quality seeds to farmers through increased Seed Replacement
Rate (SRR).
 Ensure quality input availability to farmers.
 Massive adoption of INM and IPM technology with emphasis on ecofriendly Agricultural
practices.
 Encouraging farmers to adopt site specific macro and micro nutrient recommendations on
the basis of soil test based fertility Index.
 Focus on restoration of Soil Health through organic farming approach and to promote
vermi composting, compost making through pleuorotus, green manuring etc.
 Massive Promotion of water saving technologies like Summer ploughing, Direct sowing,
System of Rice Intensification, machine planting, System of Pulses Intensification,
Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative etc., to maximize water use efficiency besides focus on
Micro Irrigation.
 Collectivization of farmers to form more crop specific groups to increase on-farm
incomethrough adoption of technologies, input mobilization, mechanization to reduce
work load of farmers, produce aggregation, focus on value addition for better price
realization.
 Site Specific Crop management technologies to increase the yield of food grain, Oilseeds
and Commercial crops.
 Holistic approach for dry land agriculture through creation of water harvesting structures,
massive implementation of rain water harvesting techniques, enabling easy access to dry
land machineries, judicious use of water, bringing cropping in dryland area, Green cover
in dryland and Animal health care activities for increasing household income, value
addition for better remuneration for farm produce etc.,
 Massive promotion of Integrated farming system practices by integrating crop production
combined with allied sector activities such as cattle rearing, goat rearing, backyard
poultry etc., for increasing the income of the farmers and also for ecological protection,
diversification, soil health improvement and increasing the per unit productivity.

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5.7 Minerals

Tamil Nadu is endowed with major minerals such as Limestone, Magnesite, Graphite, Bauxite,
Iron Ore, Vermiculite, minor minerals such as Granites, Clay, Silica sand, Lignite, fuel minerals
such as Petroleum and Natural Gas and atomic minerals such as Monazite, Rutile, Ilmenite. The
details of these minerals are as follows:

5.7.1 Limestone

It is one of the most important industrial minerals used in the manufacture of lime, cement,
chemicals, fertilizers and in metallurgical industries. The Limestone are of two types and are as
follows.

Crystalline Limestone – It occurs in parts of Salem, Tiruchirappalli, Karur, Dindigul, Madurai,

Virudhunagar, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi, Coimbatore and Kanniyakumari districts. The total
reserve of crystalline Limestone is 200 million tonnes.

Fossiliferous Limestone – It is found in parts of Tiruchirappalli, Ariyalur, Perambalur and

Thoothukudi districts. The reserve of fossiliferous limestone is estimated at 670 million tonnes.

The major players are TANCEM, a Government of Tamil Nadu undertaking, Associated Cement
Companies, Chettinad Cement Corporation Private Ltd, Dalmia Cement (Bharat) Ltd, The India
Cement Ltd, The Ramco Cements Ltd and UltraTech Cement Ltd.

5.7.2 Magnesite

One of the world’s best Magnesite deposit occur in the State. The major deposits occur in Chalk
Hills of Salem district. The reserves is estimated as 40.5 million tonnes. It is used mainly for
refractory purposes and in chemical industries. The major players in this field are Tamil Nadu
Magnesite Ltd (TANMAG) and Dalmia Bharat Sugar & Industries Ltd.

5.7.3 Graphite

Tamil Nadu is endowed with deposits of export worthy flaky Graphites. It is distributed mainly
in Sivaganga and Madurai districts. This Graphite on beneficiation can yield a concentrate of
more than 80% of fixed Carbon. This is suitable for manufacture of Graphite crucibles which are

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used in the smelters of the Steel Industry. TAMIN, a State Government undertaking is involved
in the mining Graphite.

5.7.4 Bauxite

Bauxite is a mixture of several hydrated Aluminium Oxides with considerable variations in

Alumina content. They occurs as: Blanket at or near the surface, Bedded deposits, Pocket
deposits or irregular masses in Limestone or Dolomite, and Transported deposits. In the Nilgiri
and Palani hills, forming the parts of the Western Ghats hill ranges, discrete lateritic Bauxite
cappings are traced at altitudes of 2285-1980m. Lateritic Bauxite cappings are seen at an
altitudes of about 1550m in the Shervaroy hills in Salem district and at about 1250m on the
Kollimalai hills in Namakkal district. Bauxite is ore of the Aluminium which is used in
refractory, chemicals, cement and paint industries and in refining petroleum products.

5.7.5 Lignite

Tamil Nadu is endowed with the biggest deposits of Lignite in India. Ariyalur-Puducherry sub-
basin and Nagapattinam sub-basin of the Cauvery Basin are the main repositories of Lignite
deposits. The total Lignite reserve is estimated as 34,764 million tonnes. Of which, the Neyveli
Lignite field contain 8665.93 million tonnes, Mannargudi Lignite field contain 24,204 million
tonnes and Ramanathapuram Lignite field contain 1896 million tonnes. The Neyveli Lignite
Corporation is mining Lignite in the lease hold areas. The NLC has led the development of large
industrial complex around Neyveli in Cuddalore district with Thermal Power Plants, fertilizer,
brequetting and Carbonization Plants.

5.7.6 Iron Ore

Iron ore occurs as Banded Magnetite in Kanjamalai and Godumalai Hills in Salem district. Three
bands are noticed in Kanjamalai hills. The Inferred reserves of Iron ore are 50-60 million tonnes
in Kanjamalai. The Iron content varies from 33-36 percent. In Godumalai hills, the bands of Iron
ore are tightly folded and reserves are about 60-70 million tonnes. In Tiruvannamalai district,
Banded Magnetite Quartzite with Haematite is found in Kavuthimalai and Vediappanmalai. The
bands of Iron ore occur three detached basins. The inferred reserves are about 60 million tonnes.

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5.7.7 Vermiculite

It is a yellowish brown coloured micaceous mineral. They are used as insulators and vermitiles.
It occurs in Tirupattur district. TAMIN has been mining Vermiculite in Tirupattur district. It is
used in agricultural industry as soil conditioners and an effective growing media.

5.7.8 Quartz and Feldspar

These minerals occur in Salem, Karur, Dindigul, Namakkal, Tiruppur, Tiruchirapalli and
Dharmapuri districts. Quartz is used in electronics and optical industries. Feldspar is used in
ceramic industries. The total reserve of Quartz is estimated as 228.5 million tonnes and Feldspar
is estimated as 9 million tonnes.

5.7.9 Gypsum

Gypsum occurs as an evaporate in regular beds or lenses. It may be associated with Anhydrite
depending upon the temperature and salinity of the solution. It may originate by the evaporation
of sea water in the enclosed basin. It may also form by dolomitisation of Limestone in the sea. In
Tamil Nadu, it occurs with clay in Coimbatore, Tiruppur, Ramanathapuram and Perambalur
districts.

It is an important mineral, used as a retardant in cement manufacture to control the setting time.
In feritilizer industry, high purity grade is utilised in manufacturing Ammonium Sulphate
fertilizer. For conditioning alkaline soil, low grade is utilised. In the manufacture of Plaster of
Paris and in many other industries like pharmaceuticals, textiles, asbestos products, paints, etc.
Gypsum is utilised.

5.7.10 Oil and Natural Gas

The explorations for hydrocarbons especially the Oil and Natural Gas deposits in the
sedimentary basins of Tamil Nadu by Tvl. ONGC Ltd etc. Since late nineteen fifties has emerged
the state as one of the key oil province of India. The Cauvery Basin extending along the East
Coast of India spread in Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Ramanathapuram, Thanjavur, Cuddalore,
Ariyalur and Pudukkottai of the Tamil Nadu and in Pondicherry State and Karaikkal UT has
been identified as one of the potential area for exploration and exploitation of oil and Natural
Gas in the Country with major oil and gas discoveries, in both onshore and offshore..

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5.7.11 Atomic minerals

“Beach Sand Minerals” means economic heavy minerals found in the teri or beach sands, which
are classified as Atomic Mineral as per MMDR Amendment Act, 2015 and AMCR 2016.The
Beach Sand Minerals in Tamil Nadu contain Titanium bearing minerals viz. Ilmenite, Rutile,
Leucoxene and non-Titanium bearing minerals viz. Zircon, Monazite, Garnet and Sillimanite in
Thoothukudi, Kanniyakumari, Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Pudukkottai, Tiruchirapalli,
Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur, Cuddalore and Kanchipuram Districts.Rare Earth
elements or Rare Earth metals are a collection of 17 elements namely Scandium, Yttrium and
Lanthanides (15 elements in the periodic table with atomic numbers 57 to 71 namely: Lanthanum
(La), Cerium (Ce), Praseodymium (Pr), Neodymium (Nd), Promethium (Pm), Samarium (Sm),
Europium (Eu), Gadolinium (Gd), Terbium (Tb), Dysprosium (Dy), Holmium (Ho), Erbium
(Er), Thulium (Tm), Ytterbium (Yb) and Lutetium (Lu) )

Beach Sand Minerals and Rare Earths are used as performance ingredients in consumer
electronics, abrasive, automotive, renewable energy, ceramic, refractories, welding electrodes,
telecommunication, aerospace, paints and pigments, gas mantles, petroleum, pharmaceuticals,
nuclear power, etc.

5.8 Industries

5.8.1 Information Technology

As per NASSCOM, the Southern States continue to account for more than half of the country's
total export of software. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been a major
growth driver for the Indian economy in the last few years. In 2006-07 the industry grew to a
size of US $ 51 Billion. Tamil Nadu has been amongst the top three States in terms of ICT
investments and production. It has emerged as a hub for software, hardware and R&D.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been a major growth driver for the
Indian economy. Tamil Nadu shall be the ICT Hub of South Asia by creating a knowledge
driven ecosystem, leveraging entrepreneurship and promoting socially inclusive growth to
achieve a 25% production share of the Indian ICT industry.

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5.8.2 Manufacturing & engineering industry

The manufacturing industry is one of the vibrant sectors of the state economy and contributes
significantly to the industrial output. The manufacturing industry broadly covers manufacture of
machinery and equipment, transport parts, basic metal and alloy industries, metal products and
repair of capital goods. Tamil Nadu’s share of the industrial output is around 11 to 12 per cent of
the country’s output and 15 per cent of the country’s exports excluding software exports. Tamil
Nadu accounts for about 17 per cent of India ’s software exports.

5.8.3 Automobile industry

Automobile Industry shows a steady performance in the State with Governments constant
support which has nurtured Chennai as a very cost-effective manufacturing hub for automobiles.
The capital city, Chennai, dons the ubiquitous name of Detroit of Asia due to the presence of the
top Global Automobile majors like Ford, Hyundai, BMW, Renault, Nissan and Mitsubishi HM•
Chennai producing over 40% of the country's auto parts and vehicles have an installation
capacity to produce 1,280,000 cars and about 350,000 commercial vehicles each year.
Government of India is currently implementing a project "National Automotive Testing R&D
Infrastructure Project" (NATRIP) in Oragdam near Chennai at a project cost of about Rs.450
crores. This project aims at facilitating introduction of world-class automotive safety, emission
and performance standards in India as also ensure seamless integration of our automotive
industry with the global industry.

5.8.4 Vehicle manufacturing

Chennai is home to domestic automobile majors like Ashok Leyland, Royal Enfield and TAFE
Tractors, all of them established after post-independence period. Post liberalisation period after
1992 saw the entry of global majors like Hyundai, Ford, BMW, NissanRenault, Daimler Trucks
set up manufacturing facilities in Chennai. AlsoHindustan Motors’s Off-Highway unit became
Caterpillar Inc., while their greenfield passenger vehicle unit produced Mitsubishi, and Isuzu
vehicles. The TVS Motors (TVS) have their development and manufacturing unit in Hosur.
Komatsu unit is located in Chennai. Heavy Vehicles Factory in Avadi manufactures Battle Tanks
while the Integral Coach Factory in Perambur builds over 40% of the countries railway coaches.
India’s largest utility vehicle and world’s largest tractor manufacturer Mahindra & Mahindra has

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their entire vehicle development center established in Chennai suburbs. Ashok Leyland and
TAFE Tractors and Royal Enfield have their product development centers in Chennai. Ford,
Chrysler, Renault , Nissan, Datsun, Caterpillar has their Technical development centers catering
to their global development centers

5.8.5 Textile industry

The textile industry plays a significant role in the Indian economy by providing direct
employment to an estimated 35 million people, and thereby contributing 4% of GDP and 35% of
gross export earnings. The textile sector contributes to 14% of the manufacturing sector. The
cities of Coimbatore, Erode, Karur, Gobichettipalayam, Perundurai and Tirupur in Tamil Nadu,
are the largest garment exporters in India and sometimes referred to as the textile valley of India.
The garment units in and around the Districts provide employment opportunity to nearly 1
million people. These units contribute sumptuous share towards generation of foreign exchange
through home textile exports such as bed linens, kitchen linens, toilet linens, table linens and
wall hangings. Madurai and Kanchipuram are very famous for handloom sarees. This handloom
sarees are on sale all over India. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala are the main states for
wholesale sarees. This sarees manufacturing raw materials are purchased from Coimbatore,
Erode and Salem. Gobichettipalayam has the India's first automatic silk reeling unit.

The textile industries in Tamil Nadu occupy a unique place in terms of its contribution to the
total industrial production, employment, export, and foreign exchange earnings. The State has
more than 959 cotton man-made fiber textile mills (919 spinning mills (SSI units) and 40
composite mills in the non-SSI sector) In nonSSI sector, there were 18 exclusive weaving mills
and four 100 per cent of export-oriented mills. In the SSI sector, the number of spinning mills is
more than 1000. The structure of textile industries in the State continued to be spinning-oriented.

Coimbatore cluster has around 919 spinning units which is more than 40 % of total units in
Tamil Nadu Total Yarn production in Coimbatore is around 387 Million kgs which is 25% of
Tamil Nadu’s Production Textile Research Institutes like CICR (Central institute for Cotton
research), SITRA (South Indian Textiles Research Association), Sardar Vallabhai Patel
International School of Textiles and Management.

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Coimbatore City also houses two of the Centers Of Excellences (COE) for technical textiles
proposed by Government of India, namely Meditech, a medical textile research centre based at
SITRA, and InduTech based in PSG College of Engineering and Technology Chennai is also a
Predominant Cluster for Readymade Garments with exports worth USD 1.2 Billion .

Chennai is also a center for Technical textile Industry with players present across categories like
Agrotech, Buildtech, Clothtech, Indutech, Packtech Technical textile units are pre-dominantly
situated in and around Chennai and Coimbatore. There are as many as 75 small-scale units
manufacturing mosquito nets in Karur, Tamil Nadu itself producing around 170-180 MT of
mosquito nets per annum (per unit) Ropes, Cordages , Silk , Coir products are manufactured in
Tamil Nadu The Centers Of Excellences (COE) for technical textiles proposed by Government
of India, namely Meditech, a medical textile research centre based at SITRA, and InduTech
based in PSG College of Engineering and Technology are based out in Coimbatore Textile hub
of Tamil Nadu.

5.8.6 Handlooms industry

The importance of handlooms sector is well recognized in terms of provision of vast employment
opportunities and value addition to the economy. During 2012-13, there were 4.13 lakh
handlooms in the State with 6.08 lakh workers. Out of which, 2.69 lakh handlooms with 3.19
lakh of weavers were registered under 1164 Handloom Workers Cooperative Societies
comprising 1015 Cotton Primary Weavers Cooperative Societies, 62 Industrial Weavers
Cooperative Societies and 87 Primary Silk Weavers Cooperative Societies. Silk :Kancheepuram,
Kumbakonam, Salem and Arni Home Furnishing :Erode, Tiruppur, Karur Sarees and
Dhoti :Virudhunagar, Tirunelveli, Nagercoil. Cotton Sarees :Coimbatore, Madurai, Paramakud

5.8.7 Power loom industry:

Power loom sector is medium of mechanization and employment provision in rural and semi-
urban areas. The number of registered power looms in the State is more than 3.50 lakh. Tamil
Nadu is ranking second next only to Maharashtra (11.73 lakh). These registered powers looms in
the State were expected to provide employment opportunities to 9.91 lakh skilled and semi-
skilled persons in the process of production. At the national level, the State is sharing 17.23 per
cent of registered power looms and 17.25 per cent of employment opportunities. This sector

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provides employment to around 1.012 Million workers as against 2.34 Million powerlooms in
India, 0.405 Million powerlooms and 20000 shuttle less auto-looms are located. The powerlooms
are largely located in Namakkal, Erode, Salem, Coimbatore, Vellore, Madurai, Karur, Tiruppur,
Tiruvallur, Tirunelveli and Virudhunagar districts of the state. There were 181 Power loom
Weavers Co-operative Societies with 53,401 power looms.

5.8.8 Leather

Tamil Nadu accounts for 30 per cent of leather exports and about 70 per cent of leather
production in the country. Hundreds of leather and tannery facilities are located around Vellore
and its nearby towns, such as Ranipet, Ambur and Vaniyambadi. The Vellore district is the top
exporter of finished leather goods in the country. Vellore leather accounts for more than 37
percent of the country's export of leather and leatherrelated products (such as finished leathers,
shoes, garments and gloves). The state accounts for 70 per cent of leather tanning capacity in
India and 38 per cent of leather footwear and components.

Hundreds of leather and tannery industries are located around Vellore, Dindigul and Erode its
nearby towns such as Ranipet, Ambur, Perundurai and Vaniyambadi. The tanning industry in
India has a total capacity of 225 million pieces of hides and skins, of which Tamil Nadu alone
contributes 70 per cent, a leading export product share at 40 per cent for India. It currently
employs more than 2.5 million persons. Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI), a CSIR
research laboratory, is located in Chennai, the state capital. Footwear Design & Development
Institute (FDDI) Chennai is located at Irungattukottai near SIPCOT Footwear Park.

Central Footwear Training Institute (CFTI) of Ministry of MSME, Govt. of India is situated in
Guindy, Chennai. Tamilnadu has a dominant presence in the leather and leather-based industries.
Tamilnadu alone contributes an inspiring 70%. the tanning industry (hide and skins) in India.
The state accounts for more than 50% of the country's export of leather and leather- related
products such as shoe uppers, shoes, garments, and so on. The state government is geared up to
provide attractive incentives and infrastructural support in the form of setting up industrial
estates and common effluent treatment plants. Thus, Tamilnadu's substantial share of the leather
market in the years to come is ensured.

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5.8.9 Agro-based industries

Ideal climatic conditions for the growth of fruits and vegetables have given rise to a vibrant
Agro-based food industry in the state. The Madurai-Dingidul belt in Tamilnadu is endowed with
favourable climatic conditions ideal for the cultivation of a variety of fruits and vegetables. The
floriculture industry is also poised for a quantum leap in the next few years with the area around
Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, and the Nilgiris being earmarked as places ideally suited for the
cultivation of flowers like Rose and Chrysanthemum - of these Coimbatore has been identified as
an intensive floriculture zone. Realising the tremendous potential in the state, a number of joint
ventures involving Dutch companies are, being set up in the area - some involving major
corporates.

5.8.10 Chemical and petro-chemical industry

Tamil Nadu has a diversified manufacturing base with about 2,500 chemical and petrochemicals
factories, providing employment to over 120,000 people.Some of the leading chemical and petro
chemical manufacturers in the State are Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited (CPCL) Saint
Gobain, Asahi, SPIC Chemplast Sanmar, etc. The chemical industry has grown at a tremendous
pace world-wide and in India as well. The state of Tamilnadu traditionally has a strong base in
the chemical industry. Manali, in the outskirts of Chennai (Madras) has emerged as a major
petrochemical complex. The mother refinery in the complex, Chennai (Madras) Refinery Ltd.,
has given rise to several petro-based units using a refinery feed-stock for the manufacture of a
large number of petro-chemical ranging from fertilizer to polyols, nylon chips and polybutanes.
Major chemicals and fertilizer plants have also been established at Cuddalore and Tuticorin.
Petrochemical industry in Tamilnadu is in the threshold of rapid expansion.

5.8.11 Sugar Industry

The sugar industry is the largest agro-based one and capital-intensive industry, next to textiles in
the State. The State is contributing about 9 per cent of the total sugar production of the nation in
2011-12 and occupies 4th place next to Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka in that order.
During 2012-13, sugarcane crushing season (October to September), there were 46 sugar mills in
the State of which 16 in co-operative, 3 in public and 27 in private sector. Totally, 43 sugar mills
(16 mill cooperatives, 2 in public sector and 25 in private sector) were functioning. Additional

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benefits stem from the sugar mills in the State are byproducts such as baggass, molasses, press
mud, and production of alcohol, ethanol, and captive power.

5.8.12 Cement industry:

Tamil Nadu is one of the leading and largest cement producers in the count ry after Andhra
Pradesh and Rajasthan. The annu al capacity of cement industries in the State increased
marginally from 35.56 million tonnes in 2011-12 to 36.76 million tonnes in 2012-13 recording a
growth rate of 3 per cent. 67 The State share in the annual installed capacity stood at 12.00 per
cent at the n ational level, its share in cement production accounted for 11 per cent in the 2012-
13.

5.8.13 Heavy engineering sector

Tamil Nadu ranks 2nd in ‘General Purpose’ and ‘Special Purpose Machinery’ with 18% and
11% contribution to total India’s output respectively. The State also ranks 5th in ‘heavy electrical
machinery’ sector contributing 6% to total India’s output in this segment.

Major Engineering companies in Tamil Nadu: cat, ashok leyland, toshiba, gamesa, bhel, john
deere, winwind, doosan, timken, alstom, kobelco, mitsubishi, komatsu, rrb, bonfiglioli

Coimbatore is a major hub for the manufacture of textile machinery in India. Coimbatore also
produces about 60% of India’s requirements of domestic and agricultural pump sets. Some of the
major motor pump manufacturers in Coimbatore are Suguna Motor and Pumps, CRI Pumps,
Mahendra Pumps, etc. Some of the key machines manufactured are:

 Knitting and Spinning Machines

 Textile Testing Equipments
 Wrapping Machine

The city’s manufacturing houses also specialize in the manufacture of industrial pumps. The
motor and pump industry supplies over 40% of India’s requirements. Coimbatore also
contributes to 21% of manufacture of castings in India Kancheepuram and Chennai are two
prime locations where upcoming projects in heavy engineering sector are being planned/under
implementation. Investment to the tune of Rs. 3,660 crore is anticipated. Over the past decade,
investment to the tune of USD 1430 Million has taken place in Tamil Nadu. These projects (86%

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of completed projects) are predominantly concentrated around Thiruvallur, Tiruchirappalli,
Chennai, Kancheepuram and Dharmapuri.

5.8.14 Food processing

Tamil Nadu is one of the top three producers of a variety of fruits in India and the second largest
producer of poultry and dairy products in India. The state is the largest producer of banana in the
country and third largest producer of tea and coffee in the country. Tamil Nadu is  2nd largest
producer of poultry and dairy products in India  No.1 producer of banana in the country  3rd
largest producer of tea and coffee in the country The State has 5 existing agro export zones, one
upcoming food park in tuticorin Distt. and one upcoming food processing industrial park in
Dindigul Distt.

SIPCOT has promoted a Food Park at Nilakottai near Dindugul. Government is promoting Agro
Processing clusters in industrial parks and special economic zones keeping in view value-
addition of meat and seafood (Ramanathanpuram), Poultry products (Namakkal), Turmeric
(Erode), Sago 72 (Salem), Bananas (Trichy), Mangoes (Krishnagiri), Cashew (Panruti), Palm
products, Medicinal plants and seafood (Thoothukudi), Milk Products, Grapes (Theni), etc.

New industrial parks for Food Processing Industries at Dindigul, Theni, Virudhunagar Districts
with common facilities like cold storage and warehouse. Upcoming projects are Pearl City Food
port SEZ near Tuticorin and Marine based industries at Thoothukudi and Kanyakumari.

5.9 Population

The provisional population of India at 00.00 Hrs. of 1st March 2011 is 1,21,01,93,422
comprising of 62,37,24,248 males and 58,64,69,174 females. The Population of Tamil Nadu at
the same reference date and time stood at 7,21,38,958 comprising of 3,61,58,871 males and
3,59,80,087 females. The population of Tamil Nadu constitutes 5.96% of the India's Population.
It ranks 7 among the States/UTs. The States above Tamil Nadu are 1. Uttar Pradesh, 2.
Maharashtra, 3. Bihar, 4. West Bengal, 5. Andhra Pradesh, and 6. Madhya Pradesh in that order.

5.9.1 Distribution of Population

The distribution of the State's population among the 32 districts is furnished in Table . It may be
seen that most populous district in the State is Chennai, which is co-terminous of Chennai

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Corporation followed by Kancheepuram. Chennai district has reported a population of 46.81
lakhs while Kancheepuram has reported a population of 39.91 lakhs. The average population of a
district comes to 22,54,342 in 2011. This is higher than the average population of a district in
2001, which was 20,80,189. There are 15 districts having more than the average population.
Perambalur (5.65 lakhs) has recorded the lowest population among the districts. The Nilgiris
(7.35 lakhs), and Ariyalur (7.52 lakhs) are the other districts that have recorded a population of
less than one million.

Decadal Growth Rate of Population Table-4 shows the percentage decadal variation in
population for State and Districts since 1901. The decadal growth in Tamil Nadu has gone up
from 11.70% in 1991-2001 to 15.60% in 2001-2011. The decadal growth rate of Tamil Nadu
shows a declining trend since 1961-71. However, the present increase in growth rate in Tamil
Nadu may due to increase in “in migration” of population from other States to Tamil Nadu and
this could be owing to variety of factors such as industrial and economic growth leading to more
opportunities in the construction services and manufacturing sectors and availability of
educational opportunities in the State. However, this has to be studied separately.

It is significant to note that Kancheepuram district shows the highest decennial growth rate of
38.69% in the period 2001-2011. This district had also recorded the higher growth rate of
19.15% and 26.14% during the period 1991-2001 and 1981-1991 respectively. There are eight
other districts, which show higher growth rates than the State average in 2001-2011. These are
Tiruvallur (35.25%), Tiruppur (28.69%), Krishnagiri (20.67%), Coimbatore (19.06%), Madurai
(17.95%), Villupuram (16.99%), Sivaganga (16.09%), and Dharmapuri (16.04%). The districts
with very low growth rates in 2001-11 are The Nilgiris (-3.55%), Chennai (7.77%), Ariyalur
(8.19%), Nagapattinam (8.41%), Thanjavur (8.42%), Thiruvarur (8.43%), and Thoothukudi
(9.14%). The balance sixteen districts with decadal growth ranging from 10 to 16 percent.

5.9.2 Sex Ratio

The district wise sex ratio since 1901 to 2011 for Tamil Nadu is given in Table 5. The sex ratio
represents the number of females for every 1000 males. The sex ratio for Tamil Nadu has
increased from 987 in 2001 to 995 in 2011. The sex ratio for India is 940 in 2011 as against 933
in 2001. In the 2011 Census, There were three options for the Gender Questions viz. Male,
Female and Other for the purpose of calculating sex ratio in the PPTs ‘Others’ have been

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included with males. Of the 32 districts in the State, 15 districts have returned a sex ratio of more
than 1000 and a similar trend was noticed in 2001 Census also. Only one district namely
Sivaganga has returned exactly the sex ratio of 1000 it is significant to note that among 12
districts sex ratio is ranging from 980 – 1000. The highest sex ratio has been returned in “The
Nilgiris” (1041) followed by Thanjavur district (1031). The lowest sex ratio was now reported in
Dharmapuri district 946 but it was improved by 14 points compared to 2001 Census. Salem
district has the second lowest sex ratio of 954. However, it is significant to note that the Salem
district was reported as lowest sex ratio (929) in 2001 has improved to 954 in 2011.

Sex-
Percentage Ratio
Decadal (Number Population
Distri Population 2011 Growth of Density per
ct State/District Rate of Females sq. km.
Code Population per 1000
Males)
Person Femal 199 200 200 201
Males 2001 2011
s es 1-01 1-11 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
2 3
9 9 1
37256 18785 18471 3. 5. 7
010 Thiruvallur 7 8 04
97 59 38 0 2 76
1 3 9
6 5
1
7 9 9 2 2
46810 23576 23234 3.
020 Chennai .7 5 8 49 69
87 33 54 0
7 7 6 63 03
7
1 3
9 9
Kancheepura 39908 20103 19805 9. 8. 6 9
030 7 8
m 97 09 88 1 6 68 27
5 5
5 9
1 1
1 9
39281 19596 19684 2. 0 5 6
040 Vellore 4. 9
06 76 30 9 0 72 46
9 7
6 4
1 1
9 9
15029 77249 73041 5. 6. 2 3
050 Dharmapuri 3 4
00 0 0 2 0 86 32
2 6
7 4
051 Krishnagiri 18837 96315 92057 1 2 9 9 3 3
31 2 9 9. 0. 4 5 07 70
6 6 4 6

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 2 7
1
7 9 9
Tiruvannamal 24689 12386 12302 2. 3 3
060 .0 9 9
ai 65 88 77 9 53 99
1 5 3
4
1
7 9 9
34632 17448 17184 6. 4 4
070 Viluppuram .4 8 8
84 32 52 9 12 82
3 4 5
9
1
1 9 9
34800 17805 16994 5. 5 6
080 Salem 7. 2 5
08 69 39 3 75 63
2 9 4
7
1 1
9 9
17211 86674 85443 2. 5. 4 5
090 Namakkal 6 8
79 0 9 9 2 39 06
6 6
1 5
1 1
9 9
22596 11341 11254 1. 2. 3 3
100 Erode 6 9
08 91 17 8 0 54 97
8 2
5 5
- 1 1
7
73507 36017 37490 3. 0 0 2 2
110 The Nilgiris .3
1 0 1 5 1 4 99 88
1
5 4 1

1 1 1
9
34725 17353 17372 6. 8. 0 6 7
120 Coimbatore 6
78 62 16 9 4 0 31 48
8
6 6 1
2 2
9 9
24712 12429 12282 5. 9. 3 4
121 Tiruppur 6 8
22 74 48 3 6 67 76
3 8
4 9
1
9 9 9
21613 10819 10794 2. 3 3
130 Dindigul .2 8 9
67 34 33 3 17 57
2 6 8
9
1 1 1
9
10765 53439 54219 5. 0 0 3 3
140 Karur .5
88 2 6 0 1 1 23 71
4
6 0 5
150 Tiruchirappall 27138 13478 13659 1 1 1 1 5 6
i 58 63 95 0. 2. 0 0 36 02
1 2 0 1

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 2 1 3
1 1 1
9
56451 28143 28307 4. 0 0 2 3
160 Perambalur .4
1 6 5 3 0 0 82 23
5
6 6 6
1 1
9 8
75248 37331 37916 0 0 3 3
170 Ariyalur .2 .1
1 9 2 0 1 58 87
9 9
6 6
1
7 9 9
26008 13111 12897 3. 6 7
180 Cuddalore .6 8 8
80 51 29 8 17 02
6 6 4
0
1 1
8 8
16140 79721 81685 0 0 6 6
190 Nagapattinam .0 .4
69 4 5 1 2 16 68
7 1
4 5
1 1
6 8
12680 62761 64047 0 0 4 5
200 Thiruvarur .3 .4
94 6 8 1 2 92 33
1 3
4 0
1 1
7 8
24027 11831 12196 0 0 6 6
210 Thanjavur .9 .4
81 12 69 2 3 38 91
1 2
1 1
1 1 1
9
16187 80333 81538 0. 0 0 3 3
220 Pudukkottai .9
25 7 8 9 1 1 14 48
8
0 5 5
1 1 1
4
13412 67059 67065 6. 0 0 2 3
230 Sivaganga .7
50 7 3 0 3 0 79 24
4
9 8 0
1
7 9 9
30410 15283 15127 7. 6 8
240 Madurai .4 7 9
38 08 30 9 98 23
1 8 0
5
1
4 9 9
12436 62492 61876 3. 3 4
250 Theni .2 7 9
84 2 2 6 81 33
5 8 0
9
1 1 1
1
19433 96743 97587 0. 0 0 4 4
260 Virudhunagar 1.
09 7 2 9 1 0 09 54
9
6 2 9
270 Ramanathapur 13375 67657 66098 6 1 1 9 2 3

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 2. 0
.1 7
am 60 4 6 6 3 84 20
2 7
3 6
1 1
7 9
17383 85891 87945 0 0 3 3
280 Thoothukkudi .9 .1
76 9 7 5 2 47 78
2 4
0 4
1 1 1
8
30728 15185 15542 3. 0 0 4 4
290 Tirunelveli .9
80 95 85 6 4 2 03 58
3
6 2 4
1 1 1
4 1
Kanniyakumar 18631 92680 93637 1. 0 0 9
300 .7 10
i 74 0 4 1 1 1 95
3 6
7 4 0

Child Sex Ratio in Tamil Nadu Population in the age group 0-6 in Tamil Nadu has decreased
from 72,35,160 (11.59 % to the total) in 2001 to 68,94,821 (9.56 %) in 2011. Comparing with
child sex ratio of 2001 Census it is noticed that 14 districts, the sex ratio was declined ranging
from - 2 to – 62. It is significant to note that in Cuddalore district child sex ratio was decreased
from 957 to 895 and in Ariyalur district it was decreased from 949 to 892. In eighteen districts
the child sex ratio has increased ranging from 1 to 85 in 2011 Census. It is significant to note that
the child sex ratio in Dharmapuri has increased from 826 in 2001 to 911 in 2011 and similarly in
Salem district child sex ratio has improved from 851 to 917 with an increase of 66 points.

5.9.3 Density of Population

As per the Census of India 2011, Tamil Nadu has a population density of 555 persons per Sq.
Km. the same was 480 in 2001. The density of the country in 2011 is 382 whereas it has 325 in
2001. Though the state has not witnessed any change in its area, it has witnessed creation of two
districts during the period and hence the area of those affected districts have undergone change.
Chennai district is the densest district with 26903 persons per Sq. Km. Kanniyakumari (1106),
Thiruvallur (1049), Kancheepuram (927), Madurai (823), Coimbatore (748), Cuddalore (702),
Thanjavur (691), Nagapattinam (668), Salem (663), Vellore (646) and Tiruchirappalli (602) are

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the other eleven districts having higher density of more than 600 persons per Sq. Km. The
Nilgiris district has returned the lowest density of 288.

5.9.4 Literacy Rate

The literates exclude children in the age group 0 - 6 who are by definition treated as illiterate.
The literacy rate is the number of literates per 100 population of aged 7 +. The literacy rate for
Tamil Nadu in 2011 has increased to 80.33 % from 73.45 % returned in the 2001 Census.
Among the males, 86.81% are literates whereas among the females the rate is 73.86%. The
corresponding rates in 2001 were 82.42% for males and 64.43% for females. It may be observed
that more than three fourth of the population is literate among males in all the districts (except
Dharmapuri), while more than two third of the population is literate among females in all the
districts exception of 8 districts namely Dharmapuri (60.03), Krishnagiri (64.86),
Tiruvannamalai (65.71), Villupuram (63.51), Salem (65.43), Erode (65.07), Perambalur (66.11)
and Ariyalur (62.22). The literacy rate for India is 74.04 for persons 82.14 for males and 65.46
for females. The 2001 rates for India stand at 64.8 for persons; 75.3 for males and 53.7 for
females. Among the districts, Kanniyakumari district has reported the highest literacy rate of
92.14% while Dharmapuri district accounts for the lowest rate of 64.71%. The five districts
namely Kanniyakumari (92.14%), Chennai (90.33%), Thoothukudi (86.52%), The Nilgiris
(85.65%) and Kancheepuram (85.29%) have recorded very high literacy rates. As such, 16
districts have registered higher literacy rates than the State average. Sixteen districts are below
the State average.

REFERENCES
1. Gopal Singh, (1970), A Geography of India, Atnaram & sons, New Delhi.
2. Khullar, D. R., (2010), India – A Comprehensive Geography, Kalyani Publishers,
New Delhi.
3. Krishnan, M.S. (1982), Geology of India and Burma, CBS Publishers, New Delhi.
4. Majid Hussain (2008), Geography of India, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing company
Ltd., New Delhi.
5. Mathur, S.M. (1982), Physical Geology of India, National Book Trust, India, New
Delhi.
6. Pal, Saroj K. (2003), Physical Geography of India – A study in Regional Earth
Sciences, Orient Longman Pvt. Ltd. Kolkata.

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 7. Sharma, T.C., (2003), India – An Economic & Commercial Geography, Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
8. Singh, R.L., (1977), India - A Regional Geography, NGSI, Varanasi.
9. AERC Study No. 154 © Agro-Economic Research Centre, University of Madras,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
10. Census 2011

Webliography
 www.msmedi-chennai.gov.in ema
 https://www.tn.gov.in › deptst › industries
https://www.tnmines.tn.gov.in
 https://www.forests.tn.gov.in/
 https://www.tnagrisnet.tn.gov.in/

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