Consultant guide In the swimming pool safety

Prepared by: Hossam Abdel Kader A

check safety first senior consultant
Definition:
A healthy swimming pool: is obviously one that contains water free from disease-causing organisms
and bacteria, has clear and sparkling water, with well maintained surrounds

Acknowledgements:
Holiday makers often choose a particular hotel because it has a swimming pool or a spa pool. They
expect to be able to use them at their leisure, and that they will be in pristine condition, the operations of
tourism accommodation businesses are often judged by the way that their pools are managed. In order
to maintain healthy water and an inviting environment, maintaining the pool structure, and ensuring there
is reliable and efficient plant and equipment, is essential. Pool operation and pool management is a
challenging profession. The personnel are entrusted with an Important responsibility. Investment in
staff development through training is essential, and underpins sound plant and equipment.

Table of content:
1- Infrastructure.
2- Pool Hygiene and cleaning
3- Swimming pool water treatment
4- Monitoring system and record keeping
5- Maintenance

1-Infrastructure:
Design is the first issue to be considered for new and existing structures and should be addressed in
collaboration with all parties responsible for design, construction and operation. Water treatment
systems are an integral part of the architectural, structural and mechanical design, and should be
addressed from the very start of the project. The starting point for design is a full assessment of
community needs and potential demands, which also takes into account existing facilities.

The designer should consider:

1-The type and amount of use envisaged, for example: swimming, therapy, education or leisure.
Possible shared treatment plant for different pools.
Changing rooms and their accessibility.
Fire and emergency evacuation.
2- Bathing Load, Circulation Rate and Turnover:

Bathing load dictates the rate of circulation or turnover period required. Bathing load and pool
Volume should be considered together to determine the size of filtration plant and the choice of
Water treatment system, which makes these issues central to good water quality.

Bathing load is a difficult issue in pool water management. There may be pressure to maximized
Income by overloading
-there is no excuse for not planning and maintaining a realistic relationship between bathing numbers
and pool and treatment plant capacity.

3- Water Treatment
The following factors should be considered:
-Pool type (recreation, hydrotherapy, toddlers, spa and so on) -Pool temperature -Method of
removal of suspended and -colloidal matter -Oxidizing agents -Disinfection system -Coagulants
-PH adjustment -Water balance

-Choice of Treatment System

When choosing a water treatment system, these areas should be considered:

-The nature of the water supply - The type of pool - Likely bathing loads - Desired water quality
4-Hydraulics
The design of water movement demands attention to:
-Pool size and shape (including profile), number and location (including safety considerations) of pool
water inlets and outlets.
-Design and correct sizing of the filtration plant, including filters and filtration rates
-Size and routing of circulatory pipe work.
-Size and location of balance tank.
-Water circulation within the balance tank.
-Plant room environment relating to temperature, humidity, ventilation and noise.
-A well-designed circulation system within the pool will ensure that treated water reaches all Parts of the
pool and contaminated water are removed from areas most used by bathers.
- If effective circulation is not achieved, water treatment may not necessarily provide good water Quality.

Surface Water Draw-Off

-The particulate matter will tend to remain on the surface of the water and the majority of organic
pollution and contamination is concentrated at or near the surface— irrespective of the mixing effects of
the circulation system. Body fats, oils, sunscreens and other oil based contaminants do not mix with
water, and tend to remain at or near the surface. This is also a source of potential infection, and can
result in the formation of a ‘scum line’ around a pool. It is recommended that pools with low bather loads
be constructed so that 20 per cent of the Surface water is drawn off for filtration. In leisure pools, or those
with a higher bather load, this may Need to be increased to as high as 80 per cent. There are three basic
systems for removing surface water arranged from (best to worst): Deck level - overflow channels -
skimmers.

2-Pool Hygiene and Cleaning:

Contamination: is defined as any addition to the water that makes it dirty or impure. Infection and
sickness can result. For this reason
 Sources of Contamination:

1-Environment
Environmental contamination is especially relevant to outdoor pools where there is dust, soil, sand,
leaves and grass constantly around and in the pool.

2-Pool Users
From bodily fluids, solids and wastes—urine, mucus from the nose and chest, saliva, sweat, hair,
scales from skin and faecal matter. These are pollutants in themselves, but may also contain harmful
microorganisms which could cause illness in other pool users.

Hygiene Standards
Minimum hygiene standards should be met for all change rooms, toilets and showers. The pool
concourse should be cleaned at least daily. Pool users should be encouraged to shower prior to
Entering the pool to rinse off dust and body oils.

Infections and Conditions Associated with Pool Use

Gastro-Intestinal Infections, Including Cryptosporidium

In fact most microorganisms responsible for gastrointestinal infections will be inactivated by the
disinfectant residual and removed by the filtration system. . However, two problem organisms
(—Cryptosporidium and Giardia—) remain. And these cause: Watery diarrhea and abdominal cramping
associated with symptoms of fatigue, fever, loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting. In the healthy
individual these Symptoms are usually mild, but they can cause severe, chronic, if the recipient is unwell
or has a reduced immune system.

Cryptosporidium is resistant to the usual maintenance levels of disinfectant and can remain in the pool
system for several months. Normal filtration processes may be ineffective in removing
Cryptosporidium parasites due to their tiny size. Because normal disinfectant residuals and filtering
processes are not effective in Eliminating Cryptosporidium, special care is needed in cases of suspected
contamination.

Disinfection levels need to be raised to 14 ppm and kept at that level for 12 hours.

Pool users suspected of being infected with either Cryptosporidium or Giardia are advised to avoid
Attending a pool for one month after symptoms cease. As the recommended maintenance level for
disinfectant is less than 8 ppm, the pool must Remain closed until water samples prove no evidence of
the microorganism. If a pool is closed due to suspected contamination by Cryptosporidium, signage
is advisable to warn Infected persons not to visit or potentially contaminate other pools. Patrons who
have suffered a gastrointestinal illness or diarrhea should be advised not to use the pool Until at least
one week after symptoms Cease.

Viruses
Viruses are not spread in the pool if adequate sanitizer levels are present.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis are viruses carried in the blood and other body
fluids. They are inactivated by the disinfectant residual at normal maintenance levels.
Ear and Sinus Problems:

. High numbers of Pseudomonas aeruginosa present in the water may cause an unusually high
incidence of this condition (as well as skin infections). Normal sanitation levels should eliminate the
presence of Pseudomonas.
Legionnaire’s Disease

Legionella pneumophila bacteria cause a severe form of pneumonia known as legionnaire’s disease.
For it to be spread there must be an infected spray, such as with spray humidifiers or cooling towers.
Legionnaire’s disease has not been associated with conventional swimming pools. However, it is easily
spread in poorly maintained and disinfected spa pools due to the fine spray (aerosols) generated at the
turbulent water surface. Careful maintenance, frequent filter backwashing and close attention to
disinfectant Levels are critical.

Skin Irritations and Rashes

Skin rashes associated with pool use are usually due to one of the following factors:

Drying of the skin due to a reduction in natural body oils—common with prolonged Immersion and
warm water in hydrotherapy pools and spas.

Residual disinfectant left on the skin.

Infection (more common in spas due to higher bather loads) skin abrasion from the aerated Water jets

and higher water temperature. These factors contribute to common skin conditions, such as pool rash,
bromine itch and folliculitis.

Pool Rash
Pool rash is essentially a mild dermatitis caused by prolonged immersion and the effect of the
Disinfectant creating a dry, irritated skin. It responds well to unperfumed moisturising Creams
and/or reduced exposure to the pool.
Bromine Itch

‘Bromine itch’ is another form of dermatitis caused by sensitization to bromine and its byproducts
Used to disinfect the pool. Incidence increases with age and exposure, particularly With prolonged
immersion. It is intensely itchy and occurs within 12 hours of exposure. .

Folliculitis
Folliculitis is an infection of the hair follicle caused by the bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A
Combination of intense skin wetting and high Levels of the bacteria is necessary for the infection To
occur. It is most common in spas, where there are higher temperatures (over 35°C), longer exposure
times (one to two hours) and inadequate disinfection.

Emergency Procedures

1-Exposure of Pool Water to Faecal Matter:

The treatment required will depend upon the condition of the faecal matter introduced.

Loose Stool
The following are guidelines for responding to loose faecal matter in the pool: 1. The pool, in the
vicinity of the faecal accident, should be cleared of people. 2. The faecal matter should be removed as
thoroughly as possible using a fine mesh scoop net or vacuumed to waste.
3. The pool should be super chlorinated, with the bulk of the disinfectant added to the
Immediate vicinity of the accident. 4. The pool should be super chlorinated that night. 5. The
pool filters should be backwashed that night. 6. Details of the accident and treatment should
be noted in the pool operation log. 7. Patrons should only be allowed back into the water
when disinfectant and pH levels are Within recommended ranges and all faecal matter has
been removed from the water.

Firm Stool
A firm solid stool requires the following action: The pool in the vicinity of the faecal
accident should be cleared of people. 1. The stool should be removed. 2. Water should
be tested to ensure compliance with the Health Regulations. 3. If the water meets the
Regulations, patrons may be allowed to re-enter the water.

Contamination of the Pool Water by Blood or Vomit:

If blood or vomit contaminates the pool water, the following action should be taken: 1.
The pool in the vicinity of the accident should be cleared of people. 2. Large particles
should be removed using a fine mesh scoop net, vacuumed to waste. 3. Allow and assist
any remaining contaminant to disperse. 4. Water should be tested to ensure compliance
with the Health Regulations. 5. If the water meets the Regulations, patrons may be
allowed to re-enter the water.

Disinfection of Contaminated Surfaces

Any contaminant on the pool deck should not be washed into the pool water circulation system.
-Chlorine based disinfectants are commonly used for dealing with blood or body fluid spills. For Example,
a 1:10 dilution of sodium hypochlorite in water can be used. The procedure for dealing with a
contaminated surface is: 1. Wear rubber gloves and remove excess contaminant using disposable paper
towels or similar. 2. Wipe non-porous surfaces with hot water and detergent and then flood with a chlorine
based Disinfectant and leave for 10 minutes. 3. Porous surfaces, such as the pool deck, are more difficult
to clean. Wash the area thoroughly with detergent and allow the run off to go down the drain. Flood with a
chlorine based disinfectant and leave for ten minutes.

3 Swimming Pool Water Treatment

Swimming pool water treatment - the basics
The primary objective of pool water treatment is to maintain the water in a safe and pleasant
condition for swimming. More specifically this objective can be summarized as needing to: •
keep the water free of pathogenic (harmful) bacteria • keep the water free from growths of
algae • ensure the water is neither toxic nor irritating to swimmers • prevent the formation of
undesirable smells or taste in the water • prevent corrosion of the pool surround, its fittings and
equipment • prevent scale formation in the pool, filter or pipe work.

a- Flow rates and turnover

Pools become polluted at different rates. Generally the shallower the water the more bathers
per cubic meter, and an open air pool has greater surface pollution than an indoor one.

Turnover is the number of hours it takes the filter to pass one complete volume of pool water.
The calculation for this is:
The filter rating is the flow of water through it designed to achieve a specified degree of
clarification, say down to 10 micron, or 0.01 mm, within a certain period. Since most swimming
pools are required to be operated at a turnover rate of 6 to 8 hours, the operator should
understand the arithmetic for computing pool volume and should be able to translate his findings
in terms of flow rates. The approximate volume in gallons of a given pool is calculated by
multiplying pool length (in feet) by pool width (in feet) by average pool depth (in feet) by 7.5.
EXAMPLE 1 A swimming pool 50 feet long by 20 feet wide sloping uniformly from a 3-foot depth
at shallow end to an 8 foot depth at deep end. -Area of pool (50 x 20) equals 1, 000 square
feet. -Average depth 8 +3 /2= 5.5 feet. -Volume of pool (1, 000 x 5.5) equals 5, 500 cubic feet.
-Capacity of pool (5, 500 cubic feet x 7.5 gallons per cubic foot) equals 41, 250 gallons. -The
calculations of Example 1 make it possible to determine the pumping rate required to provide an
8 hour turnover. Volume of pool in gallons equals 41, 250. -Volume (41, 250) divided by turnover
time (8) equals 5, 156 gallons per hour. -Gallons per hour (5, 156) divided by minutes (60)
equals pumping rate of 85.9 gallons per minute. Hotel and Health Club pools may be able to
have a longer turnover period than an equivalent public or leisure pool if there are strict limits on
bather loads and the time the pools are used. The Design Bather Load should be known and
enforced by operators at the entrance.

b- Dilution
Disinfection of the water and the filtration process will not destroy or remove all of the pollutants
present. A programme of dilution of the pool water with fresh water is desirable to reduce the
build-up of pollutants from bathers and the by-products of the disinfection process. To some
extent dilution is carried out by the sheer nature of back washing the filter where the water
flushed to drain must be replaced. Unfortunately this is not frequent enough to maintain the
concentration of undesirable pollutants at an Acceptable level. Some pollutants can only be
reduced by dilution – organic chloramines like chlorcreatinine for example, cannot be broken
down by chemical means. A useful guide as to volume required is 30 liters per bather per
day in a public pool, which should give benefits of lower levels of pollutants and hence reduce
the use of the treatment chemicals themselves.
c-Filtration
The main purpose of the filter is to remove particulate matter and debris from the water. It
strains out suspended solids down to sub-micron- size particles in order to maintain water
clarity. It does not remove dissolved salts nor does it deal with micro-organisms .

Several key areas are important here:

Clarity
Turbidity
Filtration
Backwashing
Clarity of pool water is critical for customer safety. It should be possible to see the bottom of the pool at
its deepest point. If not, there is a physical danger to anyone in distress below the water surface. Lack
of clarity may also increase bather discomfort and reduce disinfection. In practice, it must be possible to
see a small child on the bottom of the deepest part when the pool is being used.

Poor clarity is caused by turbidity, colloidal or particulate matter suspended in the water. It is
Important to establish the cause of turbidity, so that it may be dealt with directly. The most likely
remedy however, will be correct filtration and backwashing, coupled with flocculation or
coagulation.

-Filtration Principles
In general, the greater the velocity of water through the filter, the lower the filtration efficiency. In
practice, efficiency falls off rapidly at high velocities.
Sand filters are recommended for all non domestic swimming pools. Cheaper alternatives, such as
cartridge filters and pre-coat or diatomaceous earth filters demand more care and attention than sand
filters; they cannot always be relied on to cope with the bathing conditions that public pools may expect
at certain times.

The capacity of the filtration system should be based on expected maximum bathing load, operating 24
hours a day. Pools will benefit greatly from the increased flexibility and the safeguards of having more
than one filter. Through isolation of one or more filter units, a restricted turnover rate can enable the Pool
to be used during backwash, maintenance or repair. This flexibility permits and encourages a planned
inspection and maintenance program, which is essential for filter efficiency.

Types of Sand Filters:

Pressure Filters
Pressure sand filters vessels are usually constructed from fiberglass, glass reinforced plastic, prefabricated
mild steel or stainless steel. These may be medium and high rate, and are commonly used in conjunction
with flocculants and coagulants for commercial pools and spas, as well as hotel, hydrotherapy and school
pools that are subject to variable bather loading demands.

Low-Rate Filters
These may include vacuum sand, open bed gravity fed filters. Though very efficient, they are
rarely utilized in indoor pools because they tend to be large and expensive. Gravity feed filter vessels are
usually constructed from concrete and operate by gravity rather than pressure. They have been used in
many older outdoors pools and are also used in town drinking water treatment systems.

Specifications
It is recommended that the following quality and performance standards should be specified.
A pressure or loss of head gauge should be fitted to indicate the operating pressure of the filter.

An automatic air release/vacuum breaker and a safe, manually operated quick air release mechanism
should be fitted to each filter.
A flow meter should be fitted (and regularly serviced) to indicate filtration water and backwash water
flow rates.
A sight glass should be incorporated into the outlet water pipe to observe backwash effluent.
The Sand Bed
The normal grade of filter sand size for conventional pool filtration is 0.45 to 1 mm. The bed depth
should be at least 0.5 m. Depths have tended to increase from 0.75 m on average up to about 1 m. A
common rule of thumb is: two-thirds filter space for the media bed, leaving one-third for expansion
during backwash

The long established material for filters is sand and this is still preferred by many
Designers of large pools since its use have been so well proven over 100 years.

Other types are:

- Cartridge filters - Zeolite
mineral - Diatomaceous
earth - Dolomitic filter
material

- The cartridge filter is a self-contained unit constructed of a synthetic fabric such as spun
bonded polyester in a pleated format which is attached to a centre core within a cylindrical drum.
This provides a large surface area for filtering in a very small confined space. -This type of
filter is generally only used for small pools. - In both sand and zeolite filters, water is
passed through the material under pressure. While passing Through the sharp edged
media, small particles of debris are trapped in the gaps, starting in the top Layers. - Zeolite
material is now growing in popularity over sand as is absorbs ammonia, gives good water clarity
and can bring savings on chemical costs.
 - A gravity, vacuum or a pressure process occurs in a diatomaceous earth filter. Mesh bags
are placed in a vessel usually under pressure and the diatomaceous earth is introduced into the
system and settles on the mesh. Water passes through

Dolomitic filter material produces an alkaline reaction with the pool water and is used to
stabilize the pH, particularly when chlorine gas is the disinfectant. Due to it’s composition
there is a build up of calcium and magnesium bicarbonates in the water which increases its
hardness and this contributes to the pH stabilization. This process slowly uses up the
Dolomitic material and so at the appropriate time its level in the filter has to be topped up. The
depth should usually be approximately 40 cm on top of the sand. Where Dolomitic Media is in
a filter do not use Hypochlorite in the pool. An advantage of this type of filter medium is it’s
additional ability to filter out Iron and Manganese from the water.

d-Flocculation
Colloidal or finely suspended materials may not be trapped on the filter bed but continue to be
circulated in the pool giving the water a cloudy appearance and reducing visibility for bathers.
This problem is more likely to occur in an outdoor pool due to the effect of the elements – wind
and rain. The pool water is prone to collect windblown debris like dust, algae, spores, insects
and footborne materials like soil and grit. In order to remove this finely dispersed material the
use of a flocculent is necessary. This is a chemical which is added to the pool water and which
causes the particles to group together to form larger particles (flocs) which become big enough
to be caught by the filter media and removed from the water. The following is a list of some of
the more popular flocculants: ALUM (aluminum sulphate) PAC (polyaluminium chloride or
aluminium hydroxychloride) PASS (polyaluminium sulpho silicate) SODIUM ALUMINATE
IRONIII CHLORIDE HEXAHYDRATE IRONIII SULPHATE

Chemically they all behave in similar ways by forming a gelatinous precipitate by

Hydrolysis.

Aluminium-based compounds operate best at pH levels between 6.5 and 7.2 and iron salts
between 6.5 and 7.5 Iron salts however may leave an iron residual in the water which may
cause staining, and so these are not now used on a large scale. The most commonly used
flocculants are the polyelectrolytes like PAC and PASS. As non- filterable water turbidity is
usually caused by negatively charged particles these polyelectrolytes are cationic and attract
the particles causing an increase in the floc size.

Cationic polyelectrolytes offer additional advantages as • At the recommended dosage rates

they are capable of flocculating living organisms such as algae and bacteria which would
otherwise pass through the filter – the infectious cysts of Cryptosporidium and Giardia are small
and resistant to disinfection.
• They produce a tough floc that is resistant to disintegration from the action of the pump
impellor. It should be stressed that flocculants must be used correctly at the
recommended dosage rates and this is best achieved by dosing continuously by means of a
Dosing pump. Suppliers instructions must be followed.

-Backwashing of Filters
With all types of filter there comes a time when it becomes loaded with debris and it is necessary to
clean or backwash the filter bed.
The indication that this course of action is appropriate is when the pressure gauge on the filter
shows that there is a pressure differential between the top of the filter bed and the bottom

Backwashing is the process of reversing the flow of water through the filter. This agitates the material and
loosens the bed. The sharp grains collide with each other causing the collected debris to be flushed out to
drain (waste). This is the mechanism in sand, zeolite and dolomitic filters but in the case of
diatomaceous earth filters the reverse flow not only removes the debris but the filter media itself. This
then has to be replaced before filtration can again proceed. Since cartridge filters cannot be backwashed
they must be physically removed to be cleaned. They are flushed out, possibly with a garden hose to force
debris off the surfaces, then cleaned with a strong solution of chlorine (about 100 mg/l) before being refitted
for re-use. There are also proprietory chemical filter cleaners.

e-Water Disinfection:

Disinfection is concerned with the destruction of micro-organisms – viruses, bacteria, algae,

moulds and fungi. These exist in large numbers in our natural environment. The two important
types as far as swimming pool water is concerned are bacteria and algae. Millions of bacteria
are present on the human body. Many are quite harmless but others cause illness and swimming
pool water is an ideal medium for the passing of bacteria from one person to another. By adding
a disinfectant to the water, the pool operator is initiating a process which will hopefully destroy
these bacteria as quickly as possible and hence minimize the risk of cross- infection. Algae are
natural forms of plant life and are present in all natural water courses – rivers, ponds, lakes etc.
There are thousands of species in a diverse range of colours. The presence of algae in
swimming pools is highly undesirable as algae growths turn the water cloudy and make the pool
surfaces slippery and dangerous. The disinfection process should be effective in controlling
algae but supplementary chemicals called algaecides are available for use in cases where they
are difficult to remove. In well managed and adequately disinfected pools, the spread of viral
infections should not occur. Nasal and respiratory infections can be contracted by bathers in
crowded areas; however, these are more likely to be caused by infected airborne droplets rather
than contact with the pool water itself. Two organisms which are particularly resistant to
disinfection are the infective cysts of CRYPTOSPORIDIUM and GIARDIA. These are
microscopic protozoa found widely in the natural environment, often in animals. They are
responsible for diarrhea and sickness and can be a problem in busy pools. Although resistant to
disinfection they are larger than bacteria and therefore more susceptible to coagulation and
hence removal by filtration.
Treatment Chemicals
Disinfection occurs when sanitation of the pool water is achieved. This means that
transmission of infections between persons or from the pool is minimized and that growth of
algae and other nuisance organisms is inhibited.

Choosing a Suitable Disinfectant:

The type of disinfectant chosen depends on these factors:
1-Indoor or outdoor situation
2-Swimming pool or spa pool
3-The chemical characteristics of the water supply
4-The bather loadings that have to be treated
5-Circulation capacity and pool design
6-Chemical handling and safety issues
7-Supervision and maintenance issues
8-Pool water temperature.

Important note

Never add acid directly to sodium hypochlorite solution as this will cause the Production of
chlorine gas.

CAUTION: ALWAYS add chemicals to water. NEVER add water to a chemical as a violent
action may occur. Although acid is necessary for pH correction it should be added to the
pool gradually.
Calcium Hypochlorite

Calcium hypochlorite (cal hypo) is a stable alternative to sodium hypochlorite. Available commercially in
granular form or as tablets it usually contains 65% of available chlorine. Cal hypo is not normally dosed
by hand but rather it is dissolved in water and pumped into the pool circulation system automatically.

The tablets are placed in a feeder system through which the pool water flows, or alternatively placed in the
skimmer baskets as in the case of domestic pools. Regular use of cal hypo will increase calcium levels in
the water which is beneficial in soft water areas. Concrete pools in these areas often suffer grout loss
from between the tiles and sometimes the screed from behind the tiles due to the water having a ‘calcium
demand’ and seeking out sources of calcium to help satisfy this. Cal hypo is doubly beneficial in these
cases as it both disinfects and helps to satisfy the calcium demand of the water. In a hard water area with
continued use of cal hypo, grout attack is unlikely but rather the risk of scale deposits on the sides of the
pool and calcification of the filter is possible.

Cal hypo is alkaline with a pH between 11 and 12 so acid is needed for pH correction in the pool.

Chlorinated Isocyanurates (stabilised chlorine)

These are compounds of chlorine and cyanuric acid which are in world-wide use due to the fact that the
cyanuric acid acts as a stabiliser in outdoor pools, reducing the chlorine loss due to the action of ultra violet
rays from the sun. Two compounds are available – sodium dichloroisocyanurate ‘Di-Chlor’ and
trichloroisocyanuric Acid ‘Tri-Chlor’.

Di-Chlor
This is a granular material containing about 60% of available chlorine. It is a highly soluble compound
which makes it ideal for direct application to the pool. Furthermore it has an almost neutral pH which
means it will not have an effect on the pH of the pool water. When Di-Chlor dissolved in water produces
hypochlorous acid (free chlorine) and cyanuric acid and it is important to monitor the latter as well as
the free chlorine as its concentration tends to build up in the pool water until a situation arises
when chlorine lock occurs

Tri-Chlor

This contains about 90% of available chlorine and is normally supplied in the form of large tablets. It is
not particularly soluble which makes it ideal for flow through erosion feeders, floaters or in skimmer basket
applications. It has a low pH – about 3 which may require pH adjustment with pH-increasing Chemicals
like sodium carbonate (soda ash) It produces hypochlorous acid and cyanuric acid in solution in a similar
manner to dichlor and the same potential problem applies over the build-up of cyanuric acid.

FREE VS. COMBINED CHLORINE:

The potency of chlorine is affected by the ammonia content as well as the pH of the water.
Ammonia is naturally present in virtually all surface waters and even more so in swimming pools
since skin excretions and urinary discharges are ammonia sources. When dissolved chlorine
exists predominantly as hypochlorous acid (HOCL) the residual is said to be "free available"
chlorine... "Free" to react with bacteria and other forms of soil" When chlorine reacts with
ammonia the resulting compounds are called chloramines, and the Chlorine becomes
"combined" rather than "free" residual. Chloramines are undesirable because like hypochlorite
ion (OCL), their oxidizing and germicidal power is greatly reduced. The extent to which chlorine
reactions produce chloramines rather than hypochlorous acid is governed largely by the amount
of ammonia present.
 Chlorine prefers to chemically react with ammonia rather than with bacteria and soil. Thus, a
large amount of ammonia in pool water causes the chlorine to exist largely as combined
residual chloramine, greatly reducing the oxidation and disinfection activity.

SUPER CHLORINATION. ( BREAKPOINT CHLORINATION)

Breakpoint chlorination is accomplished by increasing chlorine dosage to a point at which all
ammonia compounds in the water are completely oxidized and removed by chlorine reaction,
After which point all dissolved chlorine exists as free available hypochlorous acid (HOCL) or
hypochlorite ion (OCL). The amount of chlorine required to reach breakpoint depends upon
the Amount of ammonia present. Dosage instructions cannot therefore be expressed in pound or
parts per million. An occasional super chlorination of 4 or 5 p/m in typical pool will provide an
acceptable means of assuring free residual chlorine.

Ultra-Violet (UV)

UV has been known to be effective in destroying bacteria and other micro organisms for nearly
a century and has been used for the treatment of industrial and drinking water for nearly half that
time. Ultra-violet light is generated by electric arcs, usually using a mercury vapour lamp. It
exists in the part of the spectrum which is beyond the shortest wavelength visible to the human
eye. It is most effective in the region between 240 nm and 280 nm, the so-called germicidal
wavelength. In swimming pools, UV breaks down chloramines and other organic compounds,
like urea, by photo oxidation, Water temperature does not affect the process which means that
the disinfection and chloramine reduction is equally efficient in unheated outdoor pools as well as
warm leisure or hot hydrotherapy pools. UV disinfection treats the full flow from the pool filters
and provides protection against the problem of pseudomonas contamination of the filter bed.
A low concentration of a primary disinfectant is required to be added to the water to act as a
residual disinfectant. This is usually chlorine and it should be used at the minimum possible
level which may be as low as 0.5 mg/l free chlorine for a private pool, but adjusted so that algal
growth is prevented from adhering to the pool surfaces. UV equipment will help control
waterborne algae but is unlikely to have any effect on growing spores on the pool structure. It
should be noted that the disinfectant should be added after the UV treatment chamber to
minimise the affect of UV light on the chemical.

Algicides
The appearance of algal growths in outdoor pools is an all too common nuisance. They can
prove to be dangerous if they make surfaces slippery. The pool water may turn cloudy and
ultimately, if allowed to Multiply unchecked, they can block filters or reduce their efficiency. The
most common cause of algal growths appearing is the failure to maintain an adequate free
chlorine residual in the water at all times. To prevent algal growth and to kill any existing algae
there are two types of product In popular use: QAC’s and Polymeric Copper compounds. QAC
or Quaternary Ammonium Compounds are effective at low concentrations (1 to 4 mg/l) . They
are also surface active agents and so at high concentrations they can cause foaming in the
water. Polymeric Copper or Chelated Copper is where copper is bound to an organic Molecule
for dosing which reduces considerably it’s toxicity to bathers but still Enables it to be effective
against algae. Copper sulphate is no longer used as an algicide because as well as its toxicity it
can cause problems with hair discolouration, and staining of pool surfaces, especially at ph over
7.4

Water Balance:
Water balance is a term that describes the scale formation or corrosion activity of pool water.
Water balance is affected by four factors:

-PH - Total alkalinity

- Calcium hardness -
Temperature.

PH Control

The pH is a logarithmic scale, which ranges from 1 to 14. A pH of 7.0 is neutral and if the value
is above this, the water is alkaline i.e. it contains more alkaline components than acid
components. Conversely, if the pH value is below 7.0 it contains more acid components than
alkaline components and is therefore acidic. The optimum pH for swimming pool water is
slightly alkaline, that is between Ph 7.2 and 7.8, preferably 7.3 to 7.5 for chlorine based
disinfectants. This narrow Target range is necessary for the disinfection process to be running
efficiently, for the comfort of the bathers and for the general condition of the pool structure, its
fixtures and fittings. If the pH is too high (>8.0) the effectiveness of the disinfection process is
reduced, the water may become cloudy and scale formation can be promoted.
If the pH is too low (<7.0) eye and skin irritation can occur and the pool fittings can be damaged
by corrosion. To avoid wild swings in the pH level caused by the addition of treatment
chemicals it is necessary to maintain an acceptable level of ALKALINITY in the water. This is
usually about 100 mg/l and is made up of dissolved carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxides.
These have the effect of acting as a buffer to prevent large changes in pH upon the addition of
acids or alkalis to the water.

To raise the pH level:

• Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3) or Soda Ash, also called pH Plus. This has a pH of around 10
and will also raise the alkalinity of the water. • Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) or Caustic Soda. This
is very alkaline with a pH of 14 and must be handled with care. This will also raise the alkalinity
of the water.

To lower the pH level:

• Sodium Hydrogen Sulphate (NaHSO4), Sodium Bisulphate or Dry Acid. Also Called pH minus.
This is a free flowing crystalline powder or granules which in solution has a pH of 1. It is
normally dissolved in some water in a plastic container and then sprinkled around the pool. It
also adds sulphate to the water. • Hydrochloric acid (HCl) also known as Muriatic Acid. This is
an economical pH reducer but handling can be a problem, the concentrated acid (32%) is highly
corrosive. Commercial grades should not be used as their iron content may be high and this
could cause discolouration and cloudiness in the water. It is advisable to dilute the
concentrated acid by adding to water in a plastic container Before sprinkling it around the pool.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2) this is a gas and therefore requires special injection equipment. When
combining with the pool water, carbon dioxide forms carbonic Acid which reduces the pH and
also adds alkalinity to the water. In commercial pools pH adjustment is carried out as a
continuous part of the Treatment process through a metering pump. Dosing by hand as
described above is only carried out in private pools where there is no alternative.

Total Alkalinity
The alkalinity of a water is a measure of the alkaline salts dissolved in it – carbonates,
bicarbonates and hydroxides. The higher the alkalinity the more resistant the water
becomes to a change in pH value An optimum level of alkalinity is required for a pool –
usually around 100 mg/l measured as calcium Carbonate CaCO3. If however the alkalinity
rises to over 200 mg/l it can make any pH adjustment Difficult, and cause cloudiness in the
water .

To raise alkalinity levels SODIUM BICARBONATE (NaHCO3) is used. This has negligible
effect on the pH of the water but it will add alkalinity.

Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) on the other hand will raise the alkalinity but will also raise the
pH .
To reduce the alkalinity, acid must be used. This is normally added to the deep end of the pool
with the pump switched off so that the alkalinity is burned off rather than causing just a reduction
in pH .

Calcium Hardness
Water supplies are often termed”soft” or”hard” and this relates to their content of calcium and
magnesium salts. A soft water will usually have less than 50 mg/l of these salts expressed as
CaCO3. Hard water will contain over 300 mg/l as CaCO3 . Soft water will cause problems in
swimming pools as it will have a ”calcium demand” and seek out calcium from the pool structure.
This is usually the tile grouting and even the painted concrete surface itself may not escape
attack. This Leaves gaps between the tiles and ultimately the tiles themselves may become
dislodged due to erosion of the cement. It advisable therefore that the calcium hardness of the
pool water is established at the earliest opportunity and if necessary the concentration is raised
to at least 200 mg/l as CaCO3 by the addition of Calcium Chloride flake , 1.5 kg added to each
50 m3 (11.000 gall ) of pool water will raise the calcium hardness by 20mg/l. If it is required to
reduce the level of calcium hardness the only way is to dump some of the water and top up with
fresh, containing lower natural hardness.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Total Dissolved Solids is the sum of the dissolved compounds (hardness salts, treatment
chemicals etc. in the water). Its importance has been recognised over recent years as giving
an indication as to whether the pool is becoming saturated with chemicals in one form or another,
and hence the length of time the water has been in the pool. TDS is measured electronically as
the conductivity of the water to which a factor is applied (usually about 0.7) to convert it to TDS in
mg/l. A popular recommendation for the maximum TDS in a pool is 1000 mg/l above the feed
(mains) water. So if the feed water has a TDS of 400 mg/l, the maximum for the pool should be
1400 mg/l. TDS can only be reduced by dilution and this must be carried out as a matter of
priority if the water reaches the absolute maximum of 3000 mg/l, as at this level the water can be:
• Salty to taste • Conductive – to produce corrosive conditions • Dull in appearanc e

Temperature
The higher the temperature, the more likely scaling is to occur, because calcium solubility is
lowered. At a lower temperature the water can absorb more calcium. Concrete, marble
sheen or tiled pool surfaces may become etched, particularly at low temperatures.
 Balanced Water (Langelier Index)

Water is in balanced when it is said to be neither corrosive nor scale-forming. Other words, it
will not deposit a layer of calcium scale neither will it dissolve existing layer of scale. For most
well run pools, the water will be in balance if the pH value is kept the recommended range, but
other factors should be taken into account can affect the condition of the water, These are:
The total alkalinity, The calcium hardness, The TDS content and the temperature of the water.
The formula for determining whether he water is balanced was developed Langelier in the
1930’s, hence the result after applying this is often called Langelier Index or the Langelier
Saturation Index or simply the Balanced Calculation.

The water balance is so important because if it is not correct, corrosion erosion is possible.
There are 3 main causes of corrosion and erosion; • Galvanic attack • Aggressive water • Low
calcium hardness.

Galvanic attack occurs when two or more dissimilar metals are in close proximity in a water
environment (pool or spa) which contains high levels of chemical salts or TDS. The presence
of chlorides encourages the water to be more conductive, to prevent this TDS can be reduced or
the level of calcium hardness raised so that a thin layer of scale is laid down to inhibit the metal’s
efficiency as an electrode. Lower levels of chlorides will prevent the water from acting as an
electrolyte. Low calcium hardness will often result in the loss of grout around the tiles, as the
water tries to satisfy its need for calcium. It is necessary therefore to maintain the TDS at
sensible levels (ideally no more than 1000 mg/l above the feed water) and yet maintain an
adequate level of calcium hardness in the water (around 200 mg/l minimum). The formula for
calculating the Langelier Index is as follows:

Where: (SI) saturation index= pH + Temperature factor + Alkalinity factor + Calcium Hardness
factor - TDS factor And is applied using the table below to obtain the factors from the actual test
results for Total Alkalinity, Calcium Hardness and TDS.
In practical terms an Index Value in the region of zero to + 0.3 is considered satisfactory

Additional Water Balance Considerations

• In soft water areas where the constant addition of calcium is necessary to maintain a calcium
level above the minimum, it could be advantageous to use calcium hypochlorite as the chlorine
donor in order to obtain the calcium in addition to the chlorine from this product. Also where
the natural total alkalinity is low, the use of carbon dioxide gas for pH correction with calcium
hypochlorite would be advantageous to produce an increase in the total alkalinity. • In hard
water areas where it may be difficult to reduce total alkalinity and pH to the recommended
range, the use of hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) may be necessary and it may be appropriate
to operate with a total alkalinity of around 140 – 150 mg/l.

4- Monitoring system and record keeping

Test Kits: Photometers or comparators, for commercial applications, using tablet or powdered

reagents are recommended for all chemical tests and provide reasonable accuracy. However, operator
Colour blindness may affect the use of these devices.

Test kits using liquid reagents are less reliable than dry reagents because the reagents are less stable.
The intensity of colour developed can vary, due to imprecise amounts of reagent being added. This can
lead to misleading results.
Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions when using a test kit. Further training in the proper use
of test kits is strongly recommended to ensure competency and to identify problems with The use of
test kits.

Test Methods
Free Chlorine/Total Bromine:
The DPD (dimethyl-phenylene diamine) test developed by Plain is the most universally accepted test
method for measuring disinfectant concentrations within the swimming pool Industry. DPD No 1
reagent is used for both free chlorine and total bromine tests. Total bromine Should be recorded as free
chlorine equivalent.

Total Chlorine:
A DPD No 3 tablet is added to the completed free chlorine test to obtain total chlorine concentration.
(DPD 1+3). The use of a DPD No 4 tablet also gives total chlorine concentration, but without Obtaining
the free chlorine concentration first.

Combined Chlorine:
This is obtained by subtracting the free chlorine/total bromine (as free chlorine equivalent)
concentration from the total chlorine concentration.

PH:
Phenol red indicator is used as the colour range operates across that of a properly operating swimming
pool. A properly calibrated PH electrode may also be used.

Alkalinity:
Any commercially available pool water colorimetric test method can be used. Most indicator tests use a
colour range from yellow through green to blue.

Cyanuric Acid:
Melamine test reagent can be used and forms a cloudy suspension. Accuracy is dependent on
Concentration and equipment factors.

Calcium Hardness:
A colorimetric tablet method is commonly available to estimate hardness. Hardness is
Calculated based on the number of tablets required to reach the required colour.

Dilution of Samples:
When a test result is at the top of the range of a test kit, samples that are measured in ppm may be
Diluted with distilled water before adding the reagent to obtain a reading that is on scale. The result is
multiplied by the dilution factor. If chlorine is excessively high, the chlorine may bleach the tablet and
make it appear that there is No chlorine in the water. This result may cause pool operators to add more
chlorine to the pool— and finally realize that excessively high levels have been reached. This can be
avoided by crushing a tablet in a small volume of pool water

pH measurement samples cannot be diluted. If the reading is off the scale, use another indicator or a pH
meter to determine the correct value.
Keeping Records
Operators are required by law to maintain records. Operator Log Book’. Logbooks should be at
least 12 months after the last date of entry made available on demand to an authorized Officer of
the Health Act. The records should be archived for a further six years.
Microbiological Monitoring:
Microbiological problems should be insignificant in a well-managed pool with an adequate disinfectant
residual, a pH maintained at the recommended level and regular filtration and backwashing.

Occasionally, microbiological problems develop in pools because there is poor circulation and
Turnover caused by design inadequacies. These may occur in certain parts of the pool, such as
Entrance steps.

The frequency of monitoring should reflect the relative microbiological risk that each type of pool
presents. Quarterly monitoring is regarded as sufficient for most pools.

Where there is a significant deviation in disinfection below regulatory limits microbiological tests

should be undertaken and the data recorded for future reference.

Where microbiological samples do not comply with accepted Standards, re-sampling should be

undertaken to ensure that corrective actions have been effective in restoring microbiological quality.
Document all observations, results and findings.

Assessing Microbiological Quality:

The standard plate count test, the coliform test and Pseudomonas aeruginosa test provide the simplest
means of assessing the microbiological quality of swimming pool water.

1-Standard Plate Count

The standard plate count grows a number of different bacterial species without differentiating between
them. It gives a good indication of the overall bacterial population within the pool environment. The result
is normally reported as Colony forming units per milliliter of water (CFU/mL). A standard plate count
of less than 10 CFU/mL and the absence of coliforms and Pseudomonas aeruginosa can be expected from
most well-managed pools. A standard plate count in excess of 100 CFU/mL clearly indicates that
operating conditions are Unsatisfactory and require investigation— regardless of the disinfectant used. It
may be related to filter performance or physical matter present in the pool.

2-Coliform Count
Coliform bacteria, particularly Escherichia coli (E. coli), are normal inhabitants of the intestinal tract of
humans and other warm-blooded mammals where they are present in great numbers.

The coliform test is extremely important in assessing the immediate efficacy of the disinfection
process, especially when bathers are using the pool at the time of testing. If coliforms are found to
be present there is likely to have been a serious failure in the disinfection process at the time of
sampling, and a risk of gastric illness to pool users from bacteria and viruses found in the intestines.

3-Pseudomonas Aeruginosa
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a pathogenic organism and often the cause of ear and skin infections,
particularly folliculitis. Pseudomonas is an inhabitant of drains and slimes and can often colonise in filter
media, particularly where there is not frequent backwashing, super chlorination or other oxidising
processes that penetrate the filters. The presence of Pseudomonas may indicate the possible presence of
other environmental pathogens, such as Legionella, which, if unchecked, can thrive in warmer pools.

4-Other Organisms
Provided satisfactory results are obtained for these three specified tests, it is not recommended that other
organisms be routinely tested unless a particular health problem has been associated with a pool.

Staphylococcus is often found where pool users are present and its distribution within the water tends
To favour the surface. It is associated with flaking skin, dandruff and nasal secretions because chlorine
sometimes cannot immediately penetrate some particles. Staphylococcus is further controlled by effective
water removal at the surface by skimmers and spill gutters and subsequent filtration.

Sampling Procedure
About 250 mL of sample is required to conduct all recommended tests. Sterile plastic bottles are
Recommended because of the risk of glass breakage. Bottles should be pre-treated with sodium
thiosulphate to neutralise chlorine or bromine, thereby giving a true indication of the water quality
experienced at the time of sampling. Take a microbiological sample by removing the cap with one
hand and making sure nothing touches the inside of the cap or bottle. The bottle is immersed neck
down in the water to about 30 cm below the surface and tilted to face horizontally away from the hand
and allowed to fill. The bottle can be moved away from the Sampling hand until it is sufficiently full. It
is then removed and the cap is replaced. The sample should be refrigerated immediately and
transported to the laboratory without delay. Ideally testing should be commenced within six hours of
sampling. Testing that is commenced After 24 hours of sampling cannot yield reliable information.

Sampling Location
It is recommended that water samples be taken from near a suction point in the pool where users have
not been swimming nearby in the previous 60 seconds. This should ensure that the tester is assessing the
efficacy of the residual treatment

Sampling Frequency
Quarterly bacteriological testing is recommended as a guide for most pools. Specialty pools, such as
toddler pools, hydrotherapy pools and spa pools can be considered a higher risk because of
temperature, high bather loading and pollution sources, and can justify more frequent monitoring.
Pools with variable water quality or poor circulation and hydraulics can also justify more frequent
monitoring.

Documentation

Documentation is an essential part of a quality assurance program. Data recorded from a quality
Assurance program will be of assistance in the future in making operational decisions based on
objective evidence.
5-Maintenance:
The maintenance of equipment should only be undertaken by suitably qualified persons and in strict
accordance with manufacturers’ recommendations. There are two philosophies regarding maintenance.
The first is a reactive approach. This involves waiting until equipment is faulty before taking action. This
approach is fraught with peril, as there is also the risk of damage to ancillary equipment in event of total
failure. A more responsible attitude toward equipment maintenance is the proactive or preventative
approach. This involves periodical, or programmed, maintenance of equipment within set
timeframes—monthly, quarterly and annually. Manufacturers are a good source of information as to
when and what maintenance is required to keep equipment operational, as well as a budget estimate of
cost. The following plant and equipment should be considered in a periodical maintenance schedule:

Circulation pumps / Dosing pumps/feeders

Heating hot water pumps / Filters
Control panels / Sample cells
Heat exchanger/calorifier Disinfection
system / Pipes and valves
Sensors/ Heaters and boilers

Problem Sorter