Switchgear and Protection

ELE 3252
Dr. R. SHIVARUDRASWAMY
Professor
Dept. of EEE
Email id: [email protected]
 Faculty Details handling SGP class:
Faculty Section Email Id Phone no Sitting

Dr R Shivarudraswamy A [email protected] 9964585615 AB1 First Floor

System Simulation Lab

Dr H.V Gururajrao B 9480289614 AB1 First Floor

[email protected] Research Lab

Dr Jawaharlal Bhukya C 8000599400 AB1 First Floor

[email protected] Faculty Chamber 1
• L1:Introduction to Course and Discussion on Teaching-learning Process for the
Course.
• L2:Review of types of faults, Consequences of faults, Need for protection.
• L3:Circuit breaker: Operating Principle, Arc phenomenon, Arc extinction,
Arc Interruption theories.
• L4:CB terminologies: Arc voltage, Recovery voltage, Re-striking Voltage,
R.R.R.V. Their expressions.
• L5:Factors affecting Recovery Voltage.
• L6:Tutorial – 1
• L7:Current Chopping, Resistance Switching, Interruption of Capacitive
Currents.
• L8:Tutorial – 2
• L9:CB Classification, Bulk Oil CB, Arc Control Devices.
• L10:Minimum oil CB. Air Break CB.
• L11:Air blast CB: Axial, Cross jet and Radial blast type.
• L12:SF6 CB: Double pressure type and Puffer type.
• L13:Vacuum CB. D.C CB. MCB, Auto-re-closure of CB.
• L14:Ratings of CB, Selection of CB.
• L15:Testing of CB: Routine and type tests. Short circuit testing station.
• L16:Direct testing, Indirect testing (unit testing, synthetic testing).
• L17:utorial – 3
• L18:Maintenance of CB. Operating mechanisms,
• L19:Isolators and earthing switches. Types of switchgear: Metal clad type,
Indoor and Outdoor type, GIS.
• L20:Fuses: Terminologies, Desirable characteristics, Re-wirable types of
fuses.
• L21:Totally enclosed type of fuse: HRC fuse, Selection of fuses. Grading for
over current protection.
• L22:Neutral grounding: Ungrounded and grounded systems, Solid and
Resistance grounding, Reactance and Resonant grounding,
• L23:Tutorial – 4
• L24:L24:Review of power system structure, Zones of Protection, Essential
qualities of protective relaying, Relay terminologies
• L25:Primary and back up protection, Classification of protective relays,
• L26:Electromagnetic attraction type of relay, Electromagnetic induction type
non-directional over current & earth fault relay.
• L27:Directional power relay, Directional over current & earth fault relay.
• L28:Differential relay, Bus bar protection; Differential, backup and frame
leakage protections
• L29:Tutorial – 5
• L30:Protection of transformers: Differential protection: Difficulties &
remedies, Buchholz relay, Tank or frame leakage protection,
• L31:Tutorial – 6
• L32:Protection of alternators: Types of abnormalities, protection against
stator winding faults.
• L33:Reverse power protection. Protection against loss of excitation, Negative
sequence protection.
• L34:Tutorial – 7
• L35:Distance relays: Reach of distance relays, Types of distance relays;
Impedance relay: Non-directional & directional.
• L36:Reactance relay, Mho relay, Offset mho relay.
• L37:Protection of transmission lines: Protection of radial feeders, parallel
feeders, ring main feeders.
• L38:3 zone (step) protection of transmission lines. Distance protection schemes
for transmission lines, Effect of arc resistance,
• L39:Tutorial - 8
• L40:Pilot wire protection of transmission lines: Translay Scheme, Carrier current
protection of transmission lines: Phase comparison method.
• L41:Protection of I.M. against Phase & Earth faults, Unbalanced voltage, Phase
reversal,
• L42:Single phasing. Protection against Stalling, rotor faults.
• L43:Static relays, Components of static relays, Advantages, limitations.
Comparators, General block diagram and Standard signal inputs.
• L44:General equation of amplitude and Phase comparators.
• L45:Duality between amplitude & phase comparators. Realization of relay
characteristics using amplitude & phase comparators.
• L46:Tutorial – 9
• L47:Self-study topics
• Numerical relaying: aliasing, sampling theorem, DFT, Phasor estimation, numerical
relaying algorithms. Introduction to network relays, Adoptive protection.
• L48:Tutorial-10
• References:
• Rao S.S., Switchgear Protection and Power systems , Khanna Publishers, 2011.
• Badriram and Vishwakarma, Power System Protection & Switchgear, TMH,
2013.
• Ravindranath & Chander, Power System Protection and Switchgear, Wiley,
1990.
• T.S. Madhava Rao, Power System Protection Static Relays with microprocessor
applications, TMH, 2002.
• Mason, The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, Wiley, 1972.
• Ravindra P. Singh, Digital Power System Protection, PHI, 2007.
• Y.G.Paithankar & S.R.Bhide, Fundamentals Power System
Porotection.PHI,2012.
• Overview of Electrical Energy Systems:
• Electrical energy systems consists of various equipments connected together.
Power is generated at lower voltages (3-phase AC voltage source) which is
stepped up by a transformer and fed into a transmission grid.
• It can have multiple voltage levels like 400 kV, 220 kV, etc. The power is
delivered to load centers which may be far off (even thousands of km's apart).
• The power is transferred through the AC network OR HVDC lines
• At load centers, voltage levels are stepped down by step down transformers in
multiple stages and finally power is delivered to the end user by a distribution
system.
• A unique feature of electrical energy systems is its natural mode of synchronous
operation.
• It implies that during steady state the electrical frequency is same throughout
the system irrespective of the geographical location.
• Why do we need Protection?
• Electrical power system operates at various voltage levels from 415 V to 400
kV or even more. Electrical apparatus used may be enclosed (e.g., motors,
generators etc) or placed in open (e.g., transmission lines).
• All such equipment undergo abnormalities in their life time due to various
reasons. For example, a worn out bearing may cause overloading of a motor.
• A tree falling or touching an overhead line may cause a fault. A lightning strike
can cause insulation failure.
• Pollution may result in degradation in performance of insulators which may
lead to breakdown.
• Under frequency or over frequency of a generator may result in mechanical
damage to it's turbine requiring tripping of an alternator.
• Even otherwise, low frequency operation will reduce the life of a turbine and
hence it should be avoided.
• It is necessary to avoid these abnormal operating regions for safety of the
equipment. Even more important is safety of the human personnel which may
be endangered due to exposure to live parts under fault or abnormal operating
conditions.
• Small current of the order of 50 mA is sufficient to be fatal! Whenever human
security is sacrificed or there exists possibility of equipment damage, it is
necessary to isolate and de-energize the equipment.
• Every electrical equipment has to be monitored to protect it and provide human
safety under abnormal operating conditions.
• This job is assigned to electrical protection systems. It encompasses apparatus
protection and system protection.
 Switch gear and Protection

Introduction :
• Need of protection:
Under abnormal conditions protection is necessary for
• Safety of Electrical equipments.
• Safety of human personnel
• Basic requirements of protection:
A Protection apparatus has 3 main functions/duties.
• a. Safeguard the entire system to maintain continuity of supply.
• b. Minimise damage & repair costs where it senses fault
• c. Ensure safety of personnel.
Protection system must have:
• Selectivity: To detect & isolate the faulty item only.
• Stability: To leave all the healthy circuits intact to ensure continuity of
supply.
• Sensitivity: To detect even smallest fault current, system abnormalities &
operate correctly & before the fault causes severe damage.
• Speed: To operate speedily when it is called upon to do so, there by
minimize damage to the surroundings and ensure safety to personnel.
• Switch gear: Apparatus which is used for switching , controlling &
protecting the electrical circuits & equipment.
• Switches: used for opening & closing .
• Fuse: used for over current protection
• Every electric circuits needs a switching devices & a protective devices.
• Switching & protective devices have been developed in various forms.
• EX: A circuit breaker is a switching & current interrupting devices in a
switch gear .
• The CB serves 2 basic purposes
• Switching during normal operating conditions for the purpose of operation &
maintenance.
• Switching during abnormal conditions such as short circuits & interrupting the
faults currents.
• The first function mentioned above is relatively simple. As it involves
Click to add text
normal current. Which are easy to interrupt.
• The second function is complex as the fault currents are relatively high
& they should be interrupted Automatically within short time of the
order of the few cycle.
• One cycle in 50 Hz system takes 1/50 sec. There are several types of
faults & abnormal conditions.
• The faults currents can damage the equipment's if allowed to flow for a
longer duration.
• In order to avoid such a damage every part of the power systems is
provided with a protective relaying with its associated switching
devices.
• The protective relays are automatic devices which can sense the fault &
send instructions to the associated circuit breaker to open.
• The CBs opens & clear the fault.
• All the equipment associated with the fault clearing process are called switch
gears
• In addition to the CB & protective relays, the associated equipment for
controlling , regulating & measuring can also be considered as switch gear
devices.
• Switch gear includes, fuse, circuit breakers, isolators, relays, control panels,
lighting arrester, current transformers & various associated equipments.
• Switchgears are necessary at every switching point in the power system b/w
the generating stations & final load point.
Faults and abnormal conditions:
• Faults are generally caused by breaking of conductors or failure of
insulations.
• The other causes of faults include mechanical failure, accidents, excessive
internal & external stresses etc.
• The faults can be minimized by improving the system design, quality of the
equipment & maintenance.

For the purpose of analysis the faults can be classified as

• Single line to ground fault
• Double line to ground fault
• Three phase faults
• Line to line faults
• Simultaneous faults
• Open circuit etc.
Various substation equipments:
• Circuit breakers
• Isolators
• Earth switches
• Current transformer
• Potential transformer.
Consequences of faults:
• The most serious result of a major under fault is fire
• Which may not only destroy the equipment of its origin but it may spread in
the system & cause total failure
• The most common type of fault which is also the most dangerous one is the
short circuit. Which may have one of the following consequences.
• The great reduction of the line voltage over a major part of the power system
• Damage caused to the elements.
• Cause unbalancing of supply voltage & currents.
• There may be a loss of system stability.
• Cause interruption of the supply.
• An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, and
distribution. Lines etc.
• Short circuit and other abnormal conditions often occur in power systems.
• Heavy current associated with S. C is likely to cause damage to equipment, if
suitable protective relays and C.Bs are not provided for the protection of each
section of the power systems.
Faults:
• Short circuit faults
• Failure of conductors due to breaking
• Insulation failure
• An automatic protective devices are needed to isolate the fault
element as quick as possible to keep the healthy section of the system
in normal operation.
• The fault must be cleared with fraction of a second , if not it causes
damage to the important section of the power system.
• A heavy S.C. current may cause a fire, it may spread in the system &
a damage a part of it.
• The system voltage may reduce to a low value and individual
generators in a power station or group of generators in different
power station may lose synchronism.
• The un clear heavy S.C may cause the total failure of the system.
• The protective system include C.B, C.Ts, P.Ts & protective relays to
isolate the faulty section of power system from the healthy sections.
• The C.B can disconnect the faulty element of the system, relays
called to do so.
• Transducers (C.Ts, P.Ts) are used to reduce currents & voltages to
lower values & to isolate protective relays from high voltage of the
system.
• The function of the protective relays is to detect & locate a fault &
issue a command to the C.B to disconnect the faulty element.
• Relays are senses abnormal conditions on a power system by constantly
monitoring electrical quantities of the sections.
• The basic electrical quantities which are likely to change during abnormal
conditions are:
• Current
• Voltage
• Phase angle (direction)
• Frequency.
• Protective relays utilize one or more of these quantities to detect abnormal
conditions on P.S.
• Protection is needed not only against S.Cs . But also against any other
abnormal conditions which may arise on P.S.
• Eg: Over speed of generator, & motor
• Over Voltage
• Under voltage
• Loss of excitation.
• Over heating of stator & rotor of a alternator etc.
• All equipment associated with fault clearing process are called
“swicth gears”
• Faults and abnormal conditions:
• A fault in an electrical equipment is defined as a defect in its electrical
ckt due to which the current is deviated from the intended path.
• Faults are generally caused by breaking of conductors or failure of
insulation.
• The other causes of faults include mechanical failure, accidents,
excessive internal & external stresses. Etc.
• The faults can be improved by system design, quality of the
equipment & maintenance .
• For the purpose of analysis , the faults can be classified as.
• Single line to ground fault
• Line to line fault
• Double line to ground fault Simultaneous fault.
• Three phase fault.
• Open ckt.
 CB Operating principle, Arc phenomena, Arc extinction, Arc interruption.

Formation of Arc: Under fault conditions heavy current flows through the
contacts of the CB they are opened.
Initiation of arc: There must be some electrons for initiation of an
arc, when fault occurs CB contacts starts separating each other & the
electrons are emitted which are produced by following methods.
a. By high voltage gradient: Area of contact & pressure decreases. A
high fault current causes voltage drop, result in field emission.
b. By increasing of temperature: results in thermal emission, current
density & temperature will increased.
Maintenance of an arc:
a. High temperature of the medium around the contacts due to high current
densities. Thus the K.E gained by the moving electrons is increased.
b. The increase in K.E of moving electrons due to voltage gradient which
discharge more electrons from neutral molecules
c. Separation of CB contacts , length of path increases which will increase no. of
neutral molecules . Thus the density of a gas decreases & hence will be a free
path movement of the electrons.
The arc resistance is depends upon the following factors:
a. Degree of ionization : If there are less no of ionized particles b/n the contacts,
then the arc resistance increases.
b. Length of arc: The arc resistance is a function of length of arc , which is
nothing but separation b/n the contacts. More the length more the arc
resistance.
c. Cross section of Arc: if the area of c/s of the arc is less, then arc resistance is
large .
• Arc extinction: It is essential that arc should be extinguished as early
as possible. There are two methods.
A. High resistance method: this will reduce the current to such a
value that, so that which will be insufficient to maintain the arc.
• Thus the current is interrupted & arc is extinguished.
• This method is only for DC circuit breakers.
• The resistance of the arc may be increased by lengthening the arc,
cooling the arc.
• By reducing the cross sectional area of the arc & splitting the arc.
B. Low resistance method or current zero method:
Employed in AC Circuit breaker. In this method arc resistance is
kept low initial current is zero where extinguish the arc takes place
naturally & it is prevented from striking.
• Arc Interruption theories:
• Recovery rate theory (slepain’s theory)

• If the dielectric strength increases more rapidly than the re-striking voltage , the
arc is extinguished.
• If not ionization persists & breakdown of the gap occurs, results in an arc for
another half cycle.
• If the rate of removal of heat is faster than the rate of heat generated
then the arc is extinguished.
• If the rate of heat generation is more than the rate of heat dissipation,
the space breakdown again resulting in an arc for another half cycle.
• Energy balance theory (cassie’s theory): Figure

• The space b/w the contacts contains some ionized gas immediately after current
zero & hence , it has a finite post zero resistance.
• At current zero moment , the power is zero because the striking voltage is zero.
• When the arc is finally extinguished again the power becomes zero,
the gas is finally deionized. & its resistance is infinitely high.
• In b/w the 2 limits, the power first increase, reaches a maximum
value, then decreases & finally reaches zero value.
• Due to rise in re-striking voltage & associate current energy is
generated in the space b/w the contacts. This energy appears in the
forms of heat.
• The circuit breaker is designed to remove this generated heat as early
as possible by cooling the gap, giving a blast of air or flow of oil at a
higher pressure & velocity.
• Field Emission: there must be some electrons for the arc
extinction, and also it can be defined as the emission of electrons
from the surface of condensed phase in to another phase, is
promotion of electrons from the valence to conduction kind of
electronics.
• Thermionic emission: This occurs because the thermal energy
given to the carrier (can be electrons or ions) overcomes the
binding potential ie potential energy barrier.
• Arc voltage

• The voltage drop a/c the arc is called arc voltage. As the arc path is
purely resistive , the arc voltage is in phase with arc current.
• The magnitude of arc voltage is low , compared to the rated voltage .
A typical value be about 3% of the rated voltage.
• Re-striking voltage & recovery voltage: The voltage a/c the contacts
of the CBs is arc voltage . This voltage becomes the system voltage
when the arc is extinguished. The arc is extinguished at the instant of
current zero.

• After the arc has been extinguished, the voltage a/c the breaker
terminal does not normalize instantaneously but it oscillates & there
is a transient condition.
• The transient voltage which appear a/c the breaker contacts at the
instant of arc being extinguished is known as re-striking voltage.
The power frequency rms voltage , which appear a/c the breaker
contacts after the arc is finally extinguished & transient oscillations is
die out is called recovery voltage.
• Expression for Re-striking voltage RRRV:

• L & C are the inductance and capacitance of the system up to the point of
circuit breaker location respectively.
• When the CB is closed, the short circuit flows through R,L & the contact of
the CB , the capacitance C is being short circuited by the fault.
• When the CB contacts are opened& the arc extinguished, the current I is
diverted through the capacitance C ,resulting in a transient condition.
• The voltage across the capacitance ,which is re-striking voltage ,rise and
oscillates as shown in fig.
1 1
• The natural frequency of oscillation is given by 𝑓𝑛 =
2 𝜋 √𝐿𝐶
• The mathematical expression for transient condition is as follows
𝑑𝑖 1
•L + ‫ = 𝑡𝑑 𝑖 ׬‬E ------------(1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑐
• Where E is the system voltage at the instant of arc interruption, as the transient
oscillation is a fast phenomena.
• E can be regarded as constant for a short duration.
𝑑𝑞 𝑞
• WKT, i= & q = c𝑣𝑐 c=
𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑐

• i= = ---------(2)
 𝑐𝑣𝑐 𝑑𝑣𝑐
• ‫𝑑 ׬ = 𝑡𝑑 𝑖 ׬‬ dt = c‫׬‬ dt = c𝑣𝑐 -----(3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Substitute (2) & (3) in (1)
• LC + =E
• LC + =E ----------(4)
• Taking L.T on both sides of equation, we get
2 𝐸
• LC𝑠 𝑣𝑐 (s) + 𝑣𝑐 (s) =
𝑠
2 𝐸
• 𝑣𝑐 (s) 𝐿𝐶𝑠 + 1 =
𝑠
𝐸 𝐸
• 𝑣𝑐 (s) = = 1
𝑠 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 +1 𝐿𝐶𝑠 𝑠 2 +
𝐿𝐶
1 1
• 𝜔𝑛 = 𝜔𝑛2 =
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
(s) = = -----------(5)
• Taking Inverse L.T of both sides of the equation we get
𝑡
• 𝑣𝑐 (t) = 𝜔𝑛 E ‫׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑛 t dt

(t) = E
−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡+1
• 𝜔𝑛 E
𝜔𝑛
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡
• 𝑣𝑐 (t) = 𝜔𝑛 E
𝜔𝑛
• 𝑣𝑐 (t) =E 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 OR
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
• 𝑣𝑐 (t)= E 1 − = re-striking voltage
𝐿𝐶
• The maximum value of re-striking voltage =2 𝑥 𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
• 𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 is peak value of the system voltage
• Time for which maximum re-striking voltage:
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
• 𝑣𝑐 (t)= E 1 −
𝐿𝐶
• If ‘e’ is to be max
𝑡𝑚
• cos =-1
𝐿𝐶
𝑡𝑚
• =𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 − 1 =180
𝐿𝐶
• 𝑡𝑚 = 𝜋 𝐿𝐶
• The rate of rise of re-striking voltage=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
• 𝑣𝑐 (t)= E 1 −
𝐿𝐶

• RRRV = =
𝐸 𝑡
• RRRV = sin
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
𝐸𝑚
• Max RRRV = or 𝜔𝑛𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝐿𝐶
• Time for maximum RRRV
𝑡
• When sin =1
𝐿𝐶
𝑡 𝜋
• =
𝐿𝐶 2
𝜋
• t= 𝐿𝐶
2
2𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• Average RRRV = =
𝜋 𝐿𝐶 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 max 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• For a 132 kV system, the reactance & capacitance up to the location of the
CB is 3Ω & 0.015 µf respectively, calculate the following:
• a, The frequency of transient oscillation
• b. The maximum value of re-striking voltage a/s the contacts of the CB.
• c. The maximum value of RRRV
1 1
• solution: a.𝑓𝑛 = = 13.29 kHz L=xL /2Л𝑓𝑛
2 𝜋 √𝐿𝐶
• b. The maximum value of re-striking voltage =2 𝑥 𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
• 𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = √2 x 132/√3 =107.77 kV
• 2 𝑥 𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 =2 x 107.77 = 215.56 kV
𝐸𝑚
• c. max value of re-striking voltage = or 𝜔𝑛𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 =2Л𝑓𝑛 x √2 x 132/√3
𝐿𝐶
• 901045 x 106 =9.01 kV/µs
• A 50 Hz , 11 kV, 3Φ alternator with earthed neutral has a reactance of
5Ω/phase & is connected to a bus bar through a CB. The distributed
capacitance up to CB b/n phase & neutral is 0.01 µf. Determine
• a. Peak re-striking voltage across the contact of the breaker.
• b. Frequency of Oscillations
• c. The average rate of rise of re-striking voltage up to the first peak.
11
• Answer: a. 2 𝑥 𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 =2 x √2 x =17.96kV
3
1 1 𝑋𝐿
• b. 𝑓𝑛 = = 12.628 kHz L= =0.0159 H
2 𝜋 √𝐿𝐶 2 𝑋 𝜋 𝑋 50
2𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• c. = = 17.96kV/ 𝜋 𝐿𝐶
𝜋 𝐿𝐶 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 max 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• 0.453 kv/µsec or 453 x 103 kV/sec
Effect of Natural frequency on TRV:

• With increase in the natural frequency the rate of rise of TRV increases. The
rate of rise of transient recovery voltage is represented by slopes of tangents to
the three wave forms draws at different frequencies.
• Rate of rise of TRV causes voltage stress on the contact gap which will continue
the arc. If the frequency is increased then relatively small time is available for
building of dielectric strength of contact gap.
• Hence increase in frequency causes greater stress. The rate of rise of TRV is
related with the breaking capacity of a circuit breaker.
• Thus it also means rate of rise of TRV is dependent on natural frequency of TRV,
as frequency increases the breaking capacity reduces.
Effect of reactance drop on recovery voltage:
• Before fault is taking place let us consider that the voltage appearing a/c CB is
V1 , as the fault current increases the voltage drop in reactance also increases.
After fault clearing the voltage appearing say V2, is slightly less then V1.
• The system takes some time to regain the original value.
• Effect of armature reaction on recovery voltage:
The short circuit currents are at lagging power factor currents, have a
demagnetizing armature reaction in alternators, thus the induced emf of alternator
decreases.
To regain the original value this emf takes some time. Thus power frequency
components of a recovery voltage is less than the normal value of system voltage.
Effect on armature reaction is considered as k2
 Effect of power factor on TRV:
• Both voltage & currents are come to zero at a time, then they are in phase
,therefore power factor is unity. At this moment arc extinguished.
• When the current is in zero position ,arc voltage is maximum then the power
factor is zero. Therefore interruption of current & arc extinction is difficult at
power factor is zero. Where k1 is effect of pf on TRV, =sinθ, θ is the pf angle
• Effect of circuit condition or first pole to clear factor: figure
The type of the fault and whether the system has isolated or earthed neutral also
affects the recovery voltage .
It is accounted by a constant k4.
k3=1 for both neutral and fault grounded, k3= 1.5 for any one of the two not
grounded

Current asymmetry:
• Asymmetry in the fault current wave also has an effect on the recovery voltage,
this is taken in to account by a factor k4. k4=1 for symmetry
• k3=1 , when the 3 phase fault involves earth & neutral is earthed.
• k3= 1.5, when the 3Φ fault does not involve earth or when the neutral is isolated a/c the
poles of the circuit breaker in which the arc is first extinguish.
• In a 3 phase circuit breaker, since 3Φ currents are displaced by 1200, they do not pass
through their natural zeros simultaneously .
• Hence the arc is not extinguished simultaneously in all the 3 poles.
• Considering all these factors, instantaneous value of re-striking voltage
• v= k1 k2 k3 k4 Vmax volts where k1 = sinɵ, ɵ is pf angle
• k2 is recovery voltage in % compare to line voltage.
𝑡
• Re-striking voltage , e=𝑣 1 − cos
𝐿𝐶
• Max re-striking voltage =2 v volts
𝑣 𝑡
• RRRV = sin
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
• RRRV = 𝑣 Average RRRV =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
max 𝐿𝐶 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 max 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• In a short circuit test on a 3 pole 132 kV circuit Breaker, the following
observations are made power factor of fault 0.4, recovery voltage 0.9 times
full line value, the breaker circuit symmetrical and re-striking transient
natural frequency is 16 kHz. Determine average RRRV. Assumed fault is
grounded
• Solution: k1= taken in to account pf effect
• k2=taken in to account armature reaction
• Phase factor or 1st pole to fear factor
• =1 both neutral and fault grounded
• =1.5 for any one of the two not grounded
• sinΦ =sin (cos-10.4) = 0.9165=k1
• k2=0.9
• k3=1.5
• Circuit is symmetry=1=k4
 132
• Peak value of voltage, i.e line to ground =Em = 2 x
3 =107.77 kV
1 1
• 𝑓𝑛 =
2 𝜋 √𝐿𝐶
1
• 5
√𝐿𝐶 = 2xЛ xfn x = 1x10
• 𝑡𝑚 = 𝜋 𝐿𝐶 =Л/1x105
• Max re-striking voltage = 2 x v
• Where v = k1k2k3k4 Em
• =max re-striking voltage =2x0.9165 x 0.9 x1.5x107.77x103
• =2.666x105 v
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• Average RRRV =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 max 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• 2.666x105/Л/1x105

• 8.48 x 109 v/sec = 8.48 x 106 kv/sec = 8.48kv/µsec

• In a S.C Test on a 3 pole, 220 kV CB power factor of fault is 0.35, & 0.93 times
full time value due to armature reaction effect. The breaking current had 5%
asymmetry. Natural frequency of oscillations of re-striking voltage was 15000
c/s . The neutral is grounded and the fault involves earth. Estimate the average
RRRV and maximum RRRV . Calculate also the time at which the RRRV is
maximum and the value of RRRV when t=20µsec
220𝑋 2
• Emax = = 179.6294 kV
3
• k1=sin(Cos-10.35) =0.936
• k2=0.93 (armature reaction effect)
• k3=0.95(5% asymmetry)
• k4=1 (neutral grounded & fault involves earth)
• Recovery voltage v= k1k2k3k4 Emax =148.54 kV
2𝑣
• RRRVavg =
𝜋 𝐿𝐶
• =4fnv=8.919 kV/µsec(check)
𝑣
• RRRvmax=
𝐿𝐶
• Time at which RRRV is maximum
𝜋
• 𝐿𝐶=1/4fn =16.66 µsec
2
• Value of RRRV when t=20 µsec
𝑣 𝑡
• RRRV = sin or
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
• 2 Лfnv sin(2Лfnt)
• 13.32 kV/µsec
 Current chopping , interruption of low magnetizing currents:
Current chopping: it is the phenomenon of current interruption before the
natural current zero is reached.
• When breaking low currents (ex; transformer magnetizing current) with such
breakers, the powerful de-ionizing effect of air blast causes the current to fall
abruptly to zero well before the natural current zero is reached.
• This phenomenon is known as current chopping & result in the production of
high voltage transient a/c the contacts of the circuit breaker.
• Consider a figure below: suppose the arc current is ‘i’ when it is chopped down
to zero value as shown by point ‘a’ in fig. as the chop occurs at current i ,
therefore the energy stored in inductance is .
• This energy will be transferred to the capacitance C, charging the capacitor to a
prospective voltage ‘e’ given by
L =

•e=i volts
• The prospective voltage ‘e’ is very high as compared to the dielectric strength
gained by the gap so that the restrikes.
• As the deionizing force is still in fraction , there fore chop occurs again but the
arc current this time is smaller than the previous case.
• This induces a lower prospective voltage to re- ignite the arc. In fact several
chops may occur until a low current is interrupted which produces insufficient
induced voltage to restrike a/c the breaker gap.
• Consequently the final interruption of current takes place .
• Excessive voltage surges due to current chopping are presented by shunting
the contacts of the breaking with a resistor (resistance switching) such that
re-ignition is unlikely to occur.
• Current chopping (Interruption of capacitive current):

• While operating capacitor bank or on unloaded tr line. The CB interrupts a

capacitive current.
• The corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in figure.
• CL ---- Line capacitance CL ›› C
• Current being capacitive loads, the voltage Vc by 900 a shown in figure b
• Assume that the CB is opened & the current is interrupted at point when it is
zero . At that instant both Vc & VcL are Vmax .
• However since the current is interrupted , line cap will remain changed at Vmax
(other end of CB) &
• End A of CB will continue to have sinusoidal voltage oscillations .
• The voltage a/c C.B is the difference b/n these two voltage.
• At point ‘p’ it is zero & it goes on increasing after half a cycle, at point ‘M’ Vc
is –Vmax & therefore VAB is 2 Vmax .this voltage may restrike.
• The arc again restrikes, next half cycle at N vc becomes -3max, then VAB=4vmax,
similarly it goes on increase as Vc as +5max,-7max
• Resistance switching:
• To reduce the re-striking voltage, RRRV & severity of the transient oscillations,
a resistance is connected a/c the contacts of the circuit breaker. This is known as
resistance switching.
• The resistance is in parallel with the arc. Apart of the arc current flows through
this resistance resulting in a decrease in a arc path & resistance of the arc.
• This process continues & the current through the shunt resistance increases &
are arc current, re-striking voltage & RRRV are reduced.
• The resistance may be automatically switched in with the help of a sphere gap.
The resistance switching is of great help in switching at capacitor current or low
inductive current.
• The analysis of resistance switching can be made to find out the critical value of
the shunt resistance to obtain complete damping of transient oscillations.
• Circuit for analysis of resistance switching:

The voltage equation is given by

𝑑𝑖 1
•L + ‫ 𝑐𝑖 ׬‬dt = E --------(1)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
• & i=𝑖𝑐 +𝑖𝑅
• The above equation becomes
𝑑 𝑖𝑐 +𝑖𝑅 1 1
•L + ‫ 𝑐𝑖 ׬‬dt=E where 𝑣𝑐 = ‫ 𝑐𝑖 ׬‬dt
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶
 𝑑 𝑖𝑐 +𝑖𝑅
•L +𝑣𝑐 =E
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑅
•L +L + 𝑣𝑐 =E ----------(2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐶𝑣𝑐
• 𝑖𝑐 = = differentiate 𝑖𝑐 wrt to t we get
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

= =C
𝑑𝑖𝑅 𝑣𝑐/𝑅 1 𝑑𝑣𝑐
• =d =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
• Substituting these values in equation (2)
• LC + + =E
• Taking L.T we get
𝐿 𝐸
• LCs2𝑣 𝑐 (𝑠)+𝑅 s𝑣𝑐 (s)= 𝑠
2 1 1 𝐸
• LC𝑣𝑐 (s) 𝑠 + 𝑠+ =
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝑠
 𝐸
• 𝑣𝑐 (s)= 1 1
𝑠𝐿𝐶 𝑠 2 + 𝑠+
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
• For no transient oscillation, all the roots of the equations should be real
• From the quadratic equation
2 2 1 1
• 𝑎𝑥 +bx+c =0 = 𝑠 + x+ =0
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
2 1 1
• 𝑏 -4ac≥ 0 = ≥4 or
𝑅 2 𝑐2 𝐿𝐶
4 1
• ≤ or
𝐿𝐶 𝑅 2 𝑐2
2 𝐿𝐶
• 𝑅 =≤ 2
4𝐶

•R it is the value of resistance connected a/c the contacts of he CB is equal

to or less than there will be no transient oscillation

• If R > there will be oscillation

• R= is known as critical resistance

• The frequency of damped oscillation is given by

•f=
• A CB interrupt the magnetizing current of a 100 MVA transformer at 220
kV. The magnetising current of the transformer is 5% of the full load
current. Determine the maximum voltage which may appear a/c the gap of
the breaker when the magnetizing current is interrupted at 53% of its peak
value. The stray capacitance is 2500µf . The inductance is 30 H.
• The full load current of the transformer=
• 262.44A
5
• Magnetizing current = x 262.44 =34.44A
100
• Current chopping occurs at 0.53 x 34.44 x √2 =25.83 A
1 1
• Li2 = Cv2
2 2
1 1
• x 30 x(25.83)2 = (2500)x 10-6 v2
2 2
• v=2829kV
• In a 220 kV systems the reactance & capacitance up to the location of CB
is 8Ω & 0.025µf respectively. A resistance of 600Ω is connected a/c the
contacts of the CB. Determine the following:
• i. Natural frequency of oscillations
• ii. Damped frequency of oscillations
• iii. Critical value of resistance which will give no transient oscillations
• Solution:
𝑋𝐿 8
• 𝑋𝐿 =𝜔𝐿, 𝐿 = = =0.02544 Henry
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 50

• Natural frequency of oscillation=

=6.304 kHz
• Frequency of damped oscillation is given by

= = =
• 3.413 kHz
• The value of critical resistance:

• R= = =504.35Ω
1
• Resistance at fd=( of fn)
4
1
• x 6.304 kHz = 1576 Hz
4

• 1576=

• R=520.8Ω
• An arc blast CB is designed to interrupt transformer magnetizing current
of 11A(r.m.s) chops the current at an arc instantaneous value of 7A. If the
value of L&C in the Ckts are 35.2 Hz & 0.0023µF. Find the value of
voltage that offers a/c the contacts of the breaker. Assume that all the
inductive energy is transferred to the capacitance.

• Voltage a/c the breaker at chopping is e = i volts

• Here i= 7A L=35.2 H & C=0.0023µF

= 866 x 103 v =866 kV