CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

In recent years, sale of sachet water has been on the increase in most urban

cities in Nigeria. In order to safe guard public health, it is essential that the

available sachet water is of the highest quality (Anunobi et al., 2006). The

continuous increase in the sale and indiscriminate consumption of sachet

drinking waters in Nigeria is of public health significance. The sale and

consumption of sachet water continues to grow rapidly in most countries of the

world. In Nigeria particularly, there is an astronomical increase in the

consumption of sachet waters especially bottled and sachet drinking water

(Oyedeji et al., 2010).

The increased demand for these drinking water products is attributed largely to

factors such as inadequate or non availability of reliable, safe municipal water

in urban areas; impression that high quality natural spring water and drinking

water offer a healthy, refreshing and great tasting alternative to high calorie

soft drinks and ordinary tap water; and convenience which has made the products

meet the requirements of any lifestyle when needed (Oyedeji et al., 2010).

The recent introduction of sachet water to consumers was to provide safe,

hygienic and affordable instant drinking water to the public and to curb the

1
magnitude of water borne infections in the communities. Although this is a

laudable idea, current trends seem to suggest that sachet drinking water

could be a route of transmission of enteric pathogens. The overall treatment of

source water is dependent in the quality of source water, type of sachet water being

manufactured and location (Wartburton et al., 2008; Khaniki et al., 2010). Earlier

investigation conducted on the safety of drinking water has show that water on the

market is of good microbiological quality while the quality of some factory

bagged sachet and hand-filled polythene bagged drinking water was noted to

be doubtful (Oladipo et al., 2009; Oyedeji et al., 2010). This observation was

based on studies carried out on water sample to ascertain the presence of

heterotrophic bacteria, indicators of fecal contamination (total coliform, fecal

coliforms and Enterococci) and for lead, manganese and iron (Oladipo et al.,

2009).

Coliform bacteria describe a group of enteric bacteria that includes E. coli,

Klebsiella species and Enterobacter species. They are Gram negative, facultatively

anaerobic, non sporing rods that may be motile or not. They are able to ferment

lactose to produce acid and gas within 48 h at 35 °C (Oyedeji et al., 2010).

Although they are generally not harmful themselves, they indicate the

possible presence of pathogenic bacteria, viruses and protozoans (Oyedeji et

al., 2010). Members of the faecal coliform group especially E. coli are used as

2
indicators of possible recent sewage / faecal contamination because they are

commonly found in human and animal faeces. Other microbial indicators of

possible faecal contamination are faecal enterococci especially E. faecalis and

Clostridium perfringens spores.

Studies carried out in different areas of world indicate that most of the

sources of domestic water have an alarming level of microbiological pollution

(Mpakam, 2009).

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Microbial contamination by human or animal excreta is the most common reason

for water to be considered unsafe for drinking because of the high probability of

presence of pathogenic organisms (Oyedeji et al., 2010).

Lack of information on pathogenic organisms in sachet water on our market

creates some uncertainties in our understanding of the overall quality of

drinking water on our markets (Oladipo et al., 2009).

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to evaluate the bacteriological quality of four sachet

water sold in Abavo metropolis, Ika South, Delta State, Nigeria.

The objectives of the study are as follows:

1. Identify sachet water brands in the New Juaben Municipality.

3
2. To identify the sources of water used for treatment and the treatment methods

adopted by these companies.

3. To ascertain the level of bacterial in sampled sachet water.

4. Recommend strategies for improving sachet water quality.

1.4 SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY

This will give an understanding of the extent to which the products meet the

standards and recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO).

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This work is intended to evaluate the bacteriology of four sachet water sold in

Abavo, Ika South L.G.A of Delta State, Nigeria and the limitation will include

inadequacy of current literature tone and financial constraint.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 OVERVIEW OF WATER

Water is essential for living things, both in the composition of their cells and in the

environment surrounding them. Organisms are made up of between 60 and 95 per

cent water by weight, and even inert, dormant forms like spores and seeds have a

significant water component. This dependence on water is a function of its unique

properties, which in turn derive from its polar nature (Pink, 2006).

To humans, water is indispensable. In the home, water is used for cooking,

washing, bathing and other domestic uses. Industrially, water is the starting point

of most processes. The chemist says that water is a universal solvent following his

findings that most chemicals are soluble in water. For the biologist, it is even more

important for the growth of organisms and for carrying out fermentation for the

production of products useful to man [16].

An examination of water quality is basically a determination of the organisms,

minerals and organic compounds contained in the water. The basic requirements

for drinking water are that it should be free from pathogenic organisms, contain no

compounds that have adverse effects on human health, be fairly clear, be non-

5
saline, contain no compounds that cause an offensive taste or smell and cause no

corrosion (Kortatsi, 2006)

Water treatment employs aeration, coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation,

slow sand filtration and rapid filtration and disinfection. The principal methods of

purifying water on a small scale are those used locally in areas where water

harvesting is carried out include sedimentation, coagulation, boiling and filtration.

Boiling is the most satisfactory way of destroying disease-producing organisms in

water. It is equally effective whether the water is clear or cloudy, whether it is

relatively pure or heavily contaminated with organic matter. Boiling destroys all

forms of disease producing organisms usually encountered in water whether they

are bacteria, viruses, spores, cysts or ova (Kortatsi, 2006).

2.2 POLLUTION OF WATER

Water is referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic

contaminants which results in it being unable to support a human use. Some of

these uses of water includes drinking, cooking, washing etc, or undergoes a marked

shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish

and plants Water pollution occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly

discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful

compounds. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and

6
earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological

status of water (WHO, 2008).

Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In

almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and

populations, but also to the natural biological communities.

Water pollution is a major global phenomenon that requires continuous

evaluation and the needed revision of policies to address the issue at both

the local and international levels. It has been reported that water pollution

related deaths and disease are the leading cause of mortality worldwide (Pink,

2006), accounting for the death of more than 14, 000 people daily.

Developing countries are mostly affected by water pollution however

developed nations also have water pollution issues. The USEPA in 2002

reported that, 45% of assessed stream miles, 47% of assessed lake acres and

32% of assessed bays and estuarine square miles are polluted (USEPA,

2002). Surface water and groundwater are interrelated, surface water seeps

through the soil and becomes groundwater, alternatively groundwater also

feed surface water sources, however, they have often been managed as

separate resources (USGS, 1998).

Water pollution could occur from so many sources; these are grouped into two

main categories. These are: Point source pollution and Non-point source

7
pollution. The former refers to contaminants that enter the waterway from a

single identifiable source, which may include a pipe or a ditch, discharges from

sewage treatment plants, factory, or a city storm drain. The latter refers to diffuse

contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. This is

often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a

large area. An example being the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from

fertilized agricultural lands.

2.2.1 MAIN SOURCES OF DOMESTIC WATER

The major sources of drinking water include: Streams, Lakes, Rivers, Ponds,

Rainwater and Underground water (spring, wells, and boreholes). Underground

water is safer and purer for domestic use than surface water because the ground

itself serves as an effective filter medium (Kortatsi, 2006). Water from deep wells

and deep springs usually dissolves a lot of salts and other minerals which is a

major problem with underground water and so the water becomes salty, sometime

too salty or "hard" for any use unless the salts are removed which is expensive

(Nwachukwu, and Emeruem, 2007).

2.2.2 SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

The main sources of boreholes and well water pollutants are industrial, domestic

and agricultural waste. Irrigation water and runoff water from rain carrying

fertilizers, herbicides, feacal matters mix with natural water bodies and pollute the

8
water. Recycling of treated/inadequately treated waste water by mixing them with

natural water bodies adds microorganisms. When septic tanks are built near the

water bodies mixing or seeping of excreta may occur and this may act as a source

of waterborne pathogens. Waste water from abattoirs and animal processing plants

also contribute to the water borne pathogens. Droppings from nearby birds and

faecal materials of domestic and wild animals including those of diseased ones are

another potential source (Nwachukwu, and Emeruem, 2007).

2.3 BACTERIOLOGICAL WATER ANALYSIS

Bacteriological water analysis is a method of analysing water to estimate the

numbers of bacteria present and, if needed, to find out what sort of bacteria they

are. It represents one aspect of water quality. It is an analytical procedure which

uses samples of water and from these samples determines the concentration of

bacteria. It is then possible to draw inferences about the suitability of the water for

use from these concentration. The pathogenic organisms which may be present in

water are numerous and identifying these organisms individually in practice

(bacteria, protozoa, helminths etc.) is difficult. As their presence is always linked

to faecal pollution (except for guinea worm), it is preferable to look for organisms

which are “indicators” of this pollution. The common feature of all these routine

screening procedures is that the primary analysis is for indicator organisms rather

than the pathogens that might cause concern (Nwachukwu, and Emeruem, 2007).

9
Indicator organisms are bacteria such as non-specific coliforms, Escherichia coli

and Faecal Streptococci such as Enterococcus faecalis that are very commonly

found in the human or animal gut and which, if detected, may suggest the presence

of sewage. It is therefore reasonable to summarize that if indicator organism levels

are low, then pathogen levels will be very much lower or absent. The count of

those colonies which develop with a characteristic appearance gives the number of

faecal coliforms in the sample of water. Judgments as to suitability of water for use

are based on extensive precedents and relate to the probability of any sample

population of bacteria being able to be infective at a reasonable statistical level of

confidence. Analysis is usually performed using culture, biochemical and

sometimes optical methods. When indicator organism’s levels exceed pre-set

triggers, specific analysis for pathogens may then be undertaken and these can be

quickly detected (when suspected) using specific culture methods or molecular

biology (Pink, 2009).

2.4 DRINKING WATER QUALITY

The quality of water considered to be wholesome for drinking is basically

determined by measuring the level of contaminants present in the water

(Ifabiyi, 2008). It is typically assessed under three categories: physical, chemical

and microbiological. Physical and chemical parameters include heavy metals, trace

organic compounds, total suspended solids (TSS), and turbidity (Krishnan, 2008).

10
Microbiological parameters include Coliform bacteria, E. coli, and specific

pathogenic species of bacteria such as cholera-causing Vibrio cholerae, viruses,

and protozoan parasites (Lawson, 2011).

The greatest threat to human health from chemical contamination of water is

through the buildup of heavy metals, however some components like, nitrates and

arsenic can also cause immediate health effect. Physical parameters affect the

aesthetics and taste of the drinking water and may make the removal of

microbial pathogens difficult (Oluyemi, 2010).

Coliform bacteria presence in water samples give an indication of faecal

contamination of the water sources (example E. coli). Other contaminants

include protozoan oocysts like Cryptosporidium sp, Giardia lamblia and

enteric viruses (EPA, 2010). These microbial pathogens are the most

important due to their immediate effect on health.

Globally the most common contaminant of raw water sources is human sewage

and in particular faecal pathogens. The Center for Disease Control and

Prevention reported in 2006 that waterborne diseases were estimated to cause

over 1.8 million deaths every year while about 1.1 billion people lack access to

proper drinking water (CDC, 2006). It is clear that people in the developing

world need to have access to good quality water in sufficient quantity, water

purification technology and availability and distribution systems for water. In

11
many parts of the world the only sources of water are from small streams

often directly contaminated by sewage.

2.5 TREATMENT OF WATER

Before water could be used it requires some extent of treatment, even water

from sources that are perceived to be clean such as wells and springs. The

extent of treatment however depends on the source of the water. There are several

technologies used in the treatment of water, which include both community-

scale and household-scale point-of-use designs. It is also possible to kill water

borne pathogens through boiling, this is mostly done in the absence of

conventional treatment systems or when these treatment systems have been

compromised (WHO, 2004). However this method (boiling) is not reliable when

it comes to killing encysted parasites such as Cryptosporidium or the

bacterium Clostridium. Other techniques, such as filtration, chemical disinfection,

and exposure to ultraviolet radiation (including solar UV) have been

demonstrated to significantly reduce levels of water-borne disease among

users in low-income countries (Clasen et al., 2007), but these suffer from the

same problems as boiling methods.

Water purification refers to the process of removing contaminants from

untreated water to produce drinking water of good quality for its users.

Some substances removed during water treatment include solids, bacteria, algae,

12
viruses fungi, minerals such as iron, manganese and sulfur, and other chemical

pollutants such as fertilisers.

Measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the treatment of the

water, but to its conveyance and distribution after treatment as well. It is therefore

common practice to have residual disinfectants in the treated water in order

to kill any bacteriological contamination during distribution.

Treatment of water is mostly a combination of various processes, pre-chlorination,

aeration, coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, desalination and disinfection are

used in treating water for municipal consumption. There is no unique solution

(selection of processes) for any type of water (Diersing-Nancy, 2009). Also, it

is difficult to standardize the solution in the form of processes for water

from different sources.

Treatability studies for each source of water in different seasons need to be carried

out to arrive at the most appropriate processes. As a result of this technologies for

potable water treatment are well developed, and generalised designs are

available that are used by many water utilities (public or private). In addition,

a number of private companies provide patented technological solutions

(Diersing-Nancy, 2009).

13
2.6 PORTABLE WATER

Portable water is free of pathogens and toxic chemicals. Purification can be done

by coagulation, which is by adding alum, Nitrogen aluminates or Ferric chloride to

the water. Using the sand bed method, filtration can be carried out or repair sand

bed filters can also be used. For the correction of pH of portable water, limestone is

added. Portable water is often treated by chlorination. This makes the water free

from any coliform organism no matter how polluted the original water may have'

been (Umar, 2009). Water treatment involves the conversion of water taken from

the natural sources, the “raw water” into that suitable for domestic use. Ground

water and surface water usually require more critical treatment than rain water.

Harvested water also requires some form of treatment. Most important is the

removal of pathogenic organisms and toxic substances such as heavy metals that

can cause health problems. Storage of water may be regarded as a form of

treatment. Schistosoma mansoni cercariae are normally unable to survive 48 hours

of storage. Also the number of faecal Escherichia coli will be considerably reduced

when the raw water is subjected to storages (Nwachukwu, and Emeruem, 2007).

2.7 NON PORTABLE WATER

Non- potable water is one contaminated with domestic and industrial waste. There

are so many characteristics that make water not potable such as taste, smell, pH,

colour/turbidity and mineral salts.

14
2.8 MICROBIOLOGICALLY CONTAMINATED WATER

Water may contain numerous pathogenic organisms and thereby become a means

of transmission for many diseases. These includes: Typhoid and paratyphoid fever,

Hepatitis A, Cholera, Poliomyelitis, Diarrhoea (caused by Escherichia coli,

Salmonellae, Yersinia enterocolitica), Viral gastroenteritis, Bacillary dysentery

(caused by various species of Shigella), Campylobacter dysentery, Amoebic

dysentery, Giardia (lambliasis), Balantidiasis, Helminthiasis cause by Ascaris and

Trichuris (Umar et al, 2009). Besides these diseases, water is also involved in the

transmission of “water- based” diseases (that is, diseases of which the causative

agent passes part of its life cycle in an aquatic plant or animal): The different

schistosomiasis or bilharziasis: diseases caused by helminths (worms) which are

usually contracted by contact with infected water but sometimes also via the oral

route. Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm), transmitted only by drinking infested water.

Lastly, water may also transmit: Leptospirosis: a bacterial disease which is

contracted primarily by contact with water contaminated with the infected urine of

various animals (principally the rat). All the infectious diseases transmitted by

water with exception of guinea worm are linked to the pollution of the water by the

excreta of humans or other animals infected. One last category of water related

diseases is those with an insect vector which develops in or lives near to the water,

for example malaria, dengue and yellow fevers, and onchocerciasis (Umar, 2009).

15
2.9 WATER BORNE DISEASES

Water-borne diseases are any illness caused by water people drink that is

contaminated by animal or human faeces, which contain pathogenic

microorganisms. Waterborne diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms

that most commonly are transmitted in contaminated fresh water. Water should be

harmless to health and have an appearance and taste acceptable to the population.

Ideally the water supplied should meet the quality standard of the WHO. Quite a

number of human pathogens find their way into a susceptible host through

contaminated water. These pathogens often called waterborne pathogens, have the

ability to survive at least for a short period in water and thus water may act as a

route of transmission for them (Anwar, 2003).

. Waterborne diseases are posing a serious threat to health since the potential of

contaminated water to transmit disease is very high. Often they lead to epidemic.

According to a WHO survey about 30,000 people die from water-related diseases

every day. About 80% of all illness in developing countries is water related.

Typhoid fever: this is caused by ingestion of Salmonella typhi bacteria in food or

water. Infection causes a sudden high fever, nausea, severe headache, and loss of

appetite. It is sometimes accompanied by constipation or diarrhea. Hepatitis (A &

E): This is caused by viral infection. Symptoms include yellowing of the skin and

eyes (jaundice), dark urine, fatigue, nausea and vomiting. Two forms of the

16
disease, hepatitis A and E, are primarily caused by ingestion of faecally

contaminated drinking water. Hepatitis A causes about 1.5 million infections each

year (mostly in children), and can occur in epidemics. Hepatitis E is less common

than hepatitis A, and occurs mainly in epidemics caused by monsoon rains, heavy

flooding, contamination of well water, or massive uptake of untreated sewage into

water bodies. No specific treatment exists for hepatitis A or E, but most (>98%)

patients recover completely. Hepatitis can have more serious effects on older or

immuno compromised people, and pregnant women are particularly vulnerable to

hepatitis E, with approximately 20% mortality rates (Nwachukwu, and Emeruem,

2007). Haemorrhagic colitis and haemolytic uremic syndrome: This is an infection

associated with Escherichia coli 0157:H7. The latter occur particularly in children.

Other water borne diseases are Polio, Legionellosis, Leptospirosis, Diabetes,

Myocarditis, Guillain-Barre syndrome Gastric cancer, Reactive arthritis and so on.

2.9.1 Water-Washed Diseases

Water-washed diseases are diseases caused by inadequate use of water for

domestic and personal hygiene. Control of water-washed diseases depends more on

the quantity of water than the quality. Most of the diarrhoeal diseases should be

considered to be water-washed as well as water-borne. Four types of water-washed

diseases are; soil-transmitted helminths, acute respiratory infections (ARI), skin

17
and eye diseases, and diseases caused by fleas, lice, mites or tick (Nwachukwu,

and Emeruem, 2007).

2.9.2 WATER QUALITY: The importance of high quality water cannot be over-

emphasized as it sustains human life and maintains health. Most waters, before

they reach the consumer, have been exposed to greater or lesser amount of

contamination, but in the majority of case, they have also undergone a more or less

complete purification by natural agencies (Anwar, 2003).

2.10 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SACHET PURE

WATER.

2.10.1 Advantages

Although legal reforms are slow, there is discernible evidence of adjustment to

(which has been interpreted as acceptance of) buying water in the open market

across Nigeria. The informal sale of water is no longer restricted to vendors who

formerly took water from public taps and resold to the public at exorbitant prices.

It is now common, in several urban and periurban communities for house owners

to construct boreholes intended to serve their households as well as supplement

family incomes through sale to people in the neighborhood. The commoditization

of water is most manifest in the boom of packaged water, especially the ones in

sachets popularly called ‘pure water’. The initial position of the government was to

ignore the industry as part of the informal economy. However, after considerable

18
concerns were raised on public health grounds that water merchants were selling

‘pure gutter’ instead of ‘pure water’, the government, through the National Agency

for Food and Drugs Control (NAFDAC) intervened to regulate standards.

Proprietors of packaged water are expected to apply for licenses which can only be

issued after inspection of their facility by NAFDAC officials.

Consumers are advised to patronize only packaged water with NAFDAC number,

which is supposed to a certification of quality.

This approach is based on government’s calculations of the potential economic

benefits of the water packaging industry which is dominated by small and medium

scale entrepreneurs. As evident in the following comments of the famous head of

NAFDAC, the government has allowed the industry to flourish because it fits into

its poverty alleviation program:

Packaged water especially the sachets (pure water) production is a good poverty

alleviation program and should be encouraged. It is an industry that has immense

potentials for job and income generation.

With the number of pure water and bottled water outfits in the country (and

judging by about 10,634 participants at NAFDAC water workshop) their retinue of

staff should stand in the region of fifty thousand strong workforces. This number

excludes the chain of wholesalers and retailers that generate in-come from selling

packaged water products (Akwuyili 2003:57).

19
When the number of children hawking ‘pure water’ in the streets of major cities in

Nigeria is added to the equation, the character of the poverty alleviation in question

comes into bold relief. It would appear though that the concern of government and

development agencies may soon change from minimizing the number of hours

children spend fetching water to cur-tailing the number of hours they spend

hawking ‘pure water’. However, beyond poverty alleviation, mass participation in

sale of water serves an important function. It helps in the dissemination of the

reality of water as an economic good. It helps in watering the grounds for full scale

commercialization which would boost the national income. Again as Akwuyili

(2003) puts it: The packaged water has enormous export potentials. Nigeria’s

problem is not poor availability of water resources rather that of poor management

of these resources. Well processed and properly packaged water can be exported to

earn the much needed foreign exchange. It is an embarrassment for Nigeria to

import packaged water in any form.

Manufacturers therefore must improve their standards as well as output to

recapture the present market share taken by smuggled water / water based

products.

The process of commodification is virtually perfected as water is presented as an

export commodity that might transform Nigeria’s mono-cultural oil dependent

economy. The imagery of a real market -both export market and import market-

20
for water makes commodification not just feasible but inevitable. The fact though

is that like removal of subsidies on petroleum products, PSP remains a politically

sensitive issue. Some Nigerian experts on water resources have thus argued that:

The government should demonstrate as a matter of urgency the political will to de-

classify water supply as a “free service” in the political manifestos but as a “user

pay service”. The public should realize that qualitative water service is capital

intensive and cannot be rendered as free service (Emoabino and Alayande 2007).

This is a call for the dismantling and recon-figuration of the architecture of state-

society relations.

2.10.2 Disadvantages:

Water in sachets is readily available and the price is affordable, but there are

concerns about its purity. The integrity of the hygienic environment and the

conditions where the majority of the water in sachets are produced has also been

questioned (C.A.M.O.N, 2007). Although nationally documented evidence is rare,

there are claims of past outbreaks of water-borne illnesses that resulted from

consumption of polluted water in sachets (C.A.M.O.N, 2007).

The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration Control (NAFDAC) is

mandated to enforce compliance with internationally defined drinking water

guidelines, but regulation of the packaged water industry aimed at good quality

assurance has remained a challenge to the agency (C.A.M.O.N, 2007). To control

21
the menace of polluted water in sachets, NAFDAC declared a possible ‘gradual’

nationwide ban on sachet waters to allow the manufacturers of sachet water to start

winding-down or change to bottle packaging (C.A.M.O.N, 2004). Successful

implementation of this ban has remained far from reality as the sachet water

market is witnessing tremendous growth, especially among the poor and middle

social class.

Packaged water in plastic containers or plastic bottles constitute health hazards

especially if exposed under high sun temperature which can react with the plastic

container thus, contaminating the water which documented evidence shows

consumption of such water can cause cancer.

Plastics bags waste causes great havoc to the environment because it does not

decompose in the soil and can cause erosion of the soil overtime. Likewise, having

health hazards when consumed by animals which lead to emaciation and ultimately

dead if measures are not taken quickly. Few studies have been conducted in recent

years on the quality of packaged water in Nigeria (Olayemi, 1999). These focused

primarily on the end-product, leaving out the processes that determine the final fate

of the packaged water, as well as the people (various stakeholders involved) in

whose hands lie the will and power to effect the desired change.

Consequently, practicable recommendations aimed at changing the status quo have

not yet emerged.

22