·CHAPTER3 12083CH03

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:t
s @HUMAN REPf~ODUCTION · -
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3.1
 TheMaleReproduc"ve ~f"/1 ...
~ -,~ I
3_2 :;:mau, Reproductive As you are a& hwnans are sexuallyceproduc!np •system
1
viviparous. The repro~ tive events in humans include - formation o_f gametes ~ etogenesi~). i.e.,
sperms in males
3.3 Gametogenesis and ovu~ males, transfer of sperms into the femal 3.4 _ Menstrual Cycle genitaj ~ c ·
semination) and fusion of male and female t gamete~ ertilisation) leading to formation ofzygote. Thi•

3.5 Fertilisation wid - ·

a. ..1
"'ll is followed by formation and developI_B~ of blastocyst · I
n).-.3.6 Pregnancyand emb~ ·c
Implantation · and its attachment to~ '1t. terine wa'l~ plantatib_

development ( tation) _and delivery of thea__ I Embryonic Development baby ( urition). You have
learnt that these reproductive~3. 7 Parturition and Lactation events occur after puberty. There are

remarkabl1L....Ldifferences between the reproductive everits in fr.e male~/ and in the female, for
example, sperm formation cc!'ltinue
even in old men, but formation of ovum ceases in ~ome..
around the age of fifty years. Let us examine the male anu "'111111111111
female reproductive systems in human. ·

3.1 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

11le male reproductive system is located in the pelvis ~egio~
(Figure 3 . .la). It includes a pair of testes alongwith
accessory ducts, glands and the external genitalia.

l
. . ... ~:;,.sinq 6r/..n,{}lo1,t;,4 ncdJzi~i k s~',,,, MAN REPRODUCTION

_., ~h J . · r . ~:~,.., - l •-1. "------'-' o ~) rl'1.nllotfe.nes.1s Ls~ ...._,rnaL<.cy--, 5

e X '- ~~cu:,cu,mt naL ~eu.i--hm/ _ ,4,d,0 ,&Jncfif ll·al.dl, (iU?,P (

The testesaresituatedoutsidethe ,Pl, : <!.n~ , . · \ ,A,,;b' 7n~/J !I

~-fl).bdominal cavity within a pouch ~TT , {AM/1) called scrotum. The

scrotum helps Ureter . : ·

~•am maintaining the low temperature Seminal vesicle ---1--::~-;~~ D \_

-lfiaof the testes (2- 2.5° C lower than Urinary bladder _ ..1..--P-./61
11:!!1
t he normal internal body Vas deferens l . d
11!!!!!-lllat emperature) necessary for Prostate - -4-t ;:.::.~j,¾, .
SQermatogenesis. In adults, each Penis
1'!!!1-lia)estis is oval in shape, with a length Urethra
, Ejaculatm.Y,, uct

of about 4 to 5 cm and a width of

,....Iii_ •ca.bout 2 · to 3 cm. The testis i~ .
by a dense covering. Each
testis has about 250 compartments@
Glans penis_
Foreskin Testis
Scrotum Bulbourethral gland

testic'!!~!_ · lobules Figure 3.l(•l Diagrammatic sectional view of male pelvis

li1 (Figure 3 . lb). . showing reproductive system
lJ : .. Each lobule
contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous
· tq~_'!! e~ in which s perms - ~."r e Ureter __ __, Pig .9; uduced.
· l' d ._ Vas deferens
Eachserniniferoustubule tr IS m e . on its
inside by two types lll(° - Q Jf cells called male germ cells

IF ;_ _ ( ~permatogonia) andyertoll cells

"'tFigure 3.2 ). The male germ cells
• :wnd~rgo meiotic divisio~s fln~y •
t
Epididymis ~ ?i,rt~ee~ rovide !!.,Utrition to the * Rete testis

....,_ leading to sperm formation, while Vasa efferentia

11:.........__germ cells. The regions outside the . ~ _,eininife rous tubules call~d
Testicular lobules ..... interstitial spaces, con~n small
L olood vessels and interstitial cells @
~')rLeydig cells (Fil}rre 3.2). Leydig · Glans penis
~--Urinary
bladder
Seminal
vesicle
,.,-_,?----,,H,- Prostate

~ -++- Bulbourethral gland

-++-+---+----- Urethra

Testis

oreski.n(P:ne.puce.)

l )l c ells synthesi <: e and secr ete .

Z 8 -~sticular hormones called Figure 3.l(b) Diagramma~c_view of male
l )l dr Oth • 1 g· all (part of testis is open to show inner
reproductive system
details)
tr · _an o,11ens. er rmmuno o IC . Y . Re.fr ~LS · . .. ll)l • ..;ompeten t
ce~s are also present. ifqs. ~ -
Z -• The male sex accessory ducts include rete testis, vasa efferentia; ....... ,....__ __
Ep ,"cjs¼mld , 111 epididymls and vas deferens (Figure 3. lb). The
seminiferous tubules of
Z . • . h~ testis ol?en into the vasa: effeientia through rete testis. The vasa
efferentia
: leave the testis and open into epididymis located along the posterior surface
t} • A each testis. _ The epididymis leads to vas def erens that ascends fo the
b p · abdomen and loop~ over the urinary bladder. It receives a ~uct from
ti' • vesicle and opensmto urethra as the ejaculatory duct (Figure
seminal [ohu./v,
3. la). These {.2-!lo) ~t,ou.&
IJ • i ucts store and transport the sperms from the
testis to the outside through TIU>!{ te.s. urethra. Uie urethra originates from the
urinary bladder and extends • l'
~ Jrrough the penis to its external opening called urethral meatus-(an.. ej>

'.vJ;)
, -•• r

. · /Jt1SSafl€- of S.p enm.s : , . a can. dfi- •

' j S Jn:,p,,,;;;
,-{,j,,,J,j_ &11. ;,st ,s Vos ::J_f .,,,;Ji,,.~ E j,• J, .d> y...i. ~
,4-~ .=:=-fJ ~'1)~._J[
0
t

sra.w~ of s1oimciµ,~5 - S j>ll rnd-o ?-071.J lUY) • - Pn./. s mci1.o

b.s ·
-~- s;u-i med o o/ hs - sj>e7Jmcdt.'J_s · sj>um~2.04
(s)ums)
Spermatogonla

Spermatozoa
· . Sertoll cells - Figure 3 .2 Diagrammatic sectl~-nal view of semlniferous tubule •

The penis is the male external genitalia (Figure 3. la. b). It is ~ a de u p~ of

special tissue that helps in erection of the penis to facilitate insemin~tion.
(D Lo-rid'm.. {?-ocm)
(i)Hq.s ..3
~ ·ons
P~l~., (0 e.mbra noe,lJ..., ()~
CIY> )
ot t· • a
The enlarged end of penis called the glans penis is covered by a loose fol~of
skin called foreskin. (Pre.j,t.J.CG J -·~ The male accessory glands (Figure 3.
l a, b) include paired seminvesicles. a prostate and paired bulbourethral
glands. Secretions of thes~ glands constitute the seminal plasma which is rich in
fructose . calcium and certain enzymes. The secretions of_bulbouret.i;iral glands
also h elp~tn the lubrtcatton of the penl_s. ( """"/en: 'j ta.nd) 3.2 THE
FE~ REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

(i) OvznltJ 3 u:t.}7J1.1.£!. /hunl 1 ~-

&o!-(v .

-~·-"I
Mi, #WHtFM
The female reproductive system consists ofa.pair of ovaries alongwtth a pair

ellii
of oviducts, uterus, cerviz, yagtna and the external genitalia loqated
it--- pelvic region (Figu.re 3.3a). These parts of the system alongwtth a
pair-of th~ mammary glands are integrated structurally and functionally \O su
ppor~ the processes of ovulation, fertilisation, pregnancy. birth and child care.
(D. Ovades are the primary female sex organs that produce the fema le gamete
(ovum) and several steroid hormones (ovaria n hormones' The ovaries a re
located one on each sl1c of the lowe r a bdom e~ (Figure 3.3b). Each ovary is
about 2 to 4 cm in length and is connected t~
the pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments. Each ovary ts covered by . epithelium
which encloses the ovartan stroma The st
1
1
thi
1la...
· d ll· roma s divided int~
two zones - a peripheral cortex and a n Inner 111
eUd.-

I
_.,.. ·~- ' .:.~ . • .'; . ,,,.r-··-. ------.-,-_ ·:· - - - ,. -- - -·~-:----~ 9 .....__. • - - .. . ·- -- -- - -- -- ... - - - - . - -

;!'t " • - • ' :;:

' UMAN REPRODUCTfON

!"" Uterus--+--\\-

~ Urtnary Bladder---+- ~
Cervix Rectum

hie symphysis----\.__

Urethra:-------L

Clitolis-----
Labium mJnora -----
Labium majora -----,
Vaginal orifice------jl"<-'~~~ - .:./
----f-Vagtna
~ - -1-
Figure 3.3 (a) Diagrammatic sectional view of female pelvis showing
reproductive system
_(y .
The oviducts (fallopian tubes). uterus and vagma constitute the female
accessory ducts. Each fallopian tube fs about 10-12 cm long and extends ~ om the
periphery of each ovary to the uterus (Figure 3.3b), the part closer ._.!o_ the ovary is
the funnel-shaped infundibul~. The edges of the
~dibulum possess finger-like projections called fimbriae, which help in ()

.. . /-----
~ ollc:ction of the ovum after ovulation. The infundibulum leads to a wider
l'tertne fundus

::1~crv
• Uterine cavity
Isthmus ]
Ampulla Fallopian
tube
Infundibulum

liilllt Enciome~um -- , f
Myometrium ·- f
-: Pertmetr1um r- ]-';---1-- Cervix Cervical canal
Fimbriae

•
Vagina
• Figure 3 .3 (b) Diagrammatic sectional view of the female reproductive _system

r
,;)
fth ·duct isthmus h as part of the oviduct called ampulla. The last part o e OVI • •

o rn --- . ts ttached to
1-/'flst<,-,q__ ~ h ~arrowlumen and itjoins the u terus. fth t
the pelvic Is like an inverted pear. It is ~ ported by ligamen a
· · rvtx The cavity of wall.

The uterus opens into gina through a narrow ce · . . .

O
W. .b r @ The u terus is single and it is also called womb. The shape e u e~ s

the cervix is called cervical canal (Figure 3.3b) which alongwith vagma
· -le forms the birth can . The wall of the uterus h as three layers of tissu e . The
external thin· membranous. perlmetrl~, ~ddle thick layer of smooth
muscle, myometrlum an.d inner glandular layer called endometrium tha
lines the uterine cavity. The endometrjum undergoes cyclical changes during
menstrual cycle while the myometriuni exhibits strong contraction durin
deliverybfthebaby. ~I. (J) @ . (3) .
The fe~e-extem al genitalia include mons pubis, _labia maJora ,'Fabia,
minora, hyfilen and clitori ·gure 3.3a). Mons pubis is a cu s hion of fat
tissue covered by skin an ubic hair. The labia majora are fleshy folds of
tissue, which extend down from the mons pubis and surround the vagin
opening. The labia minora are paired folds of tissue under the labia m ajora.
The opening of the vagina is often covered partially by a membrane called
hymen. The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which lies at the uppe
junction of the two labia minora above the urethral opening. The hymen is
ofteri tom during the first coitus (intercourse). However; it can also be broke

. -/J~ · . in some sports iike horseback riding, cycling, etc. In some

women the hymen
by a suddenfall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon, active participation

E;,,; t - (;g m 't_g_/,(J · ) persists even after coitus. In fact, the presence or
absence of hymen is no #'1\lll!'{l!IJ/~ : , Mons a reliable indicator of virginity or sexual
experience.
@). . @ P<d.!.S . { .
. JClitnx;s = _...,,'.!;,. .. 15 -2.o ) . · Fat
1• i• --'lP'- ~ <Jt °'- • Mammary lobe --~
Mammary alveolus----,
li'dl'Y'ien. •
l'-11'nO-'f(l. •
f\11;/YJIY}M# }~
Mammary duct

Lactiferous duct

' ..
Nipple -
'----~ Pectoralis
major muscle

Figure 3 .4 A diagrammatic sectional view of M ·

· amma ry gland
 A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals.
The mamma ry glands are pa ired structures (breasts) that contain
, ,.. .. ill,, glandular tissue and variable amount of fat. The glandular tissue of each
breast is divided into 15-20 mammary.lobes containing clusters of cells
:'."l•llllfl~ called alveoli (Figure 3.4). The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored
· in the cavities Oumens) of alveoli. The alveoli open into mammary tubules.
The tubules of each lobe joL.'l to form a mammary duct. Several manunary
ducts Join to form a wider mammary ampulla which is connectep to
lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked out. ·

3.3 GAMEToGENESIS
The primary sex organs - the testis in the males and the ovaries in the
-----~females- produce gametes, i.e, sperms and ovum, respectively, by the
process called gametogenesis. In testis, the immature ~ale germ cells
,,..._,..(spermatogonia) produce sperms by spermatogenesis that begins at
puberty. The spermatogonia (sing. spermatogonium) present on the
_inside wall of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division and .
increase in numbers. Each spermatogonium is diploid and .contains 46
chromosomes. Some of the spermatogonia called primary

secondary spermatocytes, which have only liL Spermatozoa ( 'Y'lt) . • - 23 chromosomes

each. The secondary l

spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis. A primary spermatocyte
completes the first meiotic division (reduction, division) leading to

. division to produce four equa l, haploid · 10 · · @ T.M -Jr

Secondary -

lt,;permatiifds h(Figure 3.5) .. Whthat would bteidth~ : 0 0 () . ·. . spermatocyte [ 11f)

 formation of two equal, haploid cells called

spermatocytes undergo the second meiot~c , Spermatid (:))

I'
number.a c romosome in e sperma s . ..· · 0;· :· O . ('1 - l:

.....Jfhe s permatids are transformed into : ·· __ .(?· 0 ._'M . '. · . Primaryt yt ( " · ~) ....,... •. . • . . . . sperma oc e .... :ri

I
spermatozoa (sperms) by the process called \. '/i) Q . ·; . . .
8spermiogenesis. After spermiogenesis, al'\ ' ~Ia O . :_ .-/- .· _ .. '.: Sertol~ cell r
. sperm heads become embedded in the Q ··Q
SsertoU ~e~s. and are finally released from OQQ.0
# ' e semm1ferous tubules by the process c;::::s . Spermatogonium( ~n) called spermiation. . ~""-~ ~--

Spermatogenesis starts a t the age of Figure 3 .5 Diagrammatic sectional view of a uberty due to
significant increase in the · seminiferous tubule (enlarged) GnRH). This. if you recall, is a

hypothalamic hormone. The filcceased H~J,1«l,,,,,,.,

secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone · .

levels of GnRH then acts at the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates . L ecretion of two
gonadotropins - luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle Gi r"RI-\

stimuiating hormone (FSH). LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates ~ 1+ • ~. :synthesis

and secretion of androgens. Androgens, in tum. stimulate the r ..l)..LU..

process of spermatogenesis. FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates LH 2 {i'on~½, ~-• . ~MJ ~-

11.: Te~tt5 F~ -~
G)Head
Plasma
membrane

Acrosome
Nucleus containing
chromosomal material

L<.<r--- Neck @
k~<:lt---Middle piece ® :"-!:'Ill-----'~ Mitochondria
BIOLOGY

secretion of some factors which help in the process of spermiogenesls. It Let us

examine the structure of a sperm. · mposed o( a head, Is a microscopic structure co
neck, a middle piece and a tail (Figure 3.6). A plas~a membrane envelops the whole
body of sperm. The sperm head contains elonga~ed haploid nucleus, the anterior
portion of which Is covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome. The acrosome Is filled
with enzymes tha t h elp
(energy source for swimming) fertilisatlo~ of the ovum. The middle pie ce
possesses numerous mitochondria, which
produce energy for the movement of tail that
Tail@ facilitate sperm motility essential
for fertilisation.
"/( The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300
million sperms during a coitus of which, for
normal fertility, at -least 60 per c·ent sperms
,r must have normal shape and size and at.least
40 per cent of them must show vigor<?u~
motility.

Figure 3.6 Strncture of a sperm Sperms released from the seminiferous

tubules·, are transported by the accessory ,
ducts. Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and
prostate are essential for maturation and motility of sperms. The seminal
-k plasma along with the sperms constitute the semen. The functions o~
male sex accessory ducts and glands are maintained by the testicular
· hormones (androgens).
The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called oogenesis
r which is markedly different from spermatogenesis. Oogenesis is initiated ro
Uiw.Jo 'l en 2 Sis during the embryonic development'stage when a couple of
million gamete Ci) . 1T mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each fetal ovary; no
more oogonia
Pwm<lf1.<I PoP.M_ t are formed and addea after birth. These cells start division
and enter intocar..ilZt- -Pm'~ 0~ ( a.t- P..-o .;:r_) prophase-1 of the !Ileiotic
of ~:J.as::q_ cd(!.,.5. . called
division and gettemporarily arrested at that stage, @ A
primary oocytes. Each plimary oocyte then gets surrounded by s¥£ . f,,( lr'c l~ ':
layer of granulosa cells and is called the primary follicle (Figure 3.7). A - P?U
Ooo.di ff 1 _ _,n. large number of these follicles degenerate during the phase from birth
ta r<./ o_([.~/1 /'_ rqn~tC,J.<"t~ .
- . ore ~,.s: 0 1: puberty. Therefore, at puberty only 60,000-80,000 plimary follicles are
- 'The.ca.. J..lw~vpS · left in each ovary. The plimary follicles get surrounded by
more layers ot_..__ .••• granulosa cells and a new theca and are called secondary
follicles.
The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is
characterised by a fluid filled cavity called antrum. The theca layer L
organised into an inner theca intema and an outer thc;:ca extema. It is
·i-;; important to draw your attention that it is at this stage that the primary _
-A-ntr<,i:m.. ~J.ap..1 tv)n~ oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size and
completes its first meiotic _ .kirm> f},c.la... e'f. division. It is an unequal division

resulting in the formation of a large ,-. ' 1-e,."'LY'/ '<... . 5!. -Mt. lll. Inv rt\ k,b; l'{-.l

haploi~ seco~dary oocyte ~d a tiny first polar body (Figure 3.8b). Th

- p,911·. eo~li C£>, g0 c..~:t11.. 9~ar fu\~·ct ! - 2onct p~

tfrYN.d .Iv
t _k.Js. S IG O ~~""Tr\ * · oo~ui-Q. . -J O-A~fdc a1
!'AJµ_~e ~}. - -a'-'
6 'fs i Pulal
J - ...ti'
HUMAN REPRODUCTION

secondary oocyte retains bulk of the """ll• A .nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary
oocyte. Can you think of any advantage for this? Does the first polar.body born
out of first meiotic division divide further ~r .degenerate? At present we are not
""'"'- -'ilJl,very certain about this. The tertiary . follicle further changes into the
mature 111111111111• .afollicle or Graafian follicle (Figure 3. 7). The secondary oocyte
forms a new membrane called zona pellucida surrounding it. The Graafian
follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovu m) from the ovary by
th~ process called ovulation. Can you iden_tify major differences between

. \11
P'1.l•.o~'fl_,._ f Cr -1 . +f\lort " (7 '-.

·G f.,;,ooCJilc, ) tTh , tt . . ~ - -+A~~ .

Tertiary follicle Blood ToiITcie .-.J~~,.. Showing
antrum - Graafian folllcle

,'

i ' ~-
'I(•',· - ~,.,:;., , _. ,,,.-~ 3·~
'<l-';"'-'?· . . ', :-;.- ,-,~,?.-t• ,.
,.:,e,.:~;-/:.'/4 ,
Corpus
luteum
Figure 3. 7 Diagrammatic Section view of ovary

spermatogenesis and oogenesis? A diagrammatic

representation of spermatogenesis and o~geriesis
is given below (Figu_re 3.8).
CHROMOSOME
 r
PERCELL

NUMBER
AA - - 46
Fetal life

Oogonia

!Mitosis' differentiation

,.
Spermatogonia
I Mitosis
,!, differentiation

Primary oocyte
l ''' division
meiotic

!•
• Birth

• Primary spermatocytes

I 1st meiotic
t

I 2nd meiotic

(completed
8 ,!, division - 23
-- t First

I
division
Childhood
prior to
fj,3econdary spermatocytes
Puberty .. : . • . . . . . . . .
I
' 8 Spermatids !!!!
!
Differentiation
polar body
1i1i - - 23 reproductive

Adult

life

Spermatozoa ) ) ) )

(a) (bl

Figure 3.8 Sc~ematic representation of (a) Spermatogenesis; (q) Oogenesis

~ 3.4 MENSTRUAL CYCLE

~fh.:: reproductive cycie in the female primates (e.g. monkeys, apes and uman
beings) is called menstrual cycle. The first menstruation begins
« . . at puberty
and is called menarche . In human females, menstruation ·s repeated at an average
interval of about 28/29 days, and the cycle of events starting from one
menstruation till the next one is called the •
enstrual cycle. One ovum is released (ovulation) during the middle
ovulation)

Secondary oocyte !
Ovum

en

- CU
·5 § FSH fE
0

:r:
en
- ~-

cu
> @
·a
c
en

>
v @~
·a~
.0

>6
o.., 0 :r:

en
- C: cu
> cu
C:
cu ·.: cu
..... ;:J
Developing follicle
Mature follicle Progesterone
Developing corpus luteum

Days
1 3 5 Menstruation
7
9
Follicular phase (Proliferatjve phase)
15 17 19 21 23 25
Luteal phase
(Secretory phase)
29/1
Next cycle begins

Fi~e _3.9 Diagrammatic presentation of various events during a menstrual cycle

. of each menstrµal cycle. The major ev~nts of ~enstrual cycle ar~

shown in Figure 3.9. The cycle starts with the ~strual phase, \\'.:hen . .a- ••1'11111!1
menstrual flow· occurs and it lasts for _ 3-5 days. The menstrual flow
results due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus and it
blood vessels which forms liquid that comes out through vagina.
Menstruation only occurs if the released ovum is not fertilised. Lack o
menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy. However, it may also bn
caused due to some othe~ underl~ng causes like ~ss, poor health etc."' --• ·
• •
The menstrual phase 1s followed ~y the foll~ar phase. Durin
this phase, the primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a
fully mature Graafian follicle and simultaneously the endometriu.nl'III~ .. of uterus
regenerates through proliferation. These changes in the
ovary and the uterus are induced' 'by changes in the levels
0
pituitary and ovarian hormones (Figure 3. 9). The secretion
~ ~ nadotropins (LH and FSH) increases gradually during the fol1ic~lar
phase. and stimulates follicular development as well as secretion· of Menstrual
Hygiene estrogens by the growing follicles. Both LH and FSH attain a peak.level
dai )- Rapid secretion of LH
Maintenance of . . in the middle of cycle (about 14th
leading to hygiene and sanit<;1.Uon
·£ · during menstruation Is · " 1 s m axunum level
during the mid-cycle called LH surge induces rupture . very Important. Take
raafian follicle and thereb}' the release of ovum (ovulation). Th~ ath and clean
ation (ovulatory phase) is followed by the luteal phase during whic~
yourself
~egulary. Use sanitary th! . . ·th· napkins or clean
remairun~ parts ot the Graafian
follicle transform as e corpus homemade pads. pr luteum (Figure 3 .9).. The
corpus luteum secretes large amounts of Change sanitary · ,' ia1,irogesterone which
1·

is essential for maintenance of the endometrium. napkins or homemade Z · £?> S.

uch an . endometrium is necessary fo implant. ation of the fertilised pads ~ther

5 hrts ,- l ,..- · · • as per e requ emen .
everyir4- Ii ovum and other events of
pregnancy. Durin re n anc all events of Dispose of the used Jr 9the menstrual
J~ of
cycle stop and there is no menstruation)In the absence sanitary napkins
fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates. This causes disintegratior, properly

wrapp1n15 it Jr 1 f th · with a used paper. Do

. 11 4 0 e endometrium leading to
menstruation, marking a new cycle. In not throw the used 11 human beings,
menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years of age; that is napkins 1n the ermed as
menopause. Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal drainpipe of toilets or

reproductive phase and extends between menarche and menopause. In the open area
.. kin:After ·

If · · wash hands with soap. _,:.,·

1 handling the nap t : ..

. '3.5 l<~ RTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION . .,~f

' 1

J___ .......... During copulation (coitus1 semen is released by the penis into the
vagina
~insemination). The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass throu~ the ceIVix,
i ~nter into the uterus and finally reach the ampullary region of the
!:!L____ :I ~ fallopian tube (Figure 3.1 lb). The ovum released by the ov~ is also
...,....ransported to the ampullary region
EillL I ~ ;.here fertilisation takes place. +:
~ertilisation can only occur it the ·. ·
ovum and· sperms are transported

ft 1

I imultaneously to the ampullary Sperm

-e~on. This is the reason_ wh~ not all
I : : . copulations lead to fertilisation
and
1

.a,,egnancy.
The process of fusion of a sperm
th an ovum is called fertilisation.
uring fertilisation, a sperm comes in
ti ,f_the ovum (Figure 3.10) and
L j contact with the ~zona pellucid.a layer ..._
induces pellucida
L ! _ changes in the membrane that block P9<-wenil 11

i&he_>Ptry of additional sperms. Tfius, Po

l, it ensures that only one s~erm can
~~:,:.:....:__,;fi 'M t!f!liertilise an ovum. The secretion~ of the

L I ?crosome help the sperm enter into ~e L l1 ~cytoplasm of the ovum

through the ~ona pellucida and the plasma
:,,....;1---,,0,.-- Cells of the
corona radiata

Perivitelllne space

i Figure 3.10 Ovum sunounded ·by few sperms

membrane. This induces the completion of the meiotic division of th secoridruy oocyte.
The second meiotic division is also unequal and results in the formation of a second
polar body and a haploid ovum (ootld). Soor: the haploid riucleus of the sperms and
that of the ovum fuse together to
.2.n form a diploid zygote. Hoi.y man..u. chromosome~ will be there in the zygote. ( 0
One has to remember that the sex of the baby has been decided at thi . stage itself. Let
_us ~ee how? As you know the chromosome pattern in the human female is XX and
that in the male is XY. Therefore, all the haploi gametes (ova) produced by the female
have the sex chromosome X whereas in the male gametes (sperms) the sex chromosome
could be either X or Y, hence, 50 per cent of sperms carry the Xchromosome while the
other 50 per. cent carry the Y. After fusion of the mal~ and female gametes the zygote ·
would carry either XX or XY depending on whether the sperm carrying }:i or Y fertilised
the ovum. The zygot~ canyingXX would develop into a female baby and XY would form
a male (you will learn more about the chromosom patterns in Chapter 5) .. That is why,
scientifically it is correct to say that the sex' ofthe baby is determined by the father and
not bu the mothert The mitotic division starts as the zygote moves through the isthmu.
2 , 4 , 8 , 16
of the oviduct called cleavage towards the uterus (Figure 3.11) and foims

daughter cells called blastomeres. The embryo with 8 to 1

/
©
8
(a)
(cl

(0 (Blastocyst) · (g)
(dl ,

(el
@ -: (Morulal

Blastocyst
Implantation

Ffg';llll!'f. 5 ,i l Transport of ovurc., fertilisation and passage of growing embryo th,:\lugb.

 -
divide and transforms into blastocyst (Figure 3.1 lg) as it moves further ..
into

the uterus. The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an

~ s called a~ (Figure 3.1 le). The morula continues to

outer layer called trophoblast and an inner group of cells attached to

trophoblast called the inner cell mass. The trophoblast layer then gets
attached to the endometrium and the inner cell mass gets differentiated
as the embryo. After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly and covers .
the blastocyst. As a result, the blastocys:t becomes embedded. in the
endometrium ofthe uterus (Figure 3.1 lh). This is called implantation f:>lasto t
~/qs~ and itleads to pregnancy. £i1i_ T,:ophoblqsf; 'IYYl~Lantcdtor.i .

3.6 PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPl\r:::·-:. -$.- IC.. 1'1

-+f~~v-,,.b~
After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast called
chorlonic' villi which are surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal
blood. The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with
each other and jointly form a structural and functional unit between )1-
developing embryo (foetus) and maternal bod called placenta (Figure 3.12).
The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the
embryo and also removal of carbon dioxide and excretory /waste materials
produced by the embryo. The placenta is connected to the embryo through
an umbilical cord which helps in the transport of substances to and from
th_e embryo( ~lacenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces ',t1 .ITI\R
_ several hormones like human chorionic onadotropin (hCG), human
placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, ro estogens, ·etc. n the later
phase of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin is also secreted by
.
the · OV<¥Y. Let us remember ·
·thathCG, hPL and relaxin Placental villi
· are. produced in women
only during pregnancy. In
addition, during pregnancy the levels of other hormones like estrogens, progestogens,
c ortisol, prolactin, thyroxine,
1/et:c., a re increased .several- ~ folds in the maternal blood. Increased production of
these hormones is . essential for supporting the fetal growth, metabolic changes in
the mother and maintenance of pregnancy.
Immediately after implantation, the inner cell
 cord
with its
vessels
·~i~ ·~•\

~\

"
iS:

\ .,
'
'
Cavity of
uterus

Plug of mucus
r.-~"'1--- in cervix

mass (embryo) differentiates

Figu.n; 3 ol 2 The human foetus within the uterns

flc:rs{nJ.g_ . €£Mvin-J 0(_15 ~ s ) · r<1Gs.~rn

ctp.kt rvct:- · - ~c:rivim
into an outer layer called ectoderm and an Inner layer called endoderm. A
mesoderm so~n appears between the ectoderm and the endoderm. The~e
three layers give rise to all tissues {organs) in adults. It needs to be mentioned
here that the inner cell mass contains certain cells called stem cells which
:;-:f~rr-1'"(-.i.... have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs.
_ _ ....,..,....--- --,-'""."'.:r ---"T What are the major f eatures of embryonic development at various months of
pregnancy? t h e Jiu1mui""pregnancy lasts 9 months. Do you
know for how many months pregnancy last in dogs, elephants, cat~:!
_Find out. In human beings, after one month of pregnancy. the embryo's
heart is formed. The first sign of growing foetus may be noticed by listenin
to the h eart sound carefully.through the stethos~ope. By the end of the
(o~f.4,, H~ ory
3me.nths --. f111.£t-,f-, o,.s. --fr"? c/ · f rl:'
'1e.att:L
JJtni&!~//v,,bS second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops limbs and
form~ digits. By the end of 12 weeks {first trimester), most of the
M fJYlmed of major organ systems are formed, for example, the limbs
and ertemal genital organs are well PAATURITION AND LACTATIONb E.le.j,h...,rr!- .22 -w>ont/,_g
developed. The first movements of the foetus and
The average duration of h uman pregnancy is about 9
appearance of hair o the head are usually observed daring
months which is called th·e gestation period. Vigorous
the fifth month. By the end of about 24 weeks (end qf
contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes
second trimester), the body is covered with fine hair,
expulsion/ delivery of the foetus. This process of delivery of
eye-lids separate, and eyelashes are formed. By the end of
the foetus (childbirth) is called parturition. Parturition i~
of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed
nine months .induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism. The
signals for~
and is ready f~ ~vl.
. fatt/ J)oj -.59-621 5 3 .7

,----------~-- - ~ parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the placen ,
which induce mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex. Thi
triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary. Oxytocin acts on
the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contractions, which iii
tum stimulates further secretion of oxytocin. The stimulatory reflex between
the uterine contraction an~ oxytocin secretion continues resulting iI
stronger and stronger contractions. This leads to eA'µulsion of the babY.
out of the uterus through the birth canal - parturition. Soon after th
infant is delivered, the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus. What
yo~ think the doct~rs inject ' to induce delivery? 0 Xi.4-iocih -
The mcµnmary glands of the female undergo differentiation durin~
pregnancy and starts producing milk towards the end of pregnancy by"""li
the process called lactation. This helps the mother in .feeding the new~
born. 1:he milk produced d~ring the initial few days oflactation is callecla..,_:
f ,-s/-
~which contains seve"ral antibodies abs_olutely essential t~
. rn~~ develop re1;listance for the. n ew-born babies. Breast-feeding during th..._
{

Ir~ initial period of infant growth is recommended by doctors for bringing

up""""II
a healthy baby. · , aL°
c; Pnolacii ri 4' ~ro~ on. a F MI lk:

_ -..2 Ox~ tout, ejulio~ )A,eh._qre j LddovJn., --

. 8/ /VJ, ,lk. --
iZ 11