AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE TEACHING METHODS II

LECTURER NOTES - 2022

LECTURE 6

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE CURRICULUM AND RELATED ISSUES

Concept of curriculum

Curriculum
Curriculum is a standards-based sequence of planned experiences where students practice and
achieve proficiency in content and applied learning skills. Curriculum is the central guide for all
educators as to what is essential for teaching and learning, so that every student has access to
rigorous academic experiences. The structure, organization, and considerations in a curriculum
are created in order to enhance student learning and facilitate instruction. Curriculum must
include the necessary goals, methods, materials and assessments to effectively support
instruction and learning.
Goals
Goals within a curriculum are the standards-based benchmarks or expectations for teaching and
learning. Most often, goals are made explicit in the form of a scope and sequence of skills to be
addressed. Goals must include the breadth and depth to which a student is expected to learn.
Methods
Methods are the instructional decisions, approaches, procedures, and routines that teachers use to
engage all students in meaningful learning. These choices support the facilitation of learning
experiences in order to promote a student’s ability to understand and apply content and skills.
Methods are differentiated to meet student needs and interests, task demands, and learning
environment. Methods are adjusted based on ongoing review of student progress towards
meeting the goals.
Materials

1
Materials are the tools selected to implement methods and achieve the goals of the curriculum.
Materials are intentionally chosen to support a student's learning. Material choices reflect student
interest, cultural diversity, world perspectives, and address all types of diverse learners.
Assessment
Assessment in a curriculum is the ongoing process of gathering information about a student’s
learning. This includes a variety of ways to document what the student knows, understands, and
can do with their knowledge and skills. Information from assessment is used to make decisions
about instructional approaches, teaching materials, and academic supports needed to enhance
opportunities for the student and to guide future instruction.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE IN AGRICULTURE

Instructional objectives (also known as behavioral objectives or learning objectives) are

basically statements which clearly describe an anticipated learning outcome. When objectives
were first coming into their own in education, they almost always began with the phrase: "Upon
completion of this lesson, the student should be able to…." This phrase focused on the outcome
of learning rather than on the learning process. In fact, one of the criteria for a well-written
objective is that it describe the outcome of learning, that is, what the learners can do after
learning has occurred that they might not have been able to do before the teaching and learning
process began.

Characteristics of a Well-Written Objective

A well-written objective should meet the following criteria: (1) describe a learning outcome, (2)
be student oriented, (3) be observable (or describe an observable product).

A well-written objective should describe a learning outcome. It should not describe a learning
activity. Learning activities are important in planning and guiding instruction but they are not to
be confused with instructional objectives.

A student-oriented objective focuses on the learner, not on the teacher. It describes what the
learner will be expected to be able to do. It should not describe a teacher activity. It may be

2
helpful to both the teacher and the student to know what the teacher is going to do but teacher
activities are also not to be confused with instructional objectives.

If an instructional objective is not observable (or does not describe an observable product), it
leads to unclear expectations and it will be difficult to determine whether or not it had been
reached. The key to writing observable objectives is to use verbs that are observable and lead to a
well-defined product of the action implied by that verb. Verbs such as "to know," "to
understand," "to enjoy," "to appreciate," "to realize," and "to value" are vague and not
observable. Verbs such as "to identify," "to list," "to select," "to compute," "to predict," and "to
analyze" are explicit and describe observable actions or actions that lead to observable products.

There are many skills that cannot be directly observed. The thinking processes of a student as she
tries to solve a math problem cannot be easily observed. However, one can look at the answers
she comes up with and determine if they are correct. It is also possible to look at the steps a
student takes to arrive at an answer if they are written down (thus displaying his thinking
process). There are many end products that also can be observed.

Characteristics of a Useful Objective

To be useful for instruction, an objective must not only be well written but it also must meet the
following criteria: (1) be sequentially appropriate; (2) be attainable within a reasonable amount
of time; (3) be developmentally appropriate.

For an objective to be sequentially appropriate it must occur in an appropriate place in the

instructional sequence. All prerequisite objectives must already have been attained. Nothing
thwarts the learning process more than having learners trying to accomplish an objective before
they have learned the necessary prerequisites. This is why continuous assessment of student
progress is so important.

A useful objective is attainable within a reasonable time. If an instructional objective takes

students an inordinately long time to accomplish, it is either sequentially inappropriate or it is too

3
broad, relying on the accomplishment of several outcomes or skills rather than a single outcome
or skill. An objective should set expectations for a single learning outcome and not a cluster of
them.

Developmentally appropriate objectives set expectations for students that are well within their
level of intellectual, social, language, or moral development. Teachers, parents, and others who
are working with preschool or elementary school children should be especially aware of the
developmental stages of the children they are working with. No author or researcher has more
clearly defined the stages of intellectual development than Jean Piaget. Familiarity with his work
as well as with the work of other child development specialists (e.g., Lev Vygotsky's language
development, Lawrence Kohlberg's moral development and Erik Erikson's social development)
should produce better instructional objectives.

Kinds of Instructional Objectives

Instructional objectives are often classified according to the kind or level of learning that is
required in order to reach them. There are numerous taxonomies of instructional objectives; the
most common taxonomy was developed by Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues. The first level
of the taxonomy divides objectives into three categories: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
Simply put, cognitive objectives focus on the mind; affective objectives focus on emotions or
affect; and psychomotor objectives focus on the body.

Cognitive objectives call for outcomes of mental activity such as memorizing, reading,
problem solving, analyzing, synthesizing, and drawing conclusions. Bloom and others further
categorize cognitive objectives into various levels from the simplest cognitive tasks to the most
complex cognitive task. These categories can be helpful when trying to order objectives so they
are sequentially appropriate. This helps to insure that prerequisite outcomes are accomplished
first.

Affective objectives focus on emotions. Whenever a person seeks to learn to react in an

appropriate way emotionally, there is some thinking going on. What distinguishes affective

4
objectives from cognitive objectives is the fact that the goal of affective objectives is some kind
of affective behavior or the product of an affect (e.g., an attitude). The goal of cognitive
objectives, on the other hand, is some kind of cognitive response or the product of a cognitive
response (e.g., a problem solved).

Psychomotor objectives focus on the body and the goal of these objectives is the control or
manipulation of the muscular skeletal system or some part of it (e.g., dancing, writing,
tumbling, passing a ball, and drawing). All skills requiring fine or gross motor coordination fall
into the psychomotor category. To learn a motor skill requires some cognition. However, the
ultimate goal is not the cognitive aspects of the skill such as memorizing the steps to take. The
ultimate goal is the control of muscles or muscle groups.

The Role of Objectives in Teaching and Testing

Objectives can be helpful in instructional planning, during the teaching/learning process, and
when assessing student progress. Instructional objectives are often either ignored (by both
teachers and students) or are, at best, occasionally referred to. However, it can be argued that
instructional objectives should guide the teaching and learning process from beginning to end.

Most lesson plan forms include a place for the objectives of the lesson to be recorded. However,
to write an objective down and then to plan the lesson around the topic of the lesson rather than
around the learning outcomes to be reached is missing the point. There is good evidence in the
human learning literature that different kinds of outcomes are learned differently. Robert Gagné
was one of the first researchers to articulate this; it follows from his research that instructional
planning must take into account the kind of learning the students will be engaged in as they seek
to reach an objective. Effective teachers learn to categorize their instructional objectives and then
develop the teaching and learning activities that will help students do the kind of thinking
required for that kind of learning.

INTERRELATED COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM

5
The elements of curriculum would guarantee the success of a curriculum. The elements of
curriculum are: objectives, content or subject matter, methods or learning experiences and
evaluation.

1. Curriculum Objectives

The curriculum aims, goals and objectives spell out what is to be done. It tries to capture what
goals are to be achieved, the vision, the philosophy, the mission statement and objectives.
Further, it clearly defines the purpose and what the curriculum is to be acted upon and try what
to drive at. We begin with this element because it is difficult to plan a successful trip without a
destination.

Aims are often expressed in terms of state standards, which are expressed in somewhat general
terms, then broken down into more specific goals, then further broken down into
objectives. These objectives are specific and written in behavioral terms so as to develop
learning structures and conditions. Sometimes the objectives are sorted as cognitive, affective,
and psychomotor.

There are four main factors affecting the formulation of curriculum objectives. These are

1. The society
2. The knowledge
3. The learner
4. The learning process

All of these factors are to be considered while selecting and formulating the curriculum
objectives.

2. Content or Subject Matter

6
A second element is the content of the curriculum. It contains information to be learned at
school. It is an element or a medium through which the objectives are accomplished. Content or
subject matter refers to the body of knowledge that the student will take away when the course is
done. It must assure that the curriculum objectives are properly met.

One of the important consideration is the selection of content for a subject. At the time of subject
matter selection, the following factors are to be kept in mind:

1. Available sources and resources

2. Demand of the society
3. International needs
4. Level and age of the learner or student
5. Methods of content organization
6. Number of courses offered
7. Quantity and qualification of teaching staff
8. Scope of subject matter
9. System of examination
10. Type of society and culture

In organizing the learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration, and continuity of
the subject matter to develop a sound content.

3. Learning Experiences (Methods of Delivering Knowledge)

The third element is the strategies and methods of teaching or the learning experiences adopted
by the teachers during instruction. It deals with the teaching-learning process including
methodology of teaching and learning experiences both within the institution and outside,
learning environments, teachers’ material as well as students’ material. In his classic text on
curriculum, Tyler defined the term learning experiences as follows:

The term “learning experience” is not the same as the content with which a course deals nor the
activities performed by the teacher. The term “learning experience” refers to the interaction
7
between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he/she can react.
Learning takes place through the active behavior of the student.

Tyler argues that the teacher’s problem is to select learning experiences that will foster active
involvement in the learning process in order to accomplish the expected learning outcomes.
Tyler outlined five general principles in selecting learning experiences:

1. The learning experience must give students the opportunity to practice the desired
behavior.
2. The learning experience must give the students satisfaction; unsatisfying experiences
hinder their learning.
3. The learning experience must “fit” the students’ needs and abilities.
4. Multiple learning experiences can achieve the same objective. Hence, a wide range of
experiences is more effective for learning than a limited range.
5. The learning experience should accomplish several learning outcomes and satisfy more
than one objective.

4. Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation refers to the process of placing value on a curriculum. Evaluation may
focus on a curriculum’s design, including content and process; its implementation; or outcomes.
It identifies the quality, effectiveness of the program, process and product of the curriculum.

Curriculum evaluation is different from a student evaluation. It is a broader term being used to
make judgment about the worth and effectiveness of curriculum. Curriculum evaluation is also
important in a sense that one could assess whether the aims and objectives have been met or not.
It also shows the effectiveness of strategy of teaching and other components. The interpretation
of evaluation provides the feedback to the curriculum and its components. With the help of
evaluation phase experts can modify the curriculum by bringing about desirable changes.

8
Relationships between curriculum, syllabus, scheme of work, lesson plan and lesson notes
The curriculum is the entire amount of content that will be taught in a certain subject area over a
period of time (eg 3 years, 4 years, 5 years). A curriculum is divide into the syllabuses. The
syllabus is the whole content to be taught in a particular year for one subject at one level.
The syllabus is divided into a scheme of work. A scheme of work in a nutshell is a plan or
schedule that outlines what teachers will teach each week of the term during the school year.
Each teacher at the school creates a lesson plan or work plan based on the specific curriculum.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODELS

Curriculum design is a complex but systematic process. This unit describes a variety of models
of curriculum design in order to make this complex activity understandable and manageable. It is
important for you as a teacher to understand how the curriculum you are using in your school
was designed Content This unit covers the following models of curriculum design:

• The objectives model,

• The process model,
• Tyler’s model,
• Wheeler’s model, and
• Kerr’s model.

The Objectives Model

The objectives model of curriculum design contains content that is based on specific objectives.
These objectives should specify expected learning outcomes in terms of specific measurable
behaviours. This model comprises four main steps:

• agreeing on broad aims which are analysed into objectives,

• constructing a curriculum to achieve these objectives,

• refining the curriculum in practice by testing its capacity to achieve its objectives, and

• communicating the curriculum to the teachers through the conceptual framework of the
objectives.

9
You will note that in this model:
• Evaluation is done at each stage of the curriculum design.
• Content, materials and methodology are derived from the objectives.

The Process Model

Unlike the objectives model, this model does not consider objectives to be important. Using this
model presupposes that:
• Content has its own value. Therefore, it should not be selected on the basis of the achievement
of objectives.
• Content involves procedures, concepts and criteria that can be used to appraise the curriculum.
• Translating content into objectives may result in knowledge being distorted.
• Learning activities have their own value and can be measured in terms of their own standard.
For this reason, learning activities can stand on their own.

10
It is important to note that in the process model:

• Content and methodology are derived from the goals.

Each of them has outcomes that can be evaluated.

• The evaluation results from the outcome are fed into the goals, which will later influence the
content and methodologies. Unlike the objectives model, there is no direct evaluation of the
content and methodologies.

Tyler’s Model

Tyler’s model for curriculum designing is based on the following questions:

• What educational purposes should the school seek to attain
What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
• How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
• How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

11
The model is linear in nature, starting from objectives and ending with evaluation.
In this model, evaluation is terminal. It is important to note that:
• Objectives form the basis for the selection and organisation of learning experiences.
• Objectives form the basis for assessing the curriculum.
• Objectives are derived from the learner, contemporary life and subject specialist. To Tyler,
evaluation is a process by which one matches the initial expectation with the outcomes.

Wheeler’s Model

Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an improvement upon Tyler’s model. Instead of a
linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical model. Evaluation in Wheeler’s model is not
terminal. Findings from the evaluation are fed back into the objectives and the goals, which
influence other stages.

12
Wheeler contends that:

• Aims should be discussed as behaviours referring to the end product of learning which yields
the ultimate goals. One can think of these ultimate goals as outcomes.

• Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum planning. This results in the
formulation of objectives at both an enabling and a terminal level.

• Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which determine that content.

Kerr’s Model

Most of the features in Kerr’s model resemble those in Wheeler’s and Tyler’s models. However,
Kerr divided the domains into four areas:

objectives,
• knowledge,

13
• evaluation, and
• school learning experiences. A simplified version of Kerr’s model of curriculum design is
shown below.

What you should note about the model is that:

• the four domains are interrelated directly or indirectly, and

• objectives are derived from school learning experiences and knowledge. In Kerr’s model,
objectives are divided into three groups:
• affective
• cognitive
• psychomotor.
The model further indicates that knowledge should be :

• organised,
• integrated,
• sequenced, and
• reinforced.
Evaluation in Kerr’s model is the collection of information for use in making decisions about the
curriculum. School learning experiences are influenced by societal opportunities, the school
community, pupil and teacher relationships, individual differences, teaching methods, content
and the maturity of the learners. These experiences are evaluated through tests, interviews,

14
assessments and other reasonable methods. In his model, Kerr asserts that everything influences
everything else and that it is possible to start an analysis at any point.

Reflection

As a practising teacher, on which model or models of curriculum design do you think your
national school curriculum was based? How does the model affect what you actually teach
in class?

ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE TEACHER IN THE CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Teachers of agriculture have played tremendous roles in developing various sectors of the
communities; no doubt the history of mankind cannot be complete without their developmental
endeavours. Right from the origin, man has always strived to improve his living conditions. This
manifested in his various endeavours designed to make life easier. In view of the above teachers
of agricultural science ensures that developmental projects are successfully carried out. This is
possible because they teach in what may be perceived as a unique environment when compared
to other teachers in secondary schools. Teachers generally instruct not only in classrooms and
laboratories, but also on-site at the school farms, ranches and cooperative learning sites.

The scope of such instruction directly involves students, parents and other members of the
community and usually involves time effort and movement beyond the normal school day and
geographical location. Often teachers of agriculture for example in live in small isolated
communities and teachers of agriculture interact more with physical environment. These two
situations present cultural and physical conditions which may influence their effectiveness as a
teacher. Community support of rural schools is generally strong because parents are often times
directly involved in daily operations.

Individualized instruction, peer group teaching and multi-age grouping are considered academic
advantages of rural schools. Teachers in rural schools often work in a “make do” mentality, Cole
1988 stated that lack of equipment deteriorating instructional facilities, plus the presence of

15
trends nationwide to raise educational standards have placed greater demand on already stained
budgets, manpower and schedules. A particular aspect of rural teaching that has surfaced in
research is that of the ability to teach a broad of subject matter.

The teacher is an adult with above average intelligence, trained for a number of years to know
his subject matter and how to teach if for practical purposes of the children. He selects what to
teach and works to a timetable. He also brings into the classroom his view of his job, his
prejudices as well as personal fears and affection. Therefore, teachers of agriculture must be able
to assess their environments and make necessary changes to meet the needs of their students and
communities. Quality agriculture education programme responds to students, industry and
community needs, thus teachers of agriculture must take steps to address these issues.

Generally, the principal characteristics of a community include the fact that every group of
people called a community is characterized by a locality or territory where members nurture,
cherish and uphold. They act and behave under common beliefs and values. They have a
common way of life, ideas, belief, knowledge, religion, language, architecture, technology and
ways of dressing. The preservation of the culture and patterned ways of acting in a community
requires that proper counseling and training be done to ensure youths do not deviate and behave
anyhow. Hence the agricultural science teachers in order to achieve their multipurpose roles as
change agents, community workers, classroom instructors, career counselors and other non-
teaching duties whether citizen of that community or not must study and know the norms, belief
and value of the people. Thus agricultural science teachers’ actions, in-actions and reactions are
very vital and necessary in the planning, execution, utilization and maintenance of community
programmes and projects.

LECTURER 7

What is CPD?

CPD, stands for 'continuous professional development'. Each of the three words is relevant:
continuous, professional, and development. By CPD, we mean an ongoing process of

16
maintaining a document of your skills, experience, qualifications and knowledge which you gain
that are relevant to you as an education professional

Why is CPD important for a teacher?

The value of CPD in that is supports benefits at all levels of education; the regular updating of
competencies, knowledge, and the full accounting of transferable skills supports innovation,
freshness in post, and that it can develop both confidence and motivation. Furthermore, a
proactive attitude towards CPD speaks to the self and to others of professionalism, as it
evidences engagement with the changing needs of learners and the shifting priorities and
contexts being faced in education.

CPD is important also because not all educationalists embark on career-long development; a
CPD-informed attitude to one's profession not only gives advantages over others in career terms,
but makes the current role easier, as the educator is well-versed in changing contexts and is
absorbing information throughout the school year, rather than being burdened with forced
learning when updates are imposed. Part of the reason for not engaging with CPD is that there
can be institutional barriers in place; sometimes, it is also easier for educators to get out of the
habit of career development once a teaching position has been secured. It might be more useful
to think of the finishing of a teaching qualification as the beginning of a CPD journey, than the
end of one's training and development.

The positive effects of CPD may be felt at four levels. First, there is the zone of teacher
effectiveness; then, the effectiveness of that teaching, as experienced by learners and close
colleagues; third, whole-school benefits of educators invested in their personal development;
and fourth, wider social benefits beyond the school gates. Such benefits are particularly felt
when the philosophy informing the organizational approach to CPD is less concerned with the
mastery of new skills as dictated by management, and more connected to the support of
communities of invested learning within settings, and to the development of individuals who are
interested in the ways that developing themselves has positive impacts which are not restricted to
the self, but which have wider ramifications.

17
Teacher motivation is thus key; motivated teachers not only teach better, but are more likely to
be invested in others as well as themselves; CPD and a more developed learning environment for
pupils are mutually reinforcing. Research suggests that there are twin processes at work in the
supporting of such cultures: individual psychological factors such as teacher cognition and
motivation, and organisational factors such as a leadership which embraces the positive benefits
of CPD and can rationalise the costs of supporting such training development as might be
appropriate, and open cultures where engaging in personal development is met positively, and
experienced by others.

Not only do professional learning communities - where there is a student-focused ethos, where
there is collective responsibility for learners, where collaboration and reflective practice is
welcomed - support individuals' CPD, but they are better places to work, the quality of teaching
is enhanced by a willingness to experiment and to share good practice, and issues such as staff
retention and absenteeism may be combatted.

Levels of CPD impact

Craft (2000) identifies a series of reasons why CPD may be undertaken:

18
  To develop job performance skills
 To extend experience for career development or promotion opportunities
 To extend general educational levels
 To promote role satisfaction
 To provide new challenges
 To refocus priorities
 To anticipate for, and to prepare for change
 To clarify matters of internal policy or procedure

Often, there may be multiple reasons, of sometimes shifting importance, to the individual
educator. At times, CPD will incorporate necessary skills updating as mandated by line
management, at other times CPD will be complementary to such staff development initiatives.
Underpinning all CPD, though, is the central idea that the effort will support better learning by
pupils.

Much CPD will serve the needs of the organization as well as those of the individual educator.
What is useful for the teacher, though, is the maintenance of a regularly-reviewed inventory so
that elements which are not being appropriately addressed by the training, staff development, or
wider experience of school-related life can be taken on by the individual themselves.

The blending of personal development and institutional development is a theme which emerges
across much CPD-related research, but the impetus which drives both needs to be the impact on
the learner. In education, continuous professional development is always informed by the
imperative to better the experience and the outcomes for pupils.

LESSON STUDY

What is lesson study? Lesson study is an approach to professional development that brings the
intricacies of teaching practice and student learning into focus through collaborative and
sustained examination of curriculum and instruction. Lesson Study (LS) is a highly specified
form of classroom action research focusing on the development of teacher practice knowledge. It
has been in use in Japan since the 1870s. LS involves groups of teachers collaboratively
planning, teaching, observing and analysing learning and teaching in ‘research lessons’. They

19
record their findings. Over a cycle of research lessons, they may innovate or refine a pedagogical
approach which will be shared with others both through public research lessons, and through the
publication of a paper outlining their work. Working in iterative cycles, lesson study gives
participants a framework for actively investigating how to improve learning in their classrooms.
Team members implement four stages during each lesson study cycle: (1) Study and Plan, (2)
Teach, Observe, and Debrief, (3) Revise and Reteach, and (4) Reflect and Report.

Lesson Study has been used successfully in many countries to improve teaching techniques and
pupil progress in core subjects in primary and secondary universities and to develop broader
pedagogic approaches such as assessment for learning. During a Lesson Study cycle a small
group of teachers (or even a pair) will:

• Use the data they have gathered from day to day and periodic assessment to agree a focus for
the pupil learning and progress.

• Jointly identify a teaching technique to develop or improve which addresses that need.

• Identify around three ‘case pupils’. Each should typify a group of learners in the class – for
example high, middle or lower attaining in the strand being taught and developed.

• Jointly plan a ‘research lesson’ which both uses develops and closely studies the effects of this
new approach –.and keeps in mind the three case pupils.

• Teach and jointly observe the research lesson focusing on the case pupils’learning and
progress. They may repeat and refine this over several lessons. Not all these need to be observed
research lessons.

• Interview the case pupils to gain their insights into the research lesson.

• Hold a post research lesson discussion analysing how the case pupils responded to the
technique, what progress they made, what evidence of learning or of difficulties with learning
they displayed and what can be learned about the way the teaching or learning approach is
further developed – next time.

• Formally share the outcomes with a wider audience of other teachers – in a presentation, by
demonstration or by coaching.

20
IMPLEMENTING CPD STRATEGIES

Schools implementing strategies to increase teacher autonomy over CPD goals have seen a rise
in staff morale and a greater level of buy-in for overall school agendas. In such schools,
governors and senior leadership teams have explored how teachers can be meaningfully involved
and engaged in the way the school defines its organizational development priorities and makes
its decisions. A key result is teachers having a greater sense of ownership in setting their own
developmental goals. As a result, staff absence has significantly reduced and teachers have an
enhanced belief in their power to make a difference.

Successful approaches include:

 providing structured development opportunities for all teachers

 linking opportunities to key school improvement goals
 creating a culture of robust teacher self-evaluation, supported by line managers
 switching from a “top-down” approach to a more cooperative “performance
development” system
 regular assessment against the Teaching Standards through 360-degree reviews
 dedicated training for appraisers and line managers in supervision, appraisal and coaching
conversations
 constructing a common agenda for performance development meetings.
Providing an opportunity for staff to “check-in” with their assessors after discussions is also an
effective means of increasing engagement and encouraging those being evaluated to reflect upon
their CPD needs.

Striving for Maximum Impact

Inevitably, the development of a more CPD system in schools presents a significant challenge to
leaders, especially in the face of pressures for improved pupil outcomes and whole-school
improvement. However, in the long term the benefits of encouraging teachers to have a greater
voice in their own development goals can go a long way towards creating a more dynamic and
motivated team.

Schools consulting teachers on organisational development priorities, offering options or

pathways to new staff, providing regular opportunities for feedback and coaching, as well as

21
protected learning and reflection time, ultimately make it explicitly clear that they value staff
development and are willing to invest in it.

Summary

CPD is important for staff retention as well as development and should be reviewed and
monitored routinely. Staff feedback on CPD is important for analysing training needs and
identifying improvements. Performance management helps classroom teachers practice goal-
setting. Teachers’ sense of autonomy in CPD has a major impact on morale and staff retention.

LECTURE 8

ACTION BASED RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

In schools, action research refers to a wide variety of evaluative, investigative, and analytical
research methods designed to diagnose problems or weaknesses—whether organizational,
academic, or instructional—and help educators develop practical solutions to address them
quickly and efficiently.

What are the characteristics of action research in education?

Action research is a collaborative approach to working in schools by teachers committed to

improving their teaching for the benefit of all students. For our purpose action research has these
three key elements: operational or technical, collaboration, and critical reflection.

Throughout the nation, teachers and administrators are being challenged to collaboratively
investigate the effectiveness of research-based instructional practices currently used in
classrooms to improve student learning. Teachers are encouraged to reflect on and analyze
student data on a consistent and collaborative basis to ensure success for all students. In order to
meet the challenges being faced, schools are encouraged to restructure their professional

22
development system providing faculty members with opportunities for collaborative inquiry,
reflection, and dialogue what is driven by student data.

Action research is a model of professional development that promotes collaborative inquiry,

reflection, and dialogue. “Within the action research process, educators study student learning
related to their own teaching.

Origin of Action Research

The origins of Action Research (AR) are unclear in the literature but generally Kurt Lewin is
considered the ‘father’ of AR, who first coined the term, in his paper about Minority Problems.
Its function in educational system began with the Science in Education Movement of late
nineteenth century in which scientific method was applied to education followed by the UK
originated Teacher Researcher Movement advocating that all teaching should be based upon
research. By the mid-1970s, it was discussed as a separate field of research and four major types
were reported including:

1) Traditional: that was applied within organizations in the areas of Organization Development,
Quality of Working Life (QWL), Socio-technical systems (e.g., Information Systems), and
Organizational Democracy. This traditional approach tends toward the conservative, generally
maintaining the status quo with regards to organizational power structures.

2) Contextual: that encompasses relations between organizations. It stresses that participants act
as project designers and co-researchers. The concept of organizational ecology and the use of
search conferences come out of contextual action research.

3) Radical: it has a strong focus on emancipation and the overcoming of power imbalances.

4) Educational Traditional Action Research: A fourth stream, that of Educational Action

Research, has its foundations in the writings of John Dewey, the great American educational
philosopher of the 1920s and 30s, who believed that professional educators should become
involved in community problem-solving. “Educational action research is founded after John
Dewey, an American educational philosopher, who held that professional educators should

23
become involved in community problem solving”. Naturally, it concentrates on development of
curriculum, professional improvement, and applying learning in a social context.

Practical Action Research

Participatory action research Practical action research is used in situations in which teacher
researchers “seek to enhance the practice of education through the systematic study of a
local problem.” It usually involves a small-case research project, narrowly directs at a specific
problem or issue and is undertaken by individual teachers or teams within a particular education
setting. Participatory action research is usually implemented in larger scale to improve “the
quality of people’s organization, communities and family lives”. Namely, it has a “social and
community orientation” and it focuses on research that “contributes to emancipation or change in
our society”. Its practitioners, not surprisingly, operate mainly out of educational institutions, and
focus on development of curriculum, professional development, and applying learning in a social
context. It is often the case that university- based action researchers work with primary and
secondary school teachers and students on community projects. Initially AR was limited to
school settings and practiced by teachers to observe the effect of any teaching strategy
modification on focused students or to incorporate progressive changes in the syllabus taking all
stakeholders but owing to its flexibility and more practical approach, now it has been
experimented at all levels of professional & formal education.

Action research is a model of professional development that promotes collaborative inquiry,

reflection, and dialogue. Within the action research process, educators study student learning
related to their own teaching. It is a process that allows educators to learn about their own
instructional practices and to continue to monitor improved student learning. The idea of action
research is that educational problems and issues are best identified and investigated where
the action is: at the classroom and school level. By integrating research into these settings and
engaging those who work at this level in research activities, findings can be applied immediately
and problems solved more quickly.

24
What gives action research its unique position is the set of principles that guide the research.
Richard (1989) provides a comprehensive general overview of six key principles. These can be
considered in any of the educational settings.

1) Reflexive critique: An account of a situation, such as notes, transcripts or official documents,

will make implicit claims to be authoritative, i.e., it implies that it is factual and true. The
principle of reflective critique ensures people reflect on issues and processes and make explicit
the interpretations, biases, assumptions and concerns upon which judgments are made. In this
way, practical accounts can give rise to theoretical considerations.

2) Dialectical critique: Reality is consensually validated, which is to say it is shared through

language. Phenomena are conceptualized in dialogue; therefore, a dialectical critique is required
to understand the set of relationships both between the phenomenon and its context, and between
the elements constituting the phenomenon. The key elements to focus attention on are those
constituent elements that are unstable, or in opposition to one another. These are the ones that are
most likely to create changes.

3) Collaborative Resource: Participants in an action research project are core searchers. The
principle of collaborative resource presupposes that each person’s ideas are equally significant as
potential resources for creating interpretive categories of analysis, negotiated among the
participants.

4)Risk: The change process potentially threatens all previously established ways of doing things,
thus creating fears among the practitioners. One of the more prominent fears comes from the risk
to ego stemming from open discussion of one’s interpretations, ideas, and judgments. Initiators
of action research will use this principle to allay others’ fears and invite participation by pointing
out that they, too, will be subject to the same process, and that whatever the outcome, learning
will take place.

5)Plural Structure: The nature of the research embodies a multiplicity of views, commentaries
and critiques, leading to multiple possible actions and interpretations. This means that there will
be many accounts made explicit, with commentaries on their contradictions, and a range of
options for action presented. A report, therefore, acts as a support for ongoing discussion among
collaborators, rather than a final conclusion of fact.

25
6) Theory, Practice, and Transformation: For action researchers, theory informs practice,
practice refines theory, in a continuous transformation. In any setting, people’s actions are based
on implicitly held assumptions, theories and hypotheses, and with every observed result,
theoretical knowledge is enhanced. The ensuing practical applications that follow are subjected
to further analysis, in a transformative cycle that continuously alternates emphasis between
theory and practice. Also action research can be organized in many ways, such as: Individual
teacher research focuses on studying a problem or issue within a single classroom. The teacher
who engages in individual teacher research may or may not have support from colleagues and
administration to share, brainstorm, and discuss the topic of action research. Although just one
teacher may become directly involved in action research, support from knowledgeable educators
at the school or district site is still important for successful teacher research to occur. Also,
universities, educational agencies, and districts may encourage teacher action research by
providing ongoing professional development related to the needs of the individual teacher
researcher. These resources may also provide different venues for sharing the successes of the
action research. Collaborative action research focuses on studying a problem or issue within one
or more classrooms. Teachers may collaborate and work together to study a particular problem in
many different ways.

 co-teachers in one classroom studying a specific group of students

 a team of teachers focusing on a grade level issue
 a teacher and district, educational agency, or university personnel learning and
studying a particular instructional practice
 a group of teachers in the same school studying the same instructional concern.

This collaborative action research approach fosters a joint effort because more than one teacher
is involved in a specific area of study. Opportunities for sharing and dialogue are more likely to
occur. School-wide action research is a school reform initiative. Every faculty member of the
school is involved in studying a specific issue identified from school data. This approach
requires a great deal of support from the administrators and lead teachers/personnel, but the
results can lead to school-wide change. Successful school-wide action research is directly related
to initiatives contained within the school improvement plan. This collaborative action research

26
approach fosters a joint effort because more than one teacher is involved in a specific area of
study. Opportunities for sharing and dialogue are more likely to occur.

BENEFITS OF ACTION RESEARCH TO EDUCATION

Action research is a teaching, learning, and decision-making process that can be used in a myriad
of ways to assist the learning process of students and teachers. Action research is a means of
improving student achievement through more effective teaching and administration of schools

• Educators involved in action research became more flexible in their thinking, more open to new
ideas, and abler to solve new problems.

• Engaging in action research influenced teachers’ thinking skills, sense of efficacy, willingness
to communicate with colleagues, and attitudes toward professional development and the process
of change.

• Teachers engaged in action research depended more on themselves as decision makers and
gained more confidence in what they believed about curriculum and instruction.

• Action researchers were reading, discussing, thinking, and assessing ideas from related research
with expanded analytical skills.

 Positive changes occur in the school environment through the action research process.
 Teachers become lifelong learners, and students experience success in learning.

Conclusion

In summary, although some people may critique that action research is an informal research
since teachers are not academic researchers, it is widely believed that action research is
extremely suitable for education as its main purpose is to help teachers as researchers solve their
teaching problems “in action”. It allows teachers to learn about their teaching at the same time
that they improve their teaching. They are able to do this because action research has a cyclic
process.

27
It seeks to answer questions and solve problems that arise from the daily life of the classroom
and to put findings into immediate practice. Usually it is driven by the practitioner’s desire to
improve its own practice with respect to a specific set of students, thus students reap immediate
benefits.

So, every modification in the plan of study is mutually accepted and acknowledged. The various
assessment approaches like formative assessment, group discussions, mini projects, counseling
and feedback proforma are the tools that help AR. All these approaches only guide to recognize
the problematic area but do not offer any remedy for it. On the other side PAR is a sequential
plan that not only highlights the bottom line error but also provide a chance to assess the
effectiveness of the modification. It can be repeated as many time as possible.

LECTURER 9

PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS

Public examinations are high stakes standardized tests focusing on achievement of cognitive
skills administered at the end of certain levels (primary and secondary) by external agencies,
often for the purpose of selecting students for transition to higher levels.

Describes the main characteristics and several functions of public examinations.

Examinations labeled “public” or “external” possess a number of characteristics, including

(1) external agency control;

(2) national or state government or agency administration and oversight;

(3) a prescribed syllabus in curriculum (or subject) areas;

(4) a common test administered under controlled conditions;

(5) generally voluntary participation, though many have become compulsory in recent years;

(6) the grading of performance; and

(7) public disclosure of the content of examinations and their results.

28
Most examinations serve a number of functions: certification; selection; student motivation;
school activity control; educational system management; school, teacher, or student
accountability for student achievement levels. All functions do not apply in the case of all
examination systems, and the fact that examination systems share certain characteristics and
functions does not negate the enormous variation that exists between systems. The range of
examination procedures labeled “public” or “state-wide examinations” remains enormous.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EXTERNAL EXAMINATIONS

Examinations to which the term external is applied possess a number of characteristics

First, they are set and/or controlled by an agency external to the schools from which candidates
come.

Second, the administering authority is usually a national or state government or agency or, if it
does not actually administer the examinations, it will have an overseeing function.

Third, the examinations are based on prescribed syllabi in curriculum (or subject) areas
(languages, mathematics, sciences, history, geography, etc). In line with a tradition in which th~
study of classical texts was the main feature of syllabi, the main emphasis tends to be on content
rather than on skills.

Fourth, examinations involve the application of a common test, in which examinees do not have
access to books or other material, are separated from the classroom situation, and usually are
administered to many students at the same time. There is a heavy emphasis on written tasks
involving essay, supply, or selection items, though other forms of assessment may be included.
Fifth, most examinations serve a number of functions. The primary function is usually stated to
be certification of examinees' achievements at the end of a period of study. Candidates are
awarded a certificate or diploma that describes their performance on each subject in the
examination, in letter grades (e.g., A, B, C, D, E), numbers (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5), percentages, or a
proficiency statement (e.g., pass/fail). Usually grades are arrived at by simply summing marks
allocated to sections of questions and across questions and components (or papers) if the
examination has more than one component (or paper). The certificate or diploma, in addition to
testifying to an examinee's performance in the examination may also confer rights, such as the
right to be considered for (if not actually admitted to) some sector of the social, professional, or
29
educational world. For example, in the past, possession of a school-leaving examination (e.g., the
German Abitur or the French Baccalaureat) granted access to a university. In many countries, the
selection of students for further education has become the main function of external
examinations, though in some, the selection examination (e.g., the concours in France) is
separate from the certification examination. In other cases, individual universities may hold their
own examinations to select students (e.g., in Japan; see Amano, 1990). Examinations may also
serve a motivational function. This may be the major function when no decision is based on
performance (e.g., midway through secondary schooling), but the examination is thought useful
to direct students in their study or to motivate them to work. When important consequences are
attached to performance, however, we might expect the examination to have a stronger
motivational influence. In addition to these functions, an examination may also be considered a
way of controlling what goes on in schools, helping to ensure that similar content is taught, and
contributing to uniformity of standards in teaching and in achievement. These can be important
considerations where private schools represent a considerable proportion of schools, or where
there is strong local control of schools.

Sixth, public examinations are voluntary in the sense that it is up to individual students to decide
whether or not to take an examination. However, if a student wishes to proceed to third-level
education, he/she will have no option but to take the examination if decisions about entry are
based on examination performance.

Role of a teacher in public examinations

The Role of Teachers in the Management of Examination are as follows

 Follow Examinations Council of Zambia guidelines for examinations.

 Searching of candidates before entering in the examination rooms
 Ensuring that the seating arrangement is according to the ECZ guidelines of one metre
apart.
 Collecting, distributing and sealing of examination papers in company of others;
supervisors, candidates, security officers and community members
 Teacher to report any suspected examination malpractices noticed in schools.

30
  Teachers must teach and prepare the learners adequately for the final examinations.

Every year before the administration of public examinations, all the teachers appointed to
invigilate and supervise the examinations are oriented, guided and reminded of their duties and
responsibilities during the examinations. Teachers are, therefore, primarily the sole personnel to
ensure that examination malpractices in schools come to an end. They sincerely declare and
affirm that they will not directly or indirectly, reveal or transmit any information or matter
brought under their consideration or made known to them by reason of their service to anyone
except with the authority of the Examinations Council of Zambia.

THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS

Test validity
Validity is the most important issue in selecting a test. Validity refers to what characteristic the
test measures and how well the test measures that characteristic.

 Validity tells you if the characteristic being measured by a test is related to job
qualifications and requirements.
 Validity gives meaning to the test scores. Validity evidence indicates that there is linkage
between test performance and job performance. It can tell you what you may conclude or
predict about someone from his or her score on the test. If a test has been demonstrated to
be a valid predictor of performance on a specific job, you can conclude that persons
scoring high on the test are more likely to perform well on the job than persons who score
low on the test, all else being equal.
 Validity also describes the degree to which you can make specific conclusions or
predictions about people based on their test scores. In other words, it indicates the
usefulness of the test.

The reliability of public examinations

31
Reliability refers to the degree to which a test is consistent and stable in measuring what it is
intended to measure.

Reliability refers to how dependably or consistently a test measures a characteristic. If a person

takes the test again, will he or she get a similar test score, or a much different score? A test that
yields similar scores for a person who repeats the test is said to measure a characteristic reliably.

How do we account for an individual who does not get exactly the same test score every time he
or she takes the test? Some possible reasons are the following:

 Test taker's temporary psychological or physical state. Test performance can be

influenced by a person's psychological or physical state at the time of testing. For
example, differing levels of anxiety, fatigue, or motivation may affect the applicant's test
results.
 Environmental factors. Differences in the testing environment, such as room
temperature, lighting, noise, or even the test administrator, can influence an individual's
test performance.
 Test form. Many tests have more than one version or form. Items differ on each form,
but each form is supposed to measure the same thing. Different forms of a test are known
as parallel forms or alternate forms. These forms are designed to have similar
measurement characteristics, but they contain different items. Because the forms are not
exactly the same, a test taker might do better on one form than on another.
 Multiple raters. In certain tests, scoring is determined by a rater's judgments of the test
taker's performance or responses. Differences in training, experience, and frame of
reference among raters can produce different test scores for the test taker.

It is important to understand the differences between reliability and validity. Validity will tell
you how good a test is for a particular situation; reliability will tell you how trustworthy a score
on that test will be. You cannot draw valid conclusions from a test score unless you are sure that
the test is reliable. Even when a test is reliable, it may not be valid. You should be careful that
any test you select is both reliable and valid for your situation.

32
Advantages and disadvantages of public examinations

Public examinations derive their importance largely from the fact that examination performance
forms the basis of important decisions about the educational and vocational futures of students.
The advantages attributed to public examinations lie primarily in their objectivity and
impartiality in fulfilling the essential societal function of assessing students’ knowledge and
competencies and in the decisions that follow assessment. Additional perceived advantages relate
to the extent examinations contribute to the development of individual student learning and
educational quality, realized as the cognitive output of the education system. Commonly
perceived disadvantages associated with public examinations include distorting the curriculum,
teaching to the test, grade retention and early dropout, and a variety of forms of malpractice.
Trade-offs and compromises that take account of the state of development of an educational
system, as well as cultural and economic realities, remain necessary among competing goals and
values, while exceptional efforts may prove critical to minimize anticipated negative effects.

Advantages of Exams

1. Students find themselves in a competitive environment: Quite like games, exams also
generate competition among students. Exams are a push and pressure that every student
necessitates in life. Every year millions of learners around the globe take exams, and
most of them work hard and do struggle to accomplish good grades because they desire
to prove they are the best. This competition encourages students to work harder and acts
as a motivation for them. The most significant part is that students learn to manage
competition which they are unquestionably going to face later in life.

2. Increased knowledge: Exams examine not only a student but also improve their
knowledge. Students require to learn everything and understand every concept so people
can pass an exam. Sometimes people come across technical terms which are not
embellished in the book. This indicates that people have to search online to obtain their
answers, and through this process, the knowledge of the student for the subject increases.
Without examination, students won’t study anything at home, and they would spend time
playing games, which implies that these people are most likely to fail in practical life.
3. Practical exams make a student confident: Practical exams strengthen confidence and
dispense the real picture of the individual. Learning and reading technical lines from the

33
 book can make the individual think that they are equipped to face challenges in life but
practising it in real life shows how much more they need to work. A science exam will
help a person find solutions for problems that may lead the person to failure. For example,
an English exam will teach a person how to speak, walk and talk in a gathering.
4. Scholarships: Scoring well in exams delivers some real benefits. If a student’s aggregate
score is more than 90%, then there’s a big chance that the individual will get a scholarship
in any university the person wishes to apply to. Few international universities can be quite
expensive, and not everyone can bear them. Receiving a scholarship implies that the
person can get admission to the most prestigious universities around the world, and they
may not have to pay at all!
5. Benefits In Memory Improvement: Exams not only enhance knowledge they also
improve memory. When scholars learn what they have read throughout the year, this
presents the long-term memory more effectively. When at first a student will commence
repeating a definition, it may take remarkable time before the person learns it, but by
practising it again and again, students enhance their learning skills, and more knowledge
could be stored in their brains in a short time.

Disadvantages of Exams

1. Exams Bring Anxiety and Tension with them: As soon as the season of the exam
arrives, it brings stress and anxiety with it. The stress of scoring well in an exam and the
anxiety of failing an exam can make life very challenging for students. Some stress can be
necessary that motivates students to study, but extreme stress can lead to increased blood
pressure and other serious health issues.
2. Lessened Effectiveness: In order to score well, students usually focus more on rote
rehearsal and ignore the concepts. They do receive good grades, but the price is the
reduced knowledge because, after some days, most students forget what they learned, and
the effort of school/colleges goes down the drain. This approach minimizes the practical
capabilities of students. The grades these students gain in exams wouldn’t guarantee
success in practical life!
3. Inequitable Judgment: An exam tests how the student has performed on a distinct day. It
is not a genuine source of grading a student’s knowledge and intelligence. If a student

34
 scores well all year but disappoints to perform well on the day of the exam due to any
reason, would that mean lack of performance of the student or lack of knowledge of the
student that day? One should think of answering this themselves and then comprehend
how fairly students are assessed based on a piece of paper.
4. Exams can generate Depression: Stress and anxiety are not the only difficulties caused
by exams. During exams, the child may fear receiving bad grades, which destroy their
happiness. A distressed child is more likely to get depressed, and this can confirm to be
very harmful to their health. Depression originated by exams can have a very adverse
impact on the child’s being!
5. Comparison among students: A student who scores a D on their Agricultural science
exam is expected to be compared with those who score an A. The learning capacity is
different for every child. A significant problem caused by examinations is the comparison
that is created between children/students, ignoring the fact that all individuals are distinct
from each other. Some students learn new concepts efficiently, while others are more
skilled at sports.

Role of school based assessment

What is Assessment? The word “assess” comes from the Latin verb “assidere” meaning “to sit
with.” In assessment, one is supposed to sit with the learner. This implies it is something we do
“with” and “for” students, but not “to” students. Griffith (2003) pointed out that assessment is a
broad term that encompasses the entire process of collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting
information, whether formal or informal, numerical or textual. Assessment in education may be
defined as a process of collecting information about an individual or groups of individual for the
purpose of making a particular educational decision.

Formative and Summative Assessment

Formative assessment refers to frequent and interactive assessments of student progress and
understanding to identify learning needs and adjust teaching appropriately. Teachers using
formative assessment approaches and techniques are better prepared to meet diverse students’
needs through differentiation and adaptation of teaching to raise levels of student achievement

35
and to achieve a greater equity of student outcomes (Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development [OECD], 2008). Black and William (1998) expressed that formative
assessment often means no more than that the assessment is carried out frequently and is planned
at the same time at which teaching is done. According to Harlen (1998), formative assessment
provided feedback that led to students recognizing the (learning) gap and closing it and it is
forward looking. Formative assessment includes both feedback and self-monitoring (Sadler,
1989). Tunstall and Gipps (1996) pointed out that formative assessment was used essentially to
feed back into the teaching and learning process.

Summative assessments are used to measure what students have learnt at the end of a unit, to
promote students, to ensure they have met required standards on the way to earning certification
for school completion, to enter certain occupations, or as a method for selecting students for
entry into further education. Ministries or departments of education may use summative
assessments and evaluations as a way to hold publicly funded schools accountable for providing
quality education. Black and Wiliam (1998) made the point that summative assessment had
increasingly been used to sum up learning. Summative assessment looks at past achievements,
adds procedures or tests to existing work, and involves only marking and feedback grades to
student. It is separated from teaching and is carried out at intervals when achievement has to be
summarized and reported

Consideration for examination reforms

Explores issues to consider in bringing about public examination reform by (1) examining
options examination authorities might consider in determining the nature of the assessment task
administered in the examinations; (2) providing some options for improving administrative
aspects of examinations; and (3) describing some characteristics of a good examination system
policy makers might consider when reviewing reform options. Serious challenges remain, such
as accommodating greater numbers of candidates with greater levels of diversity, competing
selection and certification needs covering important but often untested areas of the official
curriculum, increasing transparency, setting standards, scoring and grade inflation, and threats to

36
examination security. “Quick fixes” will unlikely bring about effective improvements, as
examination agencies will require time to learn to new technologies and administrative
processes. Modifying existing examination systems will require a compromise between the ideal
and the possible and will involve working within constraints of budget, time, and national
politics, as well as conflicts among stakeholders.

PREPARING STUDENTS FOR EXAMS

Exam time is a stressful time for students and for teachers. To enable students to succeed,
teachers can best support/motivate them prior to their exams through these points:

1.Prepare yourself

• Students will have lots of questions about the upcoming exams. This needs us to ensure that we
are familiarized with the course and assessment goals as well as the exam procedures so we are
knowledgeable and can let students know what is expected of them. Prepare yourself

2. During class and term time

• Make sure that students highlight important details in their notebooks/binders or use lecture
engagement log technique, because this will help students when it comes to revision time.
During class and term time

3.Revision classes

• Identify the key topics students will need to know for their exam and try to make the revision
memorable and motivational without overloading with information or stresses.

• Make group discussion in class as part of exam review to promote analytical and independent
thinking.

• Allow students to ask questions about the exam and write quizzes for each other.

• Assign homework to prepare students early.

• Try to practice exam. Revision classes

• Advice student to study in a quiet place,

• Create revision timetables,

37
• Break large subjects into smaller ones,

• Take regular short breaks, eat healthily and drink plenty of water,

• Create mind maps and diagrams as a way to remember information studied,

• Look at test papers to help prepare for exams. Revision techniques

4.The exam room and the paper

• Remind students of the basic exam room rules such as switch off cellphone and no notes

• Ask students to read question many times to understand what is the required answer.

• Teach the art of exams by explaining what means the "describe”, “discuss”, “compare” and
“summarize” to make students manage their time.

• Encourage students to organize their ideas prior to writing the answer

• Remind students that extra marks are awarded for good writing and organizing.

• Ask students to write their answers neatly.

• Ensure students manage their time and ask them if they need extra time

LECTURER 10

PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT

ETHICS IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION

Teaching as a noble profession, requires that all teachers conduct themselves in a professional
and ethical manner. Teachers have a huge responsibility to shape the current generation into
responsible adults and leaders of tomorrow. Apart from equipping young ones with relevant
skills and knowledge, teachers as role models, have a direct bearing on the values, attitudes,
conduct and behaviours that young ones take up. Teachers thus are expected at all times to
conduct themselves professionally and ethically at and off school to gain and maintain public
confidence. Teachers who engage in professional misconduct cannot teach values of morality,

38
honesty and integrity to learners. Literature shows that a lot of teachers in primary and secondary
schools, especially public schools, have continued conducting themselves unprofessionally in
their course of duty. They engage in sexual relations with learners, report for work drunk and
general lack of dedication to duty. This is despite being trained as professionals in their fields of
specialization. Several strategies have thus been put in place to promote teacher professionalism
but the issue of teacher misbehavior appears to be unabated. This article, therefore, is set to
illuminate the essence of the knowledge of educational laws in the enforcement of ethical
conduct amongst teachers in Zambia as a way of promoting ethical and professional conduct
amongst teachers. Through a comprehensive analysis of both local and international research
evidence on teacher professionalism through a desk review, we examined the influence of the
knowledge of legal aspects of education on teacher professionalism and ethical conduct. It is
argued that if teachers are well acquainted with the various legal aspects of education, their
conduct is likely to be more professional and thus avoid unnecessary liabilities.

International practices on how best professional conduct can be enhanced in the teaching
fraternity from a legal perspective. The authors suggest, among other things, the need for
teachers to be well acquainted with the provisions of the code of ethics and the introduction of a
course on legal aspects of education in all teacher education programs. Lastly, we recommend
the need to undertake a large scale study regarding the knowledge of educators on the legal
provisions that impact the professional practice of teachers in Zambia.

Teachers are the most critical resource in the provision of any formal education anywhere in the
world’. Teacher quality entails upholding both academic and professional integrity in educational
service delivery to the public. However, there has been an increase in the number of reports in
the communities and media of teachers engaging in professional misconduct around the country.
Such misconducts include teachers reporting for work drunk, engaging in sexual relationships
with learners and examination malpractices. Some have ended up being dismissed due to their
unethical conduct. Some teachers however, engage in professional misconduct despite being well
trained and inducted into how they ought to conduct themselves professionally in the execution
of their duties. If the proliferation of professional misconduct amongst teachers is left unchecked,
the provision of quality education to produce well qualified and responsible future adults from

39
the young of today may remain a mere pipe dream in Zambia. Many stakeholders have thus
called for professionalization of the teaching fraternity in the country.

Definition of Terms

The terms such as teacher, ethics and professionalism have been defined to make clear our
conceptual understanding of the topic at hand.

A teacher, to begin with is defined as a person who is qualified, registered and teaches or
instructs, a head of a school, a principal or a lecturer of a college of education, a technical
education 41 instructor, a head of department of education or an education unit at any other
education institution other than a university . A teacher thus is a person who is trained and
qualified to help learners acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Ethics as a concept can be defined as principles, beliefs, assumptions and values that
characterize a moral life. They are moral principles that control human behaviour. Ethics is a
branch of philosophy that, at its core, seeks to understand and to determine how human actions
can be judged as right or wrong. We may make ethical judgments, for example, based upon our
own experience or based upon the nature of or principles of reason.

In addition, Teacher Professionalism is taken to mean the principles, values, standards or rules of
behavior that guide the decisions, procedures and systems of a school in which teachers work
and in a way that contributes to the welfare of its key stakeholders and respects the rights of all
constituents affected by its operations (Bar, 2006). To achieve this, teachers must be governed by
a code of professional conduct. A teaching force without a code of professional ethics cannot be
considered to be professional in any way. Professional and ethical conduct is therefore a
prerequisite of any professional dealing with people. Professional conduct entails following
procedure, ethics and guidelines. It also means being just and fair in the execution of duty.
Ethical conduct involves one knowing what is right and what is wrong. Various stakeholders
have thus been calling for a professional teaching force in Zambia. It is argued that like the fields
of law, medicine, military and others, the teaching force must also strive to be a field of

40
professionals. To provide quality education service delivery, the teaching fraternity must be
professional. Handling and training the young ones who will take up future responsibilities
requires that teachers conduct themselves in a more professional and ethical way than ever
before. Teachers are expected to behave professionally at all times.

Professional integrity

What is professional integrity?

Professional integrity is defined as the professional who consistently and willingly practices
within the guidelines of the mission of a chosen profession under the obligation of a Code of
Ethics.

Professional integrity is the practice of maintaining appropriate ethical behavior. It is the practice
of showing strong adherence to moral and ethical principles and values such as honesty, honor,
dependability and trustworthiness. People who behave with professional integrity generally
uphold a moral standard of conduct, both in professional as well as personal endeavors.

These standards govern how professionals conduct themselves, their work ethic and their
communication practices. Professional integrity is what gives employees a reason to trust that
leaders will place professional standards over their own self-interests.

Honesty is the basis for maintaining integrity. Being loyal to a company, Honesty is the basis for
maintaining integrity. Being loyal to a company, producing the results expected of you and being
trustworthy and reliable are all qualities that characterize someone who has professional
integrity.

Why professional integrity in the workplace is important

Integrity is one of the most important attributes in a leader. Here are a few reasons why:

1.Employee satisfaction

41
Employees are typically happier working for someone who they believe is trustworthy and
dependable, someone who would never ask them to compromise their own principles. Integrity
in a supervisor has been linked to job satisfaction and engagement, employee health and even life
satisfaction.

2.Reputation

For people to trust you both in- and outside of your organization you need to behave with
integrity. Investors need to trust you to consider investing in your business. Vendors need to trust
that you will pay for goods and services. Maintaining professional integrity will allow you to
build a strong reputation that will increase the trust and comfort others have in doing business
with you.

3.Clearer focus

Consistently behaving with professional integrity means you have the energy to focus on what is
important rather than wasting energy covering up bad practice.

4.Stronger sales

Customers today are motivated to buy from companies that are socially and environmentally
responsible. The most effective way to create a culture of integrity and ethical behavior is to
behave with professional integrity.

The Code of Professional Ethics for Teachers in Zambia

The code of conduct for teachers in Zambia is a statutory instrument which provides for the do’s
and don’ts for teachers. It provides for the functions of a teacher as well as how he or she relates
with the learners, parents and fellow teachers. More so, the code of ethics clearly outlines the
values and principles which must be embraced by the teachers to promote professionalism. These
include issues of integrity and honesty; impartiality and objectivity; excellence and
professionalism; loyalty and respect; accountability, confidentiality; selflessness; dedication and
commitment to duty by all teachers in the country (Code of Ethics, 2018). The code of ethics for
teachers is an important legal document which must be adhered to at all times to avoid

42
professional misconduct as provided for under Section 46 of the Teaching Profession Act of
2013.

Teachers have a huge responsibility to take care of the learners entrusted in to their care. In most
cases, these learners are immature and lack the capacity to think and make moral judgments for
themselves. As such, teachers are looked up to for moral direction. It is the duty of teachers,
therefore to not only instruct and teach learners but also to provide moral training. They needed
emotional and academic support from their teachers’. That is what leads to academic
achievement by learners. More is therefore demanded from teachers and they are not supposed to
misconduct themselves at any time. Teachers who misconduct themselves cannot teach values
such as morality, honesty and integrity to pupils. The professional code of conduct for staff in the
education sector was specifically developed in order to stop this and other illegalities. The code
contains a set of guidelines to which educators must adhere.

Code of ethics serves different purposes for different professions or institutions. Firstly, code of
ethics creates an environment in which ethical behaviour and standards are upheld as valuable.
They, therefore, bring about a sense of morality and decency in any work environment. Without
ethics, there would be immorality and anarchy in professional bodies or organizations. Codes of
ethics stipulate desirable behaviours and sanctions and hence, increase the commitment and
dedication to duty. The code of ethics further helps professions to gain and maintain public
confidence. By emphasizing the highest standards of behaviour and moral uprightness. The code
of ethics keeps a profession in good standing with the public (Code of Ethics, 2018). The
professional Code of Conduct for Staff in the education sector was specifically developed in
order to stop them from misconduct and other illegalities. A code of ethics in education raises the
awareness of the values and principles that should be embraced by all educators. It contains rules
of conduct and ethics to be observed in order to maintain the integrity of the teaching profession.
It is an important piece of educational law which can be used to promote professionalism in the
teaching fraternity. In order to keep the teaching service as a profession, educators need to
maintain a high standard of moral behaviour and character. Teachers for instance, are not
supposed to drink beer carelessly, report for work while drunk, abscond from class, leak

43
examination papers or sexually harass pupils. It is because of such teacher misdeeds that the
teaching profession has been brought under public scrutiny and disrepute.

PROCEDURES OF DISCIPLINE

Disciplinary procedures are a set way for an employer to deal with disciplinary issues. They
should include a disciplinary hearing where you're given a chance to explain your side of the
story. There should also be a chance to appeal any disciplinary action your employer decides to
take.

How disciplinary procedures work

A disciplinary procedure is sometimes the best way for your employer to tell you when
something is wrong. It allows them to explain clearly what improvement is needed and should
give you an opportunity to put your side of the situation.

Your employer must put their disciplinary procedure in writing, and make it easily available to
all staff. It should include the rules, what performance and behaviour might lead to disciplinary
action, and what action your employer might take.

Before taking formal disciplinary action or dismissing you, your employer may try to raise the
matter informally with you. This is often a good way of resolving a problem quickly. However,
they can go straight to their formal disciplinary or dismissal procedures.

Statutory minimum disciplinary procedures

By law, at present there are certain minimum steps that must be included in a disciplinary
procedure - these are known as the 'statutory minimum procedures'. Your employer’s
disciplinary procedure should include the following steps:

 a letter setting out the reasons or reasons why they are considering disciplinary action
 a meeting to discuss the issue
 a disciplinary decision

44
  a chance to appeal this decision

If your employer dismisses you without following this process, then if you make an unfair
dismissal claim, the dismissal will normally be 'automatically unfair'. You normally need at least
a year's service before you can make an unfair dismissal claim.

TEACHING COUNCIL OF ZAMBIA

The Teaching Council was established on a statutory basis in March 2006. It is the professional
standards body for the teaching profession, which promotes and regulates professional standards
in teaching. It acts in the interests of the public good while upholding and enhancing standards in
the teaching profession.

The Council consists of 37 members. The Director is responsible for the day-to-day operations
of the Council. The Director works closely with Council members and has overall responsibility
for the implementation of the strategic goals of the Council. The Director is supported by a
Senior Management Team and Council staff.

Statement of Purpose

The Council’s statement of purpose is set out in the Teaching Council Strategic Plan 2022 to
2027.

“The Teaching Council promotes and supports the highest standards in teachers’ professionalism
and teacher education through effective policies, regulation and research. We seek to foster a
conducive landscape for sustainable and responsive teaching and learning in our communities.
We do this by collaborating with the Department of Education and all stakeholders in an
increasing diversity of innovative ways. This work will ensure quality teaching and learning for
all, through enhanced creativity, inclusion, diversity, leadership, and wellbeing. This in turn will
further develop public confidence and trust in the teaching profession in Ireland, and in
education more broadly”

45
Statutory Functions

The Council’s statutory functions are set out in the Teaching Council Acts 2001 to 2015 and
include the following:

 promote and regulate the teaching profession.

 maintain and improve standards of teaching, knowledge, skill, and competence.
 establish and maintain the register of teachers.
 conduct inquiries into and, where appropriate, impose sanctions in relation to, the fitness to
teach of any registered teacher.
 establish, publish, review and maintain a code of professional conduct for teachers, which
will include standards of teaching, knowledge, skill and competence, and
 promote teachers’ ongoing learning.

The Teaching Council of Zambia

January 2, 2023 by Michael Mulikita
The Teaching Council of Zambia is a regulatory body that is responsible for setting and
enforcing standards for the teaching profession in Zambia. The council was established in 2002
under the Teaching Council of Zambia Act, and it is composed of members who are elected or
appointed by the Minister of Education.

The main role of the Teaching Council of Zambia is to ensure that teachers in the country are
competent and professional and that they are able to provide high-quality education to their
students. To this end, the council sets standards for teacher education and training, and it
maintains a register of qualified teachers.

In order to become a registered teacher in Zambia, an individual must meet certain requirements,
such as having a bachelor’s degree in education or a related field and completing a teacher
training program. The Teaching Council of Zambia also has the authority to investigate and
discipline teachers who engage in misconduct or who do not meet the council’s standards.

In addition to its regulatory functions, the Teaching Council of Zambia also provides support and
resources to teachers in the country. For example, the council offers professional development
opportunities, such as workshops and conferences, to help teachers stay up-to-date on best
practices and new developments in education.

Overall, the Teaching Council of Zambia plays a crucial role in ensuring that teachers in the
country are well-trained and professional and that they are able to provide high-quality education
to their students. By setting and enforcing standards for the teaching profession, the council helps
to ensure that students in Zambia receive the best possible education.

46
Online Registration with the Teaching Council of Zambia

To register with the Teaching Council of Zambia online, you will need to follow the steps
outlined below:

1. Visit the Teaching Council of Zambia website (www.teachingcouncilzambia.org) and

click on the “Online Services” tab.
2. Click on the “Teacher Registration” link.
3. Follow the prompts to create an account and complete the registration form. You will
need to provide personal and professional information, including your name, contact
details, education and training history, and employment information.
4. Upload copies of any relevant documents, such as your degree certificate, teacher training
certificate, and identification documents.
5. Review and submit your application.
Once you have completed the online registration process, your application will be reviewed by
the Teaching Council of Zambia. If your application is approved, you will be registered as a
teacher in Zambia and will be able to teach in the country’s public and private schools.

It is important to note that the online registration process is only available to individuals who are
already qualified to teach in Zambia. If you are not yet qualified, you will need to complete a
teacher education program and obtain the necessary qualifications before you can register with
the Teaching Council of Zambia.

LECTURE 11

The Relevance of ICT in Modern Agricultural Technology

Definition

Information and communication technologies (ICT) is defined as a diverse set of technological

tools and resources used to transmit, store, create, share or exchange information. Information
and communication technologies (ICTs) in agriculture technology comprise those networks,
mobiles, devices, services, and applications that aid the processing, management, and exchange
of data, information, or knowledge with a target audience. They include a broad range of
converging technologies, including traditional telecommunications, television and video, radio,
CD-ROMs, cell phones and smart devices, and several modern technologies such as computers

47
and the internet, sensors, Geographic Information Systems, satellites, and the like. Essentially,
the purpose of ICT is to transfer information from one point to another.

Impact of ICT on Agriculture and Information Technology

When talking about modern farming technology, one needs to acknowledge the role of ICT as a
decision support system for farmers. Through the assistance of ICT, farmers are able to stay
updated with all recent information. This is inclusive of data about weather, agriculture, and
newer and more advanced ways of enhancing crop quality and production.

ICTs have largely revolutionized the way people, governments, and businesses, both large and
small, function in the modern world. Close to 60% of the global population has access to the
internet, and mobile internet is now the most widely-used channel for internet access worldwide.
The tremendous adoption of ICTs has made it possible to facilitate better communication and
ensure the delivery of services and information to people who previously lacked access.

The infusion of new, advanced agriculture technologies has allowed the global agriculture sector
to surge ahead and transform the way producers cultivate, harvest, and distribute agricultural
commodities. The use of technology in Indian agriculture, or e-agriculture, has accelerated
agricultural and rural development by adopting innovative ways to improve the existing
information and communication processes. It has particularly revolutionized smallholder
agriculture in several agrarian economies and has helped address several challenges associated
with the traditional form of agriculture.

Understanding Modern Technology Used in Agriculture

The agricultural scene today requires the integration of sophisticated technologies such as
temperature and moisture sensors, robots, GPS technology, and aerial images, to name a few. On
this note, ICT helps meet the elevated demand for newer approaches. Such digital farming tech
also aids in empowering rural farmers by allowing better access to effective production
strategies, banking and financial services, etc.

Empowering Smallholder Agriculture

48
In developing countries, ICT in agriculture provides farmers with vital information pertaining to
sowing, crop protection, and improving soil fertility that enables them to improve agricultural
productivity. Weather-related advisories and alerts help them prepare for sporadic events such as
floods, drought, or even pest and disease outbreaks, thus preventing significant crop loss. ICTs
also provide them with a reliable channel to seek the best market price in the local markets and
other daily updates for their produce to ensure they receive fair returns.

The increasing penetration of budget-friendly mobile phones and the internet is an added
advantage for farmers living in remote areas in several emerging nations. Access to inexpensive
mobile devices has now made it easier for them to acquire additional information and services
that enable informed decision-making.

Now, the use of the latest technology in agriculture in the world has ensured that with a touch of
a few buttons, agriculturists can connect with the global network of farmers, agronomists,
businesses, and other service providers to stay up-to-date on the latest crop cultivation practices.

For policymakers, the advantage of adopting ICT in agriculture is that information sharing
enables them to gain a better understanding of the situation at the ground level, which will
contribute to the designing and implementation of agrarian and rural development policies that
benefit the farmers. The ICT’s extensive reach to even the remotest location can also help them
address issues concerning gender bias, women empowerment, and other socioeconomic
concerns.

APPLICATIONS OF ICT IN THE DEVELOPED WORLD

The use of ICT in modern agriculture technology has also significantly transformed agriculture
and farming in developed countries at a different scale. Internet of Things, Cloud Computing,
and Big Data have all had a profound impact on the efficiency of current processes. Several farm
holdings manage farms remotely using sensing technologies, drones, and other devices that
gather vital data on soil properties, air, crop health, and weather conditions.

The data enables farmers and agribusinesses to closely monitor crop cultivation, optimize the use
of agrochemicals and natural resources, and adapt quickly to changing environmental conditions.

49
The application of precision farming and ICTs have resulted in increased efficiency and reduced
costs. It has also delivered decision-making tools that boost agricultural productivity and help
manage natural resources effectively.

Internet in particular, has several applications in agriculture, from real-time monitoring of soil,
plant, and animal health using in-situ sensors to tracking the origin of a product or agri-
commodity and its environmental impact, as well as its storage environments along the supply
chain.

Estimates suggest that by 2030, Internet could potentially evolve into the ‘Internet of Action’
where sensors and machines, based on in-built AI and data analytics capacity, will also be
capable of self-optimizing and initiating activities on their own, without much human
intervention.

THE ROLE OF ICT: REVAMPING MODERN AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY

ICT farming, particularly the use of multimedia technology and other innovative approaches to
interactive knowledge transfer processes, is transforming agricultural extension services. ICT has
been instrumental in empowering farmers through knowledge and building their capacity to
achieve rural and agricultural developmental goals. Some of the key areas where ICT in
agriculture plays a vital role are:

Regulatory policy and governance

The widespread adoption of digital technologies by agriculturists is resulting in an exponential

increase in the availability of a wide range of big data that can aid better policy-making and
monitoring, as well as help transform the agriculture sector.
Agricultural extension and advisory services

ICT in the form of innovative media platforms bridges the gap between farmers on one end and
agricultural researchers and extension agents on the other. It is a more cost-efficient method to
improve smallholders’ knowledge of current agricultural practices and markets.

50
Enhanced market access

ICT-enabled market information services enhance farmers’ access to nearby markets and their
awareness of current consumer demands through the transfer of information from the traders.
ICTs also foster networking among the agri-stakeholders, which facilitates increased market
access for inputs and product marketing and trade.
Environmentally sustainable agriculture

Budget-friendly mobile phones, internet, and other services to disseminate information, in

addition to providing rural farmers with improved access to climate-smart solutions and the
appropriate knowledge to use them.
Early warning system (EWS) for disaster management

ICTs provide actionable and real-time information to governments and communities on disaster
prevention and management. They also increase the efficiency of responding efforts during
emergency situations and drive more effective communication by providing the people with
timely advice on risk mitigation procedures.
Food safety & traceability

A combination of simple and sophisticated technologies, such as mobile phones, software

solutions, RFID tags, data input websites, and sensors using GPS technology, among others,
enable producers to capture and monitor reliable data and also comply with international
traceability and food.
Financial inclusion and risk management

ICTs strengthen rural and smallholder farmers’ access to financial services, enable them to find
affordable insurance schemes and tools to better manage risk, and empower them with
information regarding financial services that are available to them.
Capacity building and empowerment

ICTs serve as vital education tools for the development of local communities. They broaden the
reach of women, youth, and other beneficiaries and open the doors for newer business
opportunities to enhance livelihoods and incomes.

ICT TOOLS

51
ICT tools for teaching and learning cover everything from digital infrastructures such as printers,
computers, laptops, tablets, etc., to software tools such as Google Meet, Google Spreadsheets,
etc.

How to use ICT Tools in the Classroom

To unlock the potential of technologies to use in the classroom, we need to do the following:

o Establish a starting point for the ICT learning of each student and integrate formative
evaluation into key learning areas like literacy and numeracy in a primary school.
o Planning for progress in ICT learning progress in the learning curriculum of the
Australian curriculum.
o Evidence-based on ICT learning along with the subject learning.

Advantages of ICT Tools

There are various advantages of ICT Tools:

1. Cost-efficient
2. Provide the facility for easy student management
3. Direct classroom teaching
4. Improved modes of communication
5. Eco-friendly-Eliminate the usage of paper
6. Direct classroom teaching
7. Minimize cost and saves time
8. Improved data and information security
9. Web-based LMS tools link teachers, students, researchers, and scholars and education
together.
10. Teachers are able to teach better with graphics, video and graphics.
11. Teachers can create interesting, well-designed and engaging classroom activities.
12. Provide better teaching and learning methods
13. To spread awareness about the social impact of technological change in education.
14. Promoting and improving the digital culture in universities, colleges, and schools.
15. Automated solutions to paper-based manual procedures and processes.

Disadvantages of ICT Tools

52
There are various disadvantages of ICT Tools:

1. Unemployment
2. Lack of security/privacy
3. Cyber bullying
4. Reliance on technology
5. Social media
6. Preparation time

THE END

53