Anatomy of The Transgressive Depositional System in A Sediment-Rich
Anatomy of The Transgressive Depositional System in A Sediment-Rich
Research paper
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Sediment-rich tide-dominated estuary is generally considered nonexistent or ephemeral under the stable sea-
Yangtze estuary level condition, given the rapid transition to a deltaic system after massive sediments dumping at the river
Tide-dominated mouth. The well-preserved transgressive sequence in the Yangtze paleo-valley represents an excellent location to
Sediment-rich
examine the interplay between sediment supply, tide action, and sea-level change. To study the Yangtze paleo-
Tidal bar
valley geomorphological evolution and facies model, four 60-90-m long cores (YD0901, YD0902, YD0903, and
Tidal sand ridge
Facies model CX03) were obtained. Lithological description, grain-size analysis, XRF core scanning, and AMS 14C dating were
carried out. The results show that the Yangtze incised valley evolved from a river channel system (before 14.6
ka), through a tidal river (14.6-13 ka), and a tide-dominated estuary (13-8 ka), to a shallow marine (after 8 ka).
The paleo-Yangtze estuary displays inner section dominated by muddy heterolithic deposition and the outer
section occupied by mud-rich tidal bars and channels, distinctly differing from the well-down small estuaries
with sand predominance. A fining-upward facies succession was produced by migration of mud-rich tidal bars in
response to post-glacial sea-level rise. These bars are potentially the predecessor of tidal sand ridges on the East
China Sea shelf after they were progressively abandoned during the post-glacial sea-level rise and exposed to
tidal and storm-wave reworking. This is the first facies model developed from a sediment-rich tide-dominated
estuary. This study provides a best example to study evolution of tide-dominated mega-river systems in response
to the post-glacial transgression.
1. Introduction et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2017; Ta et al., 2002; Tamura et al., 2012; Xue
et al., 2010), and the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta (Goodbred and Kuehl,
The incised-valley fill deposits of tidal environments are economi 2000). However, the transgressive systems tract component of the
cally crucial for hydrocarbon exploration and have widespread signifi incised-valley fill in response to post-glacial sea-level rise has been less
cance for the human dwelling (Boyd et al., 2006; Li et al., 2018). When studied (Allen and Posamentier, 1993; Zaitlin et al., 1994; Zhang et al.,
post-glacial sea-level rise slowed down and approached a maximum 2017), although it usually fills more than half of the valley space (Wang
flooding stage in 6–8 ka (Stanley and Warne, 1994), most river mouths et al., 2020) and provides ample information to predict coastal evolution
began to develop highstand deltaic deposition. Eight of the twelve trends under sea-level rise. Over a broad high-energy shelf, preceding
largest deltas are tide-dominated or experience significant tidal influ deposits are subject to intense reworking by tide and wave during
ence (Dalrymple et al., 2003). Tide-dominated deltas have been transgression (Catuneanu et al., 2009), but the deeply incised valley
increasingly studied in the past two decades in terms of their geomor provides a shelter for the transgressive strata to produce high-resolution
phological evolution, internal architecture, facies model and controlling sedimentary records for paleoenvironmental studies (Li et al., 2002).
factors (Goodbred and Saito, 2012; Gugliotta and Saito, 2019). The Tidal estuarine geobodies are characterized by heterogeneity, which
best-known examples include the Fly Delta (Dalrymple et al., 2003), the is getting more and more important to control the oil and gas explora
Yangtze Delta (YD, Goodbred and Saito, 2012; Hori et al., 2002a; Li tion, as well as aquifer studies (Virolle et al., 2020). The sandy and
et al., 2002; Su and Fan, 2018; Wang et al., 2018), the Mekong Delta (Li muddy layer distribution determine the oil, gas, or water flow during
* Corresponding author. Room 605, Marine Building, No. 1239 Siping R., Shanghai, 200092, China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Fan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104588
Received 29 January 2020; Received in revised form 25 June 2020; Accepted 9 July 2020
Available online 15 July 2020
0264-8172/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Su et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 121 (2020) 104588
field production. The most popular stratigraphic facies model of with massive riverine sediment input. The present estuarine facies
tide-dominated estuaries is defined by Dalrymple and Choi (2007) as a model is developed from the studies of small estuaries with limited
transgressive coastal system where tide plays a dominant role in sedi fluvial sediment inputs, where the coast undergoes retrogression or re
ment- and morpho-dynamics. The Cobequid Bay-Salmon River estuary mains relatively stable. River-dominated estuary is generally considered
and Gironde Estuary have been well investigated as the tide-dominated nonexistent or ephemeral because it develops rapidly into a deltaic
estuary (TDE) proto for the facies model development (Allen and Pos system due to rapid deposition of huge riverine sediments at the river
amentier, 1993; Dalrymple et al., 1992; Tessier, 2012). The bay of mouth, e.g., the Yangtze River (Hori et al., 2002b; Li et al., 2000; Wang
Mont-Saint-Michel (Tessier et al., 2010), and Qiantang Estuary (Fan et al., 2018), and the Ganges-Bramaputra River (Goodbred and Kuehl,
et al., 2014) were recently studied to highlight tidal-bore influence on 2000). But these observations are based on the present relative stable
sedimentary processes and stratigraphic features. In the TDE systems, sea-level situation. During the post-glacial transgression, sediment-rich
axis deposition features a coarse-fine-coarse trend (Boyd et al., 2006; TDEs have been hypothesized to develop extensively because of rapid
Dalrymple and Choi, 2007). However, the post-glacial transgressive sea-level rise pulses (Boyd et al., 2006; Zaitlin et al., 1994).
deposits recovered by the cores in the Yangtze delta plain displays a Tidal sand ridges (TSRs) are a common feature on the broad conti
fining seaward trend (Chen et al., 2003; Hori et al., 2002b; Xu et al., nental shelves where tidal resonance usually occur, such as the Celtic
2016). Thus, Zhang et al. (2017) proposed that the transgressive systems Sea (Berne et al., 1998), the Yellow Sea, and the East China Sea (ECS)
tract in the Yangtze incised valley was produced by back-stepped deltaic (Bern�e et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2007b; Wu et al., 2017). Asymmetrical
depositions in response to the step-like sea-level rise events together TSRs are 5–30 m high, and their total area of 3 � 105 km2 fulfills 32% of
Fig. 1. Location maps of study area. (A) Holocene development of the Yangtze Delta and a core correlation transection of Fig. 8B (modified from Fan et al., 2017); (B)
the present Yangtze Delta topographic map with the core locations.
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the ECS shelf (Bern� e et al., 2002; Liu and Xia, 2004). The TSRs prefer to YD0902, and YD0903; Fig. 1B) retrieved in the YD. Core correlation was
formation at a water depth of 30–50 m with a flow velocity near the carried out with additional 16 published core data. The purposes of this
bottom exceeding 50 cm/s, intense enough to rework coarse-sand de study are to 1) reconstruct the morphological evolution in the Yangtze
positions (Liu et al., 2007b; Liu and Xia, 2004). Some recently published subaqueous delta region during the post-glacial transgression, 2) sum
core data illustrate that the vertical TSRs sequence consists of tidal marize the transgressive facies model of the tide-dominated estuary with
heterolithotic strata at the bottom, capped by ~10-m thick fine to me large riverine sediment flux, and 3) explore the relation of the estuarine
dium sand strata dated in the mid-to-late Holocene (Wang et al., 2014; tidal bars (TBs) or mud ridges with the shelf TSRs.
Xu et al., 2018). Li et al. (2014) link the TSRs construction and landward
migration to the step-like sea-level rise. In the inner ECS shelf, “mud 2. Study area
ridges”, buried by modern subaqueous delta depositions, have recently
been explored by seismic profiles. They are tentatively interpreted as a The Yangtze River, the third-longest river on the planet (about 6300
landward extension of the mid-shelf TSRs system (Feng et al., 2017). km), starts from the southeastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
These hypotheses need further verification by core data. and debouches into the ECS. The average water and sediment discharges
In this study, we analyzed four drilling cores (CX03, YD0901, at the Datong station are 905 � 109 m3/yr and 427 � 106 t/yr
Fig. 2. (A) Hydrodynamic subdivision of the fluvial to marine transition zone in the Yangtze River mouth (modified from Shen, 2001), (B) monthly sediment and
water flux variation at the Datong Station in 2018 (ARCRS, 2018), (C) tidal range variation at the Lucaogang Station: spring (wet: 2018-08-26; dry: 2018-01-31) vs.
neap (wet: 2018-09-01; dry: 2018-02-07) tide, (D) oceanic circulations in the ECS, including YDP: Yangtze diluted plume, KCC: Korea Coastal Current, YSWC: Yellow
Sea Warm Current, YSCC: Yellow Sea Coastal Current, TWC: Taiwan Warm Current, ZMCC: Zhe-Min Coastal Current, and TSWC: Tsushima Warm Current. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
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Table 2
AMS14C ages of dating samples from the four cores.
Cores Sample Depth (m) Elevation (m) Material Conventional14C age (yr BP) Calibrated age (cal yr BP) Lab NO.
4.1.2. SS2: Chaotic layer (CL) 4.2. Facies associations and depositional environments
The CLs are usually in sharp contact with the underlying and over
lying strata, scattered in cores. Individual unit thickness varies from According to the lithology, grain size compositions, XRF core scan
several decimeters to 2 m. The primary content is silt. The internal ning data (Ca/Ti value), and radiocarbon ages, the late Pleistocene to
structures have been disturbed at different extents, but sand-mud lam early Holocene transgressive succession in the cores can be categorized
inations can be still identified (Fig. 3B). The total length of SS2 in cores is into five facies associations and eleven sub-facies.
about 5 m, mainly distributed in the cores YD0902 and YD0903. The CLs
in core CX03 (Figs. 3B-14) are likely to reflect the collapse of banks or
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4.2.1. Facies association 1 (FA1): Fluvial deposits (Gravelly sand with Yangtze incised valley (Hori et al., 2001; Li and Wang, 1998; Zhang
sporadical mud laminations at the top) et al., 2017) and elsewhere (Miall, 2016). The multi-storied gravelly
The FA1, at the bottom of the cores (Fig. 4), is dominated by grayish- coarse sand layers in core CX03 are a typical component of braided river
yellow and brown-yellow fine to coarse sand with gravels (up to 3–4 cm deposit (Li, 2005), and the fining-upward sequence with crossbedded
in diameter). Massive bedding prevails in this section, but it shows a medium to fine sands and horizontal silty beds at the top indicate a
fining-upward trend in total. Cross bedding and parallel bedding are typical floodplain facies (Miall, 2016). The FA1 is interpreted as fluvial
observed locally. The mean grain size is 0.028–19.8 mm. Cyclical fining- facies. The termination of FA1 were getting younger landward as the
upward sequences, starting from gravel to coarse sand at the bottom sea-level rise to produce transgression gradually.
towards fine sand to silt at the top, are observed in core CX03 at the
depth of 73.1–89.8 m, indicating a typical point bar deposition. No 4.2.2. Facies association 2 (FA2): Tidal river deposits (coarse sand to silt
foraminifer was found in this section (core CX03, Fig. 4). The 14C data heterolithic layers with cyclical rhythms)
shows the termination of FA1 was formed before ca. 15 ka at core The FA2 is composed of grayish-green and grayish-yellow silty fine
YD0903, gradually younger landward, through to 14.1 ka at core sand to sandy silt, with thickness varying from 4.7 m to 15.1 m (Fig. 4).
YD0902, and 13.3 ka at core YD0901, towards 12.9 ka at core CX03. The SMCs and ASMBs dominate this section with occasional presences of
Interpretation: The sedimentary features and the absence of fora the CLs and HSLs. Based on the sedimentary features, three sub-facies
minifera and burrows indicate the FA1 was deposited in a freshwater are identified. The FA2a features the prevalent ASMBs in core YD0901
environment with intense bedload movement capability. Medium to (50.25–54.21 m; Figs. 3C-17), which always has a sharp contact with the
coarse sands with pebbles are typical fluvial deposition in the paleo- underlying and overlying deposits. The sandy thick beds mainly consist
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Fig. 4. Lithological profile of four cores: CX03, YD0901, YD0902, and YD0903, with grain-size compositions, Ca/Ti ratio, AMS 14C ages, and facies interpretations.
The foraminifera and δ13C data of the core CX03 are retrieved from Li (2005). FA1: fluvial channel/point bars; FA2a: upper tidal river; FA2b: lower tidal river or tidal
channel bars; FA2c: tidal river with tidal bore occurrences; FA3a: tidal creek; FA3b: tidal flat; FA3c: subtidal zone; FA3d: tidal channel; FA3e: tidal bar; FA4: estuary
mouth; FA5: shallow marine; SD: standard deviation, C: clay, S: silt, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, G: gravel.
of medium to fine sand with the mean grain size equivalent to the un overlying sand-mud couplets (Fig. 4), the FA2c is interpreted to result
derlying fluvial sands of FA1. The FA2b characterizes the widespread from tidal bore deposition (Fan et al., 2014). In a word, the FA2 is a tidal
SMCs (major SMC2) in core CX03 (58.00–73.16 m, Figs. 3A-8), YD0901 river facies.
(45.12–50.25 m), and YD0903 (35.12–44.00 m). The CLs, 20–40 cm
thick, are sporadically present in the FA2b. Foraminifera appear in this 4.2.3. Facies association 3 (FA3): Estuarine deposits (Heterolithic layers)
section and increase upward. Bioturbations, mud pebbles, and shell or The FA3 includes a succession of yellowish-gray fine sand to gray silt
plant debris dispersed locally. A herringbone stratification is present at with obvious cyclic variation in the heterolithic layer thicknesses. It is
71.56 m deep in core CX03. The FA2c features the prevalent HSLs, divided into five sub-facies according to typical sedimentary feature
gradually transitional with the underlying SMCs (Figs. 3D–25 and 3D- groupings. The FA3a is identified only in core CX03 at the depth
26) in core YD0901 (40.80–45.12 m). Generally, the FA2 shows a ver 57.00–58.00 m (Fig. 4), showing homogenous fine sand layers with mud
tical coarse-fine-coarse superimposition, with an increasing upward pebbles at the bottom and an erosion contact with the underlying de
trend of foraminiferal abundance, grain-size standard deviation (SD), posits (Figs. 3D-24). The foraminifera are more abundant and δ13C
δ13C, and Ca/Ti value. The radiocarbon dating results constrain the FA2 values are more positive in the FA3a than the other sections. The SMCs
depositional age in 15-11 ka (Fig. 4). are common in the FA3b with a total thickness of 2.19 m in core CX03
Interpretation: The ASMBs in the FA2a are comparable with fluvial and 8.88 m in core YD0902, respectively (Fig. 4). The SMC1 dominates
sand deposits in the FA1, but the presence of rhythmic SMCs and the FA3b, and wave, flaser, and lenticular beddings are widespread with
herringbone stratifications indicate the tidal influence. We, therefore, the occasional presence of 2-to-5 cm thick sand ripples. In core CX03,
interpret the FA2a to be deposited in a tide-modulated river-dominated three thin peat beds (3–5 cm thick, Figs. 3A-4) are present at the depth of
zone (La Croix and Dashtgard, 2014), namely the inner estuary (Dal 54.08 m, 55.38 m, and 55.70 m, respectively. The FA3c consists of
rymple and Choi, 2007). The prevalent SMCs in the FA2b illustrate a grayish sandy silt to clayey silt, and the prevalent structure is SMC2.
highly tide-influenced environment. The sandy thick beds and the Ripple bedding is common in sandy thick beds. The FA3c thickness
scattering CLs could correspond the deposition in tidal point bars or tidal changes from a minimum value of 1.76 m in core YD0901 to a maximum
river channels (Carling et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2017). The of 6.38 m in core CX03 (Fig. 4). The Ca/Ti Value (most < 6) is on average
fining-upward succession in FA2b, therefore, corresponds with the lower than the underlying deposits (Fig. 4). The mean grain size data
decreasing energy from the channel to the bar top. Thus, the FA2b is demonstrate a gentle coarsening-upward trend in the FA3c. The FA3d is
interpreted to be deposited in a lower tidal river with mixed energy similar to the FA3c by the dominance of SMC2 but the former has much
dominated. The high sand content and prevalent massive structures in coarser sand beds than the latter. The unique features in the FA3d are
the FA2c represent a remarkable increase of flow energy. Combined with decimeter thick CLs and thick homogeneous mud beds. The Ca/Ti value
the abundance of contorted beddings (Figs. 3D–26 and 27) and in the FA3d is higher than that in the FA3c. The FA3e is present in core
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Fig. 5. (A) Core photos of the tidal bar facies in core YD0902; (B) sketch map shows the sedimentary architecture of the tidal bars. DU: depositional unit.
YD0902 at the depth 26.79–36.07 m, and its typical features will be Interpretation: The sedimentary feature of FA3e is similar to mud
described in the tidal bars section. ridge facies in core CJK08, which was recovered as a typical ridge shape
Interpretation: The well-developed heterolithic bedding and cycles, in the seismic profiles (Feng et al., 2017). The published seismic data
other tide-induced structures, and abundant foraminifera (reaching showed a series of channel-bar complexes near the core YD0902 during
maximum 28/50 g at 56.0 m) suggest that the FA3 was formed in an 12-10 ka (Fig. 6B, Feng et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2012). The structureless
estuarine environment. The FA3a, homogeneous sand with mud pebbles mud layers are indicated as fluid mud layers (3–10 cm thick, storm-wave
at the bottom, is a tidal creek deposit. The rhythmic groupings of SMC1 generated, Zhang et al., 2017), leading to an upward fining trend of each
and tidal beddings indicate that the FA3b is a tidal flat facies. The DU. The isochrone line shows a ridge shape at core YD0902 (See section
prevalent SMC2 and well-developed ripple bedding in some sandy thick 5.2, Fig. 8B). Therefore, the FA3e is interpreted as a mud-rich TB facies.
beds hint that the FA3c was deposited in the subtidal zone with rela The cyclic DUs are the result of the lateral migration of these bars. Fore
tively high tidal energy. The FA3d bearing unique fluid mud deposi published cores disclosed tidal bar deposits (Fig. 6A, Hori et al., 2002b;
tional features were assumably formed in a subtidal channel within the Nian et al., 2018; Pan, 2017). Most cores show an upward-fining pattern
turbidity maximum zone at the middle estuary (Zhang et al., 2017). and similar sedimentary structure with the FA3e, so all of them are
reinterpreted as tidal bar facies. For the core JS98 (Hori et al., 2002b),
4.2.4. Facies association 3e (FA3e): Tidal bar (TB) deposits the bottom 10-m-thick tidal ridge facies was reinterpreted as tidal bar
The FA3e is only present at core YD0902 (26.79–36.07 m), having a facies. According to AMS 14C ages, the TBs were constructed landward
sharp contact with the underlying strata (Fig. 5B). It consists of three successively from 12 (?)-9.8 ka in core YD0902, to 11.4-10.2 ka in core
fining-upward units. Each unit (ca 2.6–4.4 m thick) starts from the HZK1 (HZK1, Pan, 2017), and 9.4-6.6 ka in core JS98 (JS98, Hori et al.,
massive sand layer with contorted structures at the bottom, gradually 2002b), and then to 9.0-7.4 ka in core NT (NT, Nian et al., 2018; Pan,
transfers to the ASMBs in the middle, and terminates with the SMCs at 2017), respectively. These TBs (8–15 m thick) were, therefore, to be
the top (Fig. 5A). The sand layer consists of yellowish-gray fine to me formed during the transgression. This finding might provide new clues
dium sand, scattering with mud pebbles and Fe-nodules. Different from for the formation of TSRs on the ECS Shelf.
the mud deposition bearing tidal SMCs in the FA2a (Figs. 3C and 5A),
thick structureless mud layers in the middle and ASMBs are present. The 4.2.5. Facies association 4 & 5 (FA4-5): Estuary mouth deposits to shallow
quantity and thickness of mud layers increase upward dramatically. marine deposits (Homogeneous mud beds with silt or fine sand laminae)
Thick mud beds dominate the top portion of the depositional unit 3 The dark gray homogeneous silt deposits prevail in the FA4-5, scat
(DU3) and DU2, while the SMCs prevail at the top of DU1 (Fig. 5A). Four tered with millimeter-thick coarse silt/fine sand laminae or lenses rich in
AMS 14C dating results were obtained in the FA3e (Table 2). They shell debris. The quantity and thickness of the coarse grain laminae
constrain the FA3e formation in an age bracket between 12 and 10 ka. decrease upward. The lower boundary of the FA4 is challenging to
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Fig. 6. (A) Core correlation profile illustrating the transgression of tidal bars (JS98: Hori et al., 2002b; HZK8: Pan et al., 2017; HZK1 and NT: Pan, 2017; Nian et al.,
2018); (B) seismic profile showing the buried tidal bars at the Yangtze subaqueous delta (modified from Xu et al., 2012); (C) sketch map showing the locations of
cores and seismic profile.
identify because of the gradual contact with the underlying deposits, depositional sequences and saltmarsh peat layers can be alternative in
roughly at a depth of 38.40 m in core CX03, 33.34 m in core YD0901, dicators of sea-level change (Wang et al., 2013). Because of enormous
26.79 m in core YD0902, and 28.10 m in core YD0903, respectively. sediment supply from the Yangtze River, rapid accretion could make the
Also, the transition from the FA4 to FA5 is gradual. They feature the regressive tidal-flat succession over thick and dilute the carbon con
finest sediment and the minimum Ca/Ti value in the cores. In core CX03, centration in the saltmarsh deposits, making them questionable for
the foraminiferal abundance peaks at a depth of 30.3 m. precise sea-level reconstruction. Therefore, the author collected the
Interpretation: The finest sediments with well-developed massive reliable published sea-level data in the northwest Pacific coastal regions,
bedding suggest the FA4-5 to be deposited in a low energy environment. including those from the coral reef, mangrove, and tidal-flat systems
Along with the peak foraminifera abundance, the facies associations are (Bard et al., 1996, 2010; Bird et al., 2010; Hanebuth et al., 2000; Xue,
assumed to be formed in an estuary mouth to shallow marine environ 2014). Considering the relatively stable tectonic activity during the later
ment. The FA4 and FA5 were subjectively divided based on the quantity Quaternary at the study region, consequently, a relatively robust rela
and thickness of sandy or silty laminae in the muddy deposits. Typhoon- tive sea-level curve after the 16 ka was established (Fig. 7E).
induced currents and extreme river flooding events could be the prime Age inversions are common in shallow marine strata (Fan et al.,
trigger for the distal coarse-grained sediment distribution (Wang et al., 2018; Hori et al., 2002b; Song et al., 2013; Stanley and Chen, 2000;
2010). Wang et al., 2010), no exception for the four borehole cores, such as
12.92 ka in core YD0902 and 31.08 ka in core YD0903 (Table 2; Fig. 4).
5. Discussion Intense tidal flows, tidal bores, and storm waves are powerful to erode
previous deposits in the estuary, and their subsequent redeposition is
5.1. The geomorphological evolution during transgression potential to produce age inversions. Three principles are, therefore,
strictly followed to establish the reliable chronological framework of the
5.1.1. Reginal sea-level history and radiocarbon ages strata. First of all, the in situ deposits, e.g., large bivalve shells and plant
A widely accepted post-LGM relative sea-level curve has not been fragments, are selected as dating materials, avoiding as much as possible
established in the ECS region, although many researchers have kept the organic-rich sediments which usually contain multiple carbon
trying (Li et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2004; Saito, 1998; Wang et al., 2013; sources (Shang et al., 2018). As the section only has ages dated from
Zong et al., 2012). That is mainly ascribed to the shortage of good sediment, we make a comparison with the adjacent cores to determine
sea-level indicators in the YD region, unlike the Barbados coral reef the reliability, such as the core YD0902 with the core ECS0702 (Liu
(Bard et al., 1996) or the Sunda Shelf mangrove system (Hanebuth et al., et al., 2010). Secondary, some inversion ages in the coarse-grained strata
2000; Woodroffe et al., 2016). Along the China Mainland coast, tidal-flat should be screened out of the reliable dating lists because of
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Fig. 7. Morphological changes in the present YD region during different stages of (A) 15 ka, (B) 13 ka, (C) 10 ka, and (D) 8ka (Black/red dots represent the cores,
location showing in Fig. 1B); (E) the reconstructed relative sea-level curve through using different data sources in the northwest Pacific (Bard et al., 1996, 2010; Bird
et al., 2010; Hanebuth et al., 2000; Woodroffe, 2009; Xue, 2014). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web
version of this article.)
resuspension and redeposition issues, as discussed above. For example, modern delta plain region (Li et al., 2002). Fluvial deposits (FA1) pre
the coarse-grained stratigraphy at 32.48 m was dated much older than vailed at the valley thalweg, while the paleosols developed extensively
the fine-grained deposits at 34.93 m in core YD0903 (13.36 ka versus over the exposed terraces during the late Pleistocene lowstand stage
12.92 ka, Fig. 4). In compassion, the age of 12.92 ka was considered (Wang et al., 2010, 2012; Xu et al., 2013; Zhao, 2013). Wang et al.
more reliable and selected for further stratigraphic chronology recon (2012) unveiled three terraces (less than 35 m BPSL) at the south bank of
struction. Ultimately, we judge the acceptable dating ages by integrative the paleo-Yangtze incised valley. The paleosols at cores ZK09 and CJK07
analysis of sedimentary facies and regional sea-level change. For represented a lower terrace of 60 m BPSL at the southern flank and the
example, the estuary mouth facies was indicated at an altitude of 60.60 mid-channel paleo-highland, respectively (Fig. 7A). Owing to the
m BPSL and dated 15.41 ka, but the regional sea-level curve tends to give gradual sea-level rise during 18.5-15.4 ka (Li et al., 2014), 10–20 m
a contemporary altitude of ~105 m BPSL (Fig. 7E). This significant thick fluvial deposits were accumulated in the valley, and the river
altitude difference is considered to result from dating redeposited old equilibrium profile readjusted accordingly (Blum et al., 2013; Li et al.,
carbon material, so the age was excluded from further stratigraphic 2006). The multi-storied gravelly coarse-sand deposits in core CX03
chronology reconstruction. In total, 18 dating results were selected from represented a braided river environment in the early transgression stage,
the age database strictly based on the above principles to establish the gradually transferred into a meandering river system that characterized
transgressive chronostratigraphic framework in the YD (red ages in the fining-upward succession with massive to crossbedded medium to
Fig. 4). fine sands in cores YD0901, YD0902, and YD0903 (Fig. 7A). Therefore, a
widespread fluvial system prevailed at the modern YD region during this
5.1.2. The morphological evolution during the post-glacial transgression in period.
the YD
5.1.2.2. Stage 2 Tidal river (14.6-13 ka). The fining-upward fluvial
5.1.2.1. Stage 1 Fluvial environment (~15 ka). The LGM relative sea- deposit was overlain by heterolithic deposits. The boundary was dated
level dropped below 135 m BPSL according to the development of a around 14.6 ka at core YD0903, indicating that a tidal river system
contemporary coastal depositional system between 135 and 150 m BPSL started establishment thereafter (Fig. 4). Because of rapid sea-level rise
(Li et al., 2014). The fluvial incision reached ~85 m BPSL at core CX03 during the meltwater pulse 1A event (Bard et al., 1996), the tidal in
(Li, 2005), gradually deepening seaward to >96 m BPSL at core YD0903, fluence extended upstream rapidly, and the tidal limit should have
much deeper than the previous estimation of 60–80 m BPSL at the shifted from core YD0903 at 14.6 ka to core CM97 at 13 ka (Fig. 7, Hori
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Fig. 8. (A) Sketch map illustrating the geomorphological elements distribution in the sediment-rich tide-dominated estuary; (B) Stratigraphic correlations amongst
borehole cores in NW–SE directions (HQ98, JS98, and CM97: Hori et al., 2002b; NT: Nian et al., 2018; HZK8: Pan et al., 2017; YBK1: Zong et al., 2018). See Fig. 1A
for the profile location.
et al., 2001). When the sea-level reached 70–75 m BPSL at 13 ka, a mega deposit, as revealed by the cores HZK16 and ZK09, respectively. A
tidal river system should have been formed at the present YD region. It large tidal channel is inferred to connect the paleo-Yangtze estuary with
might have bifurcated at the lower section by the presence of a the paleo-Qiantang estuary, as revealed by core CJK09 (Fig. 7C).
mid-ground paleo-terrace at core CJK07 (Fig. 7B).
5.1.2.4. Stage 4 Shallow marine (after 8 ka). After the Younger Dryas
5.1.2.3. Stage 3 Tide-dominated estuary (13-8 ka). The TDE system Event, the sea-level rose rapidly with a maximum rate of 30 m/ka at ca.
should have taken over the tidal river system gradually from the 8.5-8.3 ka (Wang et al., 2013), and slowed down after 8.2 ka (Bard et al.,
southeast by the continuous transgression after 13 ka. The bottom of the 2010). The contemporary coastline migrated landward fast. A shallow
FA3 was dated ~13 ka in core YD0903, which is bounded by tidal marine environment (FA5) took over the estuary (FA3), and the former
channel deposit (Figs. 4 and 7B). As the TDE reached core YD0901 tidal bars should have gradually been abandoned in response to
(FA2c), it should have bifurcated at least once by the presence of the decreasing energy. Most of the study area was under a water depth of
mid-ground shoal at core CJK07. According to the contemporary de >20 m (Fig. 7D). A new stage of tidal bars started more landward as the
posits in core DZS1 and CJK09 (Xu, 2013; Zhang et al., 2015), a small estuary head shifted toward Yangzhou (Fig. 6, Hori et al., 2001; Nian
tributary is inferred to have joined the TDE from the Shengsi Archipel et al., 2018). Because of the sediment shortage, an erosional shelf was
ago region (Fig. 7B). From their landward, tide-modulated channel and formed in the present YD region. After the transgression reached a
flood plain prevailed near 13 ka (Fig. 7B). maximum at 8.0 ka (Song et al., 2013), the shallow marine environment
Around 10 ka when the sea-level was 45 m BPSL, the present YD was gradually translated into a prodelta environment (Wang et al.,
region was entirely flooded by the relative sea-level rise to form a mega 2010; Xu et al., 2013, 2016).
funnel-shaped estuary with the estuarine head at the position of core
CM97 (Fig. 7C). Tidal bars and channels occupied the middle to outer 5.2. Facies model of the sediment-rich tide-dominated estuary
estuary. These bars were recovered by the cores HZK8 and YD0902 and
described on seismic profiles (Feng et al., 2017), dated between 10 and The paleo-Yangtze valley transgressive sequences have been studied
12 ka (Figs. 6A and 7C). They were flanked by saltmarsh and tidal-flat on the basis of hundreds of core data (Hori et al., 2002b; Li et al., 2000;
11
J. Su et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 121 (2020) 104588
Wang et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2017). The facies model, differs distinctly from the well-known TDE facies model (Dalrymple and
a tide-dominated estuary (Hori et al., 2002b; Xu et al., 2016) or a Choi, 2007), deserving further analysis.
back-stepping, tide-dominated delta (Zhang et al., 2017), is still a
contentious issue. The core correlation profile and the geomorphological 5.3. The relation between the estuarine TBs and the shelf TSRs
elements distribution recovered accordingly corroborate that the
paleo-Yangtze river mouth was a tide-dominated estuary having similar Shelf TSRs have many morphological and sedimentary similarities
coarse-fine-coarse sediment distribution pattern as that of Dalrymple with the estuarine mud-rich TBs. Firstly, in terms of shape, scale (height
and Choi (2007) (Fig. 8). However, the difference is also distinct by mud and length), and orientation, the buried TBs are comparable with the
predominance at the middle estuary and muddy tidal bars at the outer shelf TSRs (Feng et al., 2017). Secondly, low-angle inclined or subpar
estuary in the paleo-Yangtze estuary. We attribute this difference to allel structures of the buried TBs unveiled by seismic data (Feng et al.,
large river systems with much more abundant fine-sediment input and 2017) also feature the bottom part of the TSRs (Wu et al., 2017), indi
far seaward distribution by strong river flood plume during the wet cating that the latter has been little reworked to represent the prede
season. For example, a mud-rich tidal bar facies (FA3e) was recovered in cessor of the TSRs. Thirdly, the mean grain size of the sandy thick beds of
cores YD0902 (fine sediment contents reaching 70%, Figs. 5A and 8B), the TBs in core YD0902 is 65–100 μm, very close to that of the TSRs in
belonging to the middle to outer estuary where tidal sand bars or the cores STK-1 (Wang et al., 2014) and DH02 (Xu et al., 2018). Finally,
elongate tidal sand ridges are present in the typical TDE model (Dal the lower finer-grained depositions of the TBs were capped by
rymple et al., 1992). coarser-grained strata of 5–10 m thickness in cores STK-1, DH02, and
In comparison, the Salmon river is very small, and both river runoff DZQ4 (Fig. 9A, Bern� e et al., 2002; Wang et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2018).
and sediment discharge are very limited, so its riverine sediment can The latter is rich in euryhaline foraminifera, such as Ammobaculities
only reach the middle estuary where sediment is predominated by formosensis and Miliammina fusca in core R24 (Jia et al., 2012), and
coarse sand (Dalrymple et al., 1992; Dalrymple and Choi, 2007). For the Ammonia tepida and Elphidium magellanicum in core DH02 (Xu et al.,
relative bigger river, the Qiantang River has much finer sediment at the 2018), indicating that its predecessor should have been formed in an
middle estuary (dominated by fine sand) and the river plume can reach estuarine setting instead of its present shelf sea. The thickness of the
the outer estuary during the flood season (Fan et al., 2014). Both water capped sandy strata is usually less than the total height of the TSRs
and sediment discharges of the Yangtze River are more than one hun (5–30 m, Liu and Xia, 2004), suggesting incomplete reworking. We,
dred times of those of the Qiantang River. The present riverine sediment therefore, argued that the TBs were first deposited in the estuary, but
is much finer in the lower Yangtze River than the lower Qiantang River. they were subsequently flooded by the rapidly rising sea-level and have
They should have some difference between the late Pleistocene to Early been highly reworked to adjust to intense tidal actions in the broad ECS
Holocene and present river regimes, but this difference should not shelf (Yang, 1989).
exceed the difference between the two river systems. So, we assume that Multiple factors may exert great influence on the TSRs formation and
quite lots of fine sediments could escape from the middle estuary into transformation except for abundant sediment supply. The pre-existing
the outer estuary to produce mud-rich tidal bars in the paleo-Yangtze morphology is vital for the TSBs formation. Considering the very
estuary, typically during the flood season. This makes it different from gentle slope of the ECS shelf, the paleo-Yangtze River might have flowed
other known estuarine facies models from much smaller estuaries, e.g., over the present middle and outer shelf region with an anastomosing
the Qiantang River and the Salmon River. In addition, fine sediment is river system during the last glacial lowstand stage (Li et al., 2014;
majorly transported as suspension load, leading to the absence of bed Wellner and Bartek, 2003; Yang et al., 2016). After this highly bifurcated
load convergence zone in the paleo-Yangtze estuary, which are devel river mouth system was flooded by the post-glacial transgression, a
oped at the middle section of small river estuaries (Dalrymple et al., complex estuarine system was formed in such a highly uneven
1992; Dalrymple and Choi, 2007). morphology. Flood tides could be highly enhanced in the funnel-shaped
Tide-dominated delta and estuary systems may share numerous depressions, favoring the TBs formation. Tidal currents in the
similar tide-genesis sedimentary structures and facies (e.g., SMC, tidal post-glacial transgressive Yangtze estuary and the modern ECS shelf are
river and flat; Dalrymple, 2010), but they can be distinguished by facies both strong enough to form the TSRs (Liu et al., 2007b; Uehara and
stacked patterns. A transgressive succession is characterized by the stack Saito, 2003). The in situ observations also showed that tidal velocity at
of distal deposits overlying with proximal deposits (Dalrymple and Choi, 1 m above the seafloor reached up to 60 cm/s during the spring tide in a
2007). The transgressive surface (Fig. 8B), separated the underlying fair-weather condition, strong enough to resuspend coarse-grained
fluvial facies with the overlying tide-influenced facies (FA2a/ sediments of the TSRs in the ECS shelf (Liu et al., 2007b). Li et al.
FA2b/FA3b), was dated ca 15.2 ka at core YD0903 to the 12.7 ka at core (2014) argued that the TSRs formed at the river mouth during the
CM97 and 11.6 ka at core NT (Figs. 4 and 8B, Hori et al., 2002b; Nian slowdown of sea-level rise. However, core data revealed that multiple
et al., 2018), indicating the rapid transgression with a rate of ca 70 series of the TBs were constructed at different transgression stages be
km/ka. The sedimentary successions in the four cores (YD0901-03 and tween 12.0 and 6.6 ka, no matter how the sea-level rose slow or fast
CX03) stack from fluvial facies at the bottom, through to a tidal river and (Fig. 6A).
estuarine facies (FA3a-d), and then shallow marine or prodelta facies at Stratigraphic chronology reconstruction shows that the TSRs should
the top (Fig. 4), representing a typical transgressive sequence pattern have gone through the construction phase before 10 ka and the refor
(Dalrymple and Choi, 2007). In addition, a reliable age model of core mation phase after 10 ka (Fig. 9A, Wang et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2018).
correlation profiles is established (Fig. 8B). Each parasequence shows an When the sea-level was 75-45 m BLPS during 13-10 ka, heterolithic
upward fining trend in response to the pulse of sea-level rise in that deposits in core SFK-01 indicated that the ECS shelf was still in a con
coarser and finer depositions were produced during the slow and rapid struction phase with the extensive distribution of TBs or tidal flats in the
sea-level rising phase, respectively (Fig. 8B). For example, the mud-rich estuary (Wang et al., 2014). However, these TBs might stop growing
TB deposit in core YD0902 exhibits a fining-upward trend (Fig. 5), owing to a sharp decrease of sediment inputs from the river when the
whereas the regressive deposition of deltaic river-mouth bars always estuary continued landward migration in response to the sea-level rise
produces a coarsening upward succession (Legler et al., 2013; Su and (Figs. 7 and 9B). These exposed TBs on the ECS shelf should have un
Fan, 2018). As defined by Dalrymple and Choi (2007), the estuary has a dergone secular and remarkable reworking by the strong tide and storm
transgressive nature. The combined features of horizontal facies distri waves as discussed above, gradually evolved into the TSRs. The sharp
bution and vertical stacked patterns (from fluvial facies at the bottom to boundary between the lower heterolithic deposits and the upper sand
TDE and marine facies at the top) ascertain that the Yangtze river mouth beds in the TSRs was dated roughly at 10 ka, demonstrating the refor
was a tide-dominated estuary during the post-glacial period which mation initiating time. It is worth noting that the mud patches on the
12
J. Su et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 121 (2020) 104588
Fig. 9. (A) Sketch map illustrating the formation process of tidal sand ridges (DZQ4: Bern�e et al., 2002; cores in mud patches modified from Li et al., 2014; SFK-01:
Wang et al., 2014; DH02: Xu et al., 2018); (B) sedimentary systems distribution on the ECS shelf showing the possible paleo-estuary mouth locations and the
referenced core locations (Li et al., 2014). The unit ages denoted by the arrowheads is ka, and the dated methods are AMS 14C (black) and OSL (red), respectively.
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
ECS shelf were also dated to start development at ca 10 ka (Fig. 9A). various weathering. Sea-level rise transformed it into a tidal river
Therefore, a certain linkage was assumed to exist between the TSRs and during 14.6-13.0 ka, through to a tide-dominated estuary in 13.0-8.0
muddy patches. The reworked TSRs have much less fine-grained con ka, and then to a shallow marine after ~8.0 ka.
tents than their predecessor (TBs), so we hypothesize that fine particles 2) The combined features of horizontal facies distribution and vertical
should have been resuspended and transported to deposit muddy stacked patterns (from fluvial facies at the bottom to TDE and marine
patches in some relatively low energy settings in the ECS, including the facies at the top) ascertain that the Yangtze river mouth was a tide-
Zhe-Min mud belt, the Southwestern Cheju Island mud patches, and dominated estuary. The TDE with strong fluvial effects (enormous
muddy depositions in the Okinawa Trough (Figs. 2D and 9B). The sediment and freshwater discharges) exhibit is featured by muddy
similar extrapolation was also given by Gao and Collins (2014), but we heterolithic deposits at the middle estuary and mud-rich tidal bars
should await more direct evidence. facies at the outer estuary. Because of the abundant suspended
sediment supply, strong tidal and wave actions lead to well-
6. Conclusions developed fluid mud layer (3–10 cm thick for each layer) at the
middle to outer estuary.
Based on detailed analysis of core data, we confirm that a mega tide- 3) The estuarine mud-rich TBs are potential predecessor of shelf tidal
dominated estuary (TDE) was developed over the paleo-Yangtze incised sand ridges (TSRs). The estuarine TBs were gradually abandoned on
valley during the post-glacial transgression. Huge sediment supply from the East China Sea shelf by the continuous transgression but were
the Yangtze River make its TDE facies model significantly different from subject to subsequent reworking by the strong tide and storm waves
smaller TDE with limited fluvial sediment input. Typical facies charac on the broad ECS shelf, evolving into the tidal sand ridges (TSRs).
ters and morphological evolvement of this sediment-rich TDE are sum The upper TSRs have much coarser sediments than their predecessor,
marized as follows: and winnowed finer sediments tend to accumulate at some lower
energy settings to form mud patches. Radiocarbon dating results
1) The postglacial Yangtze incised valley reached 85 to >96 m deep at demonstrate that the formation of TSBs should have occurred before
the subaqueous delta region. A fluvial system had prevailed at the 10 ka, and then should have undergone long-term reformation into
valley thalweg before 14.6 ka, flanked with the terraces undergoing the TSRs thereafter.
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J. Su et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 121 (2020) 104588
Declaration of competing interest Dalrymple, R.W., Choi, K., 2007. Morphologic and facies trends through the
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interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Dalrymple, R.W., Zaitlin, B.A., Boyd, R., 1992. Estuarine facies models: conceptual basis
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Formal analysis, Writing - original draft. Daidu Fan: Methodology, associations in the Qiantang Estuary, China. Mar. Geol. 348, 1–14.
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Supervision, Validation, Funding acquisition, Writing - review & edit
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ing. J. Paul Liu: Writing - review & editing, Supervision. Yijing Wu: Feng, Z., Liu, B., Zhao, Y., Li, X., Dada, O.A., Jiang, L., Si, S., 2017. Structure,
Writing - review & editing. distribution, and evolution history of the Early Holocene erosional mud ridge system
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Acknowledgment Gao, S., Collins, M.B., 2014. Holocene sedimentary systems on continental shelves. Mar.
Geol. 352, 268–294.
Ge, H., Zhang, C., Versteegh, G.J., Chen, L., Fan, D., Dong, L., Liu, J., 2016. Evolution of
This research was funded by the National Natural Science Founda
the East China Sea sedimentary environment in the past 14 kyr: insights from
tion of China (NSFC-41776052, 41730531), Qingdao National Labora tetraethers-based proxies. Sci. China Earth Sci. 1–12.
tory for Marine Science and Technology (MGQNLM-TD201802), and the Goodbred, S.L., Kuehl, S., 2000. The significance of large sediment supply, active
tectonism, and eustasy on margin sequence development: late Quaternary
Research Fund of State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology at Tongji
stratigraphy and evolution of the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta. Sediment. Geol. 133,
University (Grant no. MG20190104). J. Su really appreciates the 227–248.
financial support of the China Scholarship Council for his study at the Goodbred, S.L., Saito, Y., 2012. Tide-dominated Deltas, Principles of Tidal
North Carolina State University. We thank two anonymous reviewers for Sedimentology. Springer, pp. 129–149.
Gugliotta, M., Saito, Y., 2019. Matching trends in channel width, sinuosity, and depth
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