Anglo-Chinese School (Independent)

Year 6 IBDP Mathematics: Analysis and Approaches HL

Topic 5: Calculus
5.7 Maclaurin Series

a
Consider the convergent geometric series  ar
n=0
n
=
1− r
where r  1 .


1
If we let a = 1 and r = x, then we have x
n=0
n
=
1− x
where x  1 .


1
We can represent the function f ( x) = where x  1 with the power series  x n where x  1
1− x n =0

Definition: The Maclaurin series expansion of f ( x ) is a series of ascending powers of x of the

form

f ( x ) =  cn x n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + ....+, x R,
n =0

where R is the radius of convergence and it is half the interval of x.

A power series can be added, differentiated and integrated just like any polynomial.

To determine the coefficients cn , follow the steps below:

i) First evaluate the series at x = 0 . We have f (0) = c0
ii) Then differentiate f ( x ) with respect to x :
f  ( x ) = c1 + 2c2 x + 3c3 x 2 +
Therefore, when x = 0, c1 = f  ( 0 )
iii) Differentiating again, f  ( x ) = 2c2 + 3( 2 ) c3 x +
f  ( 0 )
 f ''(0) = 2c2  c2 =
2
iv) Continuing in this manner, we find that f ( n)
(0) = n!cn
f ( n ) (0)
 cn = where 0!=1 and f (0) ( x) = f ( x)
n!

v) So if f ( x) =  cn x, x r
n=0

f  ( 0) f  ( 0 ) f ( n) ( 0)
Then f ( x) = f ( 0 ) + x+ x2 + + xn +
1! 2! n!

An example of a Maclaurin series is the Binomial theorem for negative / fractional indices:
𝑛(𝑛−1) 2 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) 3
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ for |𝑥| < 1
2! 3!

ACS (Independent) Mathematics Department 79

Example 1: Find the first four terms of the Maclaurin series for f ( x) = e x .

Solution:

Example 2: Find the first three terms of the Maclaurin series for f ( x) = cos x .

Solution:

Example 3: Find the first three terms of the Maclaurin series f ( x) = ln(1 + x) .

Solution:

ACS (Independent) Mathematics Department 80

 The formula booklet gives the Maclaurin series of these special functions:
x2 x3 x5
• ex = 1 + x + + • sin x = x − + −
2! 3! 5!
x 2 x3 x2 x4
• ln (1 + x ) = x − + − • cos x = 1 − + −
2 3 2! 4!
x3 x5
• arctan x = x − + +
3 5

Example 4: Find the first four terms of the Maclaurin series for f ( x ) = x4e−3x .
2

 4 9 8 9 10 
 x − 3x + 2 x − 2 x + ...
6
Solution:
 

Example 5:
(a) Find the first three terms of the Maclaurin series for ln (1 + e x ) .

2ln (1 + e x ) − x − ln 4
(b) Hence, determine the value of lim .
x →0 x2
 1 1 2 1
Solution: (a) ln 2 + 2 x + 8 x + ... (b) 4 
 

ACS (Independent) Mathematics Department 81

Binomial Theorem for Negative and Fractional Indices (An Extension of Binomial Theorem)

Suppose n . The Binomial Theorem can be generalized to the following:

  b  n ( n − 1)  b  
2

( a + b) = a n 1 + n   + + ... 
n
   
 a 2!  a  

Notes:
(a) This is an infinite series.
b
(b) This is only valid for  1.
a
(c) The derivation makes use of the Maclaurin series expansion

Example 6: Write down and simplify the first three terms, in ascending power of x, in the Extended
Binomial expansion of 1 + x . State the values of x for which the expansion is valid.
1 1
Solution: [ 1 + x − x2 + , x  1]
2 8

1
Example 7: Write down the first three terms of the binomial expansion of , in ascending
2+ x
1 x x2
powers of x. State the values of x for which the expansion is valid. [ − + + , x 2]
2 4 8
Solution:

1
Example 8: Write down the first three terms of the binomial expansion of in descending
(1 − x )
2

1 2 3
powers of x. State the values of x for which the expansion is valid. [ + + + , x  1]
x 2 x3 x 4
Solution:

ACS (Independent) Mathematics Department 82

Example 9: Write down and simplify the first four terms, in ascending power of x, in the expansion of
1
(8 − 9x ) 3 . Hence, by finding a suitable value of x, find a rational approximation to 3
−10 . Why is this
not a good approximation?

 65 
Solution:  − 32 
 

Some Useful Results

(1 − x ) = 1 + x + x2 +
−1
• + xr + for x  1.
• (1 + x ) = 1 − x + x2 − + ( −1) xr +
−1 r
for x  1.

These are derived from the sum to infinity of a GP.

Evaluation of Limits using Maclaurin Series

Maclaurin series may be used as another method to evaluate limits where x → 0 .

arctan x
Example 10: Use Maclaurin series to evaluate lim . [1]
x →0 x
Solution:

ACS (Independent) Mathematics Department 83

Solving Differential Equations using Maclaurin Series

Another method to approximate the solution to differential equations is to assume that there is a solution

in the form of a Maclaurin series a x
n =0
n
n
=a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + and differentiate repeatedly to

find each term.

dy
Example 11: Use Maclaurin series to solve the differential equation = x − y 2 + 2 , where y ( 0 ) = 1,
dx
1
giving your answer up to and including the term in x3 . [ y = 1 + x − x 2 + 0 x3 + ]
2
Solution:

ACS (Independent) Mathematics Department 84

 Anglo-Chinese School (Independent)
Year 6 IBDP Mathematics: Analysis and Approaches HL

Topic 5: Calculus
WS 5.7: Maclaurin Series

1. Find the Maclaurin series for tan x , up to and including the term in x3 . Hence, find the
approximate value of tan 0.2.

  1 1 1
2. Prove that sin  + x   + 3x − x 2 +
6  2 2 4

x−7
3. Find the Maclaurin series of , up to and including the term in x2 .
x −x−2
2

4. Given that f ( x ) = arctan x, find

(i) f ( x) ;
(ii) the first three terms, in ascending power of x, of the Maclaurin series for f  ( x ) .
(iii) Hence, find the Maclaurin series of f ( x ) .

d 3
5. Use the fact that ( arctan 3x ) = to find the coefficient of the third non-zero term of the
dx 1 + 9 x2
Maclaurin series representation of arctan 3 x.

6.* (i) By successively differentiating (1 + x ) , find the Maclaurin series for (1 + x ) up to and
n n

including the term in x3 .

3
(ii) Obtain the expansion of ( 4 − x ) 2 (1 + 2 x 2 ) 2 , up to and including the term in x3 .
3

(iii) Find the set of values of x for which the expansion in (ii) is valid.

1+ x  2 3 2 5
7. Use the Maclaurin’s series of ln (1 + x ) to show that ln    2x + x + x + and
1− x  3 5
state the range of x for which the expansion is valid.

8. Evaluate the following limits using Maclaurin’s series.

cos x − 1 xe x
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim ( e x − 1) cot x
x →0 x2 x →0 ln (1 + x ) x →0

ACS (Independent) Mathematics Department 85

9. For the following questions, use a Maclaurin’s series (to the term in x3 ) to approximate the
solution of the differential equations, using the initial conditions
dy
(a) = y2 − x given y ( 0 ) = 1
dx
dy
(b) = y + xy 2 given y ( 0 ) = 2
dx
d2y
(c) = xy given y ( 0) = y ' ( 0) = 1
dx 2
dy
10.* Consider the differential equation + y tan x = 2 cos 4 x given that y = 1 when x = 0 .
dx
(a) Solve the differential equation, giving your answer in the form y = f ( x ) .

d2y
(b) Using differentiation, show that 2
+ y = −10sin x cos3 x .
dx
(c) Hence find the first four terms of the Maclaurin series for y.

11. Obtain the first three non-zero terms of the expansion of

x
(1 + 2x )
−1
(a) (b)
1 + 2x
in (i) ascending powers of x and (ii) descending powers of x.

In each case, find the range of x for which the expansion is valid.

12. Use the binomial theorem to evaluate 25.1 to five decimal places.

2+ x
13. Expand as a series in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x2 .
1 − 4x
State the range of x for which the expansion is valid.

1 1
14.* (a) Given that y = where x  , show that, provided x  0,
1 + 2x + 1 + x 2
1
y =  1 + 2 x − 1 + x  .
x
(b) Using this second form of y, express y as a series of ascending powers of x up to and
including the term in x2 .
1 10 79407
(c) Hence, show that by putting x = , = .
100 102 + 101 160000
1 1
15.* Expand (8 + 4 x ) 3 (1 − x ) 4 in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x 2 inclusive.
Give the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid.

ACS (Independent) Mathematics Department 86

Investigation Question (Paper 3)

16. This question asks you to investigate the Maclaurin’s series of 𝑒 𝑥

(a) Write down the Maclaurin’s series of 𝑒 𝑥 using sigma notation.

(b) Hence show that 𝑒 > 2.5

(c) (i) Use mathematical induction to prove that 2𝑛−1 < 𝑛! for 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, 𝑛 ≥ 3.

(ii) By comparing with a suitable geometric series, or otherwise, show that 𝑒 < 3.
1 𝑥−𝜇 2
1 − ( )
(d) The probability density function of the normal distribution is 𝑒 2 𝜎 .
𝜎√2𝜋
1 1
Given 𝑍 ∼ 𝑁(0,1), show that 𝑃(0 < 𝑍 < 𝑎) ≈ (𝑎 − 6 𝑎3 ) for small 𝑎.
√2𝜋

xk
(e) Show that f ( x ) = 
k =0 k !
 0 for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ

n
xk
(f) Determine, with justification, whether g ( x ) = k =0 k !
 0 for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .

2n
xk
Let h ( x ) = 
k =0 k !
for 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .

(g) (i) By considering lim ℎ(𝑥) and lim ℎ(𝑥), or otherwise, show that ℎ(𝑥) has a
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞
minimum point.

𝑥 2𝑛
(ii) Show that, at this minimum point, ℎ(𝑥) = (2𝑛)!

(h) Show that ℎ(𝑥) > 0 for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

[adapted from IBO Training Resources by Daniel Hwang]

ACS (Independent) Mathematics Department 87

Answers:

1
1. tan x  x + x 3 + ... , 0.203
3
7 9 23
3. − x + x2 +
2 4 8
1  
x 2 k +1
 ( −1)  ( −1) +c
k k
4. (i) (ii) x2k ,
1 + x2 k =0 k =0 2k + 1
243
5.
5

n ( n − 1) n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )
6. (i) 1 + nx + x2 + x3 +
2 6
387 2 1151 3
(ii) 8 − 3x + x − x +
16 128
1 1
(iii) − x
2 2
7. x 1
1
8. (a) − (b) 1 (c) 1
2
x 2 2 x3 11 1
9. (a) y = 1 + x + + (b) y = 2 + 2 x + 3x 2 + x 3 (c) 1 + x + x 3
2 3 3 6
2 1
10. (a) y = sin 2 x − cos x sin 3 x + cos x (c) y = 1 + 2 x − x 2 − 2 x 3
3 2
1 1 −1 1 −2 1 −3 1
11a. (i) 1 − 2 x + 4 x2 , x  (ii) x − x + x + ,x .
2 2 4 8 2

3 1 1 12  1 −1 3 −2  1
11b. (i) x − x 2 + x3 , x  (ii) x 1 − x + x  , x  .
2 2 2  4 32  2

9 207 2 1
12. 5.00999 13. 2+ x+ x , x
2 2 16 2 4

1 3 7 1 47 2
14. (b) − x + x2 15. 2 − x − x ; x 1
2 8 16 6 144


xk
16. (a)  k!
k =0
(f) Not always true.

ACS (Independent) Mathematics Department 88