Fire hazards and control

Every year fire and its effects cause substantial losses of life and property. It is essential that everyone at work is
familiar with the main causes of fire, how fire spreads and the fire procedures and measures to prevent fire. This
chapter deals with the principles of combustion, the classification of fires and fire appliances, procedures for the safe
use and storage of flammable substances and the process of fire risk assessment.

What is fire?

‘Fire ‘can be defined in several ways:

 a spectacular example of a fast chemical reaction between a combustible substance and oxygen
accompanied by the evolution of heat;
 a mixture in gaseous form of a combustible substance and oxygen with sufficient energy put into the
mixture to start a fire;
 an unexpected combustion generating sufficient heat or smoke resulting in damage to plant, equipment,
goods and/or buildings.

Fire triangle:

These three coming together. Fire extinguishing depends on removing one of the elements from an existing fire, and
is particularly difficult if an oxidizing substance is present. Once a fire starts it can spread very quickly from fuel to
fuel as the heat increases.

Sources of ignition:
Workplaces have numerous sources of ignition, some of which are obvious but others may be hidden inside
machinery. Most of the sources may cause an accidental fire from sources inside but, in the case of arson (about
13% of industrial fires), the source of ignition may be brought from outside the workplace and will be deliberately
used. The following are potential sources of ignition in the typical workplace construction site:

Naked flames – from smoking materials, cooking appliances, space heating/drying appliances, braziers and tar
boilers
External sparks – from grinding metals, welding, impact tools, electrical switch gear S internal sparking – from
electrical equipment (faulty and normal), machinery, lighting

hot surfaces – from lighting, cooking, heating appliances, braziers, tar boilers, plant and machinery, poorly ventilated
equipment, faulty and/or badly lubricated equipment, hot bearings and drive belts

Static electricity – causing significant high voltage sparks from the separation of materials such as unwinding plastic,
pouring highly flammable liquids, walking across insulated floors, or removing synthetic overalls.

Electrical equipment– Arcing can arise as a result of electrical faults and this results in the production of sparks. Hot
surfaces produced by defective electrical equipment are a common source of ignition.

Spontaneous ignition–When some liquids are heated or sprayed on to a very hot surface, they may ignite
spontaneously without an ignition source actually present.

Spontaneous combustion–When materials react with oxygen an exothermic reaction takes place, ie one emitting
heat, and with materials which readily oxidize there may be some degree of heat accumulation which eventually
causes the material to ignite or burst into flames.

Smoking–In many workplaces and work situations, smoking by employees, members of the public and customers can
be a source of fire, principally from discarded cigarette ends and matches, but also from smoking in areas where
flammable materials are stored or where flammable vapour may be present.

Friction–Sparks can be created by friction between surfaces, for instance where the moving part of a machine comes
into contact with a fixed part, or two moving surfaces may rub or slide together during routine machine operation.

Hot work processes–Hot work processes, such as welding, soldering, hot cutting and brazing, can be a source of
ignition, particularly where flammable vapors are present.

Engines, vehicle emissions and hot surfaces–In vehicle maintenance and parking areas, diesel- and petrol-operated
engines, vehicle emissions and hot surfaces of, for example, exhaust systems can be a source of ignition.

Lightning–In limited cases, lightning can be a source of ignition and this may require the installation of lightning
protection by direct earthing.

Sources of fuel
If it will burn it can be fuel for a fire. The things which will burn easily are the most likely to be the initial fuel, which
then burns quickly and spreads the fire to other fuels. The most common things that will burn in a typical workplace
are:

Solids – these include, wood, paper, cardboard, wrapping materials, plastics, rubber, foam (e.g. polystyrene tiles and
furniture upholstery), textiles (e.g. furnishings and clothing), wallpaper, hardboard and chipboard used as building
materials, waste materials (e.g. wood shavings, dust, paper etc), hair.

Liquids – these include, paint, varnish, thinners, adhesives, petrol, white spirit, methylated spirits, paraffin, toluene,
acetone and other chemicals. Most flammable liquids give off vapors which are heavier than air so they will fall to
the lowest levels. A flash flame or an explosion can occur if the vapor catches fire in the correct concentrations of
vapor and air.

Gases – flammable gases include LPG (liquefied petroleum gas in cylinders, usually butane or propane), acetylene
(used for welding) and hydrogen. An explosion can occur if the air/ gas mixture is within the explosive range.
Oxygen
Oxygen is of course provided by the air all around but this can be enhanced by wind, or by natural or powered
ventilation systems which will provide additional oxygen to continue burning. Cylinders providing oxygen for medical
purposes or welding can also provide an additional very rich source of oxygen. In addition some chemicals such as
nitrates, chlorates, chromates and peroxides can release oxygen as they burn and therefore need no external source
of air.

Methods of extinction

There are four main methods of extinguishing fires, which are explained as follows:

Cooling – reducing the ignition temperature by taking the heat out of the fire – using water to limit or reduce the
temperature.

Smothering – limiting the oxygen available by smothering and preventing the mixture of oxygen and flammable
vapor by the use of foam or a fire blanket.

Starving – limiting the fuel supply – by removing the source of fuel by switching off electrical power, isolating the
flow of flammable liquids or removing wood and textiles etc

Chemical reaction – by interrupting the chain of combustion and combining the hydrogen atoms with chlorine atoms
in the hydrocarbon chain for example with Halon extinguishers. (Halos have generally been withdrawn because of
their detrimental effect on the environment, as ozone depleting agents).

FIRE EXTINCTION

Fires may be extinguished through the use of portable fire-fighting appliances and in situ fire-fighting equipment,
such as hose reel appliances.

Portable fire-fighting appliances

These are appliances designed to be carried and operated by hand. They contain an extinguishing medium which can
be expelled by action of internal pressure and directed on to a fire. This pressure may be stored, or obtained by
chemical reaction, or by release of gas from a cartridge. The maximum mass of a portable extinguisher in working
order is 23 kilograms. Portable extinguishers must be painted red and are grouped and colour coded as follows

Table: Grouping and colour coding of fire appliances

 Water appliances: Water appliances operate on the basis of cooling and reducing the temperature within a
fire, thereby slowing down the rate of combustion and preventing reigniting from taking place. As a result of
the application of water, steam is produced, which has a blanketing or inerting effect, reducing the amount
of air to maintain combustion. Water is the most efficient form of extinguishant for use on Class A fires.
  Foam appliances: Foam applied to a fire has a smothering effect, preventing further air from reaching the
combustion area or seat of the fire. In the case of flammable liquids, foam forms a barrier floating on the
burning surface, reducing the evaporation rate of the liquid and preventing the ingress of oxygen to maintain
combustion.
 Carbon dioxide appliances: Carbon dioxide appliances, when operated, produce a snow which is converted
to gas in the fire. This has the effect of slowing down the rate of combustion, reducing the available oxygen
through the smothering effect created. Carbon dioxide is most effective on Class A and B fires and those
involving electrical appliances and equipment. Under no circumstances should carbon dioxide be used as
extinguishant in fires in confined spaces due to the risk of asphyxiation.
 Dry chemical powder appliances: These appliances incorporate a specific powder mixture which interferes
with the combustion process, reducing the combustion rate until no further ignition and reignition of the
fuel can take place. They are principally designed for use on Class A and B fires.
 Vaporizing liquid appliances: These appliances contain halogenated hydrocarbons, such as halon. When
operated, they produce a heavy vapour which results in extinguishment due to the exclusion of oxygen and
interference with chemical combustion reactions. They are particularly effective on fires involving electrical
equipment and do not damage sensitive equipment. Vaporizing liquid appliances should not be used on fires
in confined spaces.

In situ fire-fighting equipment

This form of fire-fighting equipment is permanently installed in buildings and takes the form of hose reels
and sprinkler systems:
 Hose reel appliances: A hose reel appliance is a fixed fire-fighting installation comprising a coil of 25-
millimetre internal diameter (ID) flexible hose directly connected to a rising water main. The
complete installation consists of either a wet rising main or dry rising main (dry riser) and a landing
valve or fire hydrant. The main is generally installed in wrought steel pipe of not less than 100
millimeters ID. A wet rising main should contain water at all times and be directly connected into the
fire main with the water at fire main pressure. They may be subject to damage by frost if not
adequately protected. With a dry rising main, on the other hand, the pipe has to be charged with
water prior to use. This is achieved by opening out the main to the fire main or by charging the dry
main by means of a pump. The inlet for a dry rising main must be in a convenient position for the fire
brigade to gain access, provided with a hard standing for pumps, suitably identified and kept clear at
all times. In addition to hose reels, rising mains are fitted with landing valves which allow the
connection of a standard fire hose. Both landing valves and hose reels must be kept clear of
obstructions at all times and sited not more than 30 meters from a possible fire location.
 Sprinkler systems: These systems provide an automatic means of both detecting and extinguishing
or controlling a fire in its early stages. A sprinkler system incorporates an overhead piping system
with sprinkler heads fitted to the system at strategic points. The installation is supplied with water
from a header tank and/or a water main. Each sprinkler head acts as a valve which is pre-set to open
at a specific temperature, releasing water on to a fire. To be effective, the water supply must be
automatic and not exposed to risk of freezing, in particular. Sprinkler systems can be arranged to
operate an alarm on initial release of water.

FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS

A method of giving warning of fire is required in commercial, industrial and public buildings. The purpose of a fire
alarm is to give an early warning of fire in a building; to increase the safety of occupants by encouraging them to
escape to a place of safety; and to increase the possibility of early extinction of the fire, thus reducing the loss of, or
damage to, the premises and its contents.
BS 5839: Part 1: 1988 lays down guidelines to be followed for the installation of fire alarm systems. In larger
buildings this may take the form of a mains-operated system with break-glass alarm call points, an automatic control
unit and electrically operated bells or sirens. In relatively small buildings, it would be reasonable to accept a
manually operated dry battery or compressed air-operated gong, klaxon or bell. To avoid the alarm point being close
to the seat of a fire, duplicate facilities are necessary. However, much will depend upon the nature of the building, in
terms of construction, layout and the number of floors, the number of people on site at any time and materials and
substances stored, as to the provision of fire alarm systems. The local fire authority may ultimately decide on the
nature of such provision.

Classification of fire

Fires are classified in accordance with British Standard EN 2: 1992 Classification of Fires. However for all practical
purposes there are FIVE main classes of fire – A, B, C, D and F, plus fires involving electrical equipment. BS 7937:2000
The Specification of Portable Fire Extinguishers for Use on Cooking Oil Fires introduced the new class F. The
categories based on fuel and the means of extinguishing are as follows:

Class A – fires which involve solid materials such as wood, paper, cardboard, textiles, furniture and plastics where
there are normally glowing embers during combustion. Such fires are extinguished by cooling which is achieved
using water.

Class B – fires which involve liquids or liquefied solids such as paints, oils or fats. These can be further subdivided
into:

Class B1 – fires which involve liquids that are soluble in water such as methanol. They can be extinguished by carbon
dioxide, dry powder, water spray, light water and vaporizing liquids.

Class B2 – fires which involve liquids not soluble in water, such as petrol and oil. They can be extinguished by using
foam, carbon dioxide, dry powder, light water and vaporizing liquid.

Class C – fires which involve gases such as natural gas or liquefied gases such as butane or propane. They can be
extinguished using foam or dry powder in conjunction with water to cool any containers involved or nearby.

Class D – fires which involve metals such as aluminum or magnesium. Special dry powder extinguishers are required
to extinguish these fires, which may contain powdered graphite or talc.

Class F – fires which involve high temperature cooking oils or fats in large catering establishments or restaurants.

Electrical fires – fires involving electrical equipment or circuitry do not constitute a fire class on their own, as
electricity is a source of ignition that will feed a fire until switched off or isolated. But there are some pieces of
equipment that can store, within capacitors, lethal voltages even when isolated. Extinguishers specifically designed
for electrical use like carbon dioxide or dry powder should always be used for this type of fire hazard.

Principles of heat transmission and fire spread

Fire transmits heat in several ways, which need to be understood in order to prevent, plan escape from, and fight
fires. Heat can be transmitted by convection, conduction, radiation and direct burning.

Convection

Hot air becomes less dense and rises drawing in cold new air to fuel the fire with more oxygen. The heat is
transmitted upwards at sufficient intensity to ignite combustible materials in the path of the very hot products of
combustion and flames. This is particularly important inside buildings or other structures where the shape may
effectively form a chimney for the fire.

Conduction

This is the transmission of heat through a material with sufficient intensity to melt or destroy the material and ignite
combustible materials which come into contact or close to a hot section. Metals like copper, steel and aluminum are
very effective or good conductors of heat. Other materials like concrete, brickwork and insulation materials are very
ineffective or poor conductors of heat.

Poor conductors or good insulators are used in fire protection arrangements. When a poor conductor is also
incombustible it is ideal for fire protection. Care is necessary to ensure that there are no other hazards like a health
problem with such materials. Asbestos is a very poor conductor of heat and is incombustible. Unfortunately, it has,
of course, very severe health problems which now far outweigh its value as a fire protection material and it is
banned in the UK, although still found in many buildings where it was used extensively for fire protection.

Radiation

Often in a fire the direct transmission of heat through the emission of heat waves from a surface can be so intense
that adjacent materials are heated sufficiently to ignite. A metal surface glowing red-hot would be typical of a severe
radiation hazard in a fire.

Direct burning

This is the effect of combustible materials catching fire through direct contact with flames which causes fire to
spread, in the same way that lighting an open fire, with a range of readily combustible fuels is spread within a grate.

Smoke spread in buildings

Where fire is not contained and people can move away to a safe location there is little immediate risk to those
people. However, where fire is confined inside buildings the fire behaves differently. The smoke rising from the fire
gets trapped inside the space by the immediate ceiling then spreads horizontally across the space deepening all the
time until the entire space is filled. The smoke will also pass through any holes or gaps in the walls, ceiling or floor
and get into other parts of the building. It moves rapidly up staircases or lift wells and into any areas that are left
open, or rooms which have open doors connecting to the staircase corridors. The heat from the building gets
trapped inside, raising the temperature very rapidly. The toxic smoke and gases are an added danger to people
inside the building who must be able to escape quickly to a safe location.

Figure: Fire spread in buildings.

Common causes of fire and consequences

Causes:

The Home Office statistics show that the causes of fires in buildings, excluding dwellings, in 1999 was as shown in
Figure 15.5. The total was 43 600, a rise of 4% on the previous year but below the ten-year peak of 47 900 in 1995.

The most common causes of fire on construction sites are: S

1. The changing flammability of combustible material being cut, planed, sanded, ground or filed into a finely divided
form which will readily catch fire

2. Loose packaging and other materials left on site

3. Poor storage of highly flammable gases and other materials

4. Dismantling of tanks with flammable residues

5. Coming across buried gas or electric lines during demolition or excavation

6. Inadequate arrangements for rubbish disposal

7. Discarding of smoking materials

8. Overheating of poorly maintained plant and machinery

9. Improper use or poor maintenance of welding and cutting equipment

10. Overloaded or poorly maintained temporary electrical equipment

11. Damaged cables and improper fuses or defeating of safety devices

12. Accumulation of rubbish against electrical equipment causing overheating

13. overheating of coiled cables used for heavy current usage like heating

14. Bonfires getting out of control

15. Use of petrol or other accelerants to brighten bonfires

16. Arson through intruders or even disgruntled or bored site employees.

Consequences
The main consequences of fire are:

Death – although this is a very real risk, relatively few people die in building fires that are not dwellings. In 1999, 38
(6%) people died out of a total of 663 in all fires. The main causes of all deaths were:

Overcome by gas or smoke: 46%, Burns: 27%, Burns and overcome by gas or smoke: 20%, Others: 7%.

Clearly gas and smoke are the main risks.

Personal injury – some 1900 people were injured (11% of total injuries in all fires)

Building damage – can be very significant, particularly if the building materials have poor resistance to fire and there
is little or no built in fire protection

Flora and fauna damage – can be significant, particularly in a hot draught or forest fire

Loss of business and jobs – it is estimated that about 40% of businesses do not start up again after a significant fire.
Many are under – or not insured and small companies often cannot afford the time and expense of setting up again
when they probably still have the old debts to service. Many site schedules are totally disrupted by a fire

Transport disruption – rail routes, roads and even airports are sometimes closed because of a serious fire. The worst
case was of course 11 September 2001 when airports around the world were disrupted

Environmental damage from the fire and/or fighting the fire – fire-fighting water, the products of combustion and
exploding building materials, such as asbestos cement roofs, can contaminate significant areas around the fire site.

Fire risk assessment:

Stage 1 – identify fire hazards:

There are five main hazards produced by fire that should be considered when assessing the level of risk: oxygen
depletion, flames and heat, smoke, gaseous combustion products, structural failure of buildings.

Of these, smoke and other gaseous combustion products are the most common cause of death in fires. For a fire to
occur it needs sources of heat and fuel. If these hazards can be kept apart, removed or reduced, then the risks to
people and businesses are minimized. Identify fire hazards in the workplace is the first stage as follows.

Identify any combustibles

Most worksites contain combustible materials. Usually, the presence of normal stock in trade should not cause
concern, provided the materials are used safely and stored away from sources of ignition. Good standards of
housekeeping are essential to minimize the risk of a fire starting or spreading quickly. The amount of combustible
materials to hand at a worksite should be kept as low as is reasonably practicable. Limit materials to half a day’s
supply or a single shift and return unused materials to the stores. Always choose the least flammable materials and
keep site stocks down as far as possible. Materials should not be stored in gangways, corridors or stairways or
scaffolds where they may obstruct exit doors and routes. Fires often start and are assisted to spread by combustible
waste or packaging. Such waste should be collected frequently and removed from the site. Construction work such
as cutting, grinding or sanding often alters the flammability of building materials. Finely devised dust or crumbs can
often be ignited easily. Highly combustible materials, such as flammable liquids, paints or plastic foams, ignite very
easily and quickly produce large quantities of heat and/or dense toxic smoke. Such materials should be stored
outside buildings under construction in secure storage areas. If combustible materials are stored inside buildings
they should be kept where means of escape in case of fire would not be affected. In some cases stores will need to
be constructed of fire-resistant materials giving at least 30 minutes’ fire resistance and separated from working
areas.

Identify any sources of heat

All work sites will contain heat/ignition sources. These may be heaters, boilers, engines, bonfires, smoking materials
or heat from processes, or electrical circuits and equipment, whether in normal use, through misuse or accidental
failure. The potential for an arson attack must be considered. Where possible, sources of ignition should be removed
from the site or replaced with safer forms. Where this cannot be done the ignition source should be kept well away
from combustible materials or made the subject of management controls.

Particular care should be taken in areas where portable heaters are used or where smoking is permitted. Where heat
is used as part of a process, it should be used carefully to reduce the chance of a fire as much as possible. Good
security both inside and outside the site will help to combat the risk of arson. Refueling of vehicles (especially with
petrol) should take place in the open air or in well-ventilated spaces away from sources of ignition. Lights should be
securely fastened to a solid back or tripods made secure so that they cannot be easily dislodged. Make sure electrical
equipment cannot be inadvertently covered or that combustible materials are close to halogen lights (in particular as
they get very hot) or heaters. Plant should be properly maintained to avoid overheating particularly in dusty
conditions when filters become easily blocked. Electrical systems, especially temporary ones, should be of sufficient
capacity, inspected and maintained by competent people.

Stage 2 – identify location and persons who are at significant risk

Consider the risk to any people who may be present. In many instances and particularly for most small sites the
risk(s) identified will not be significant and specific measures for persons in this category will not be required. There
will, however, be some occasions when certain people may be especially at risk from the fire, because of their
specific role, disability, sleeping, location or the general site activity. Special consideration is needed if:

(a) Sleeping accommodation is provided,

(b) Persons are physically, visually or mentally challenged

(c) People are unable to react quickly

(d) People are isolated.

People may come into the site from outside, such as visitors, the public or sub-contractors. The assessor must decide
whether the current arrangements are satisfactory or if changes are needed. Because fire is a dynamic event, which,
if unchecked, will spread throughout the workplace, all people present will eventually be at risk if fire occurs. Where
people are at risk, adequate means of escape from fire should be provided together with arrangements for detecting
and giving warning of fire. Fire-fighting equipment suitable for the hazards in the workplace should be provided.
Some people may be at significant risk because they work in areas where fire is more likely or where rapid fire
growth can be anticipated. Where possible, the hazards creating the high level of risk should be reduced. Specific
steps should be taken to ensure that people affected are made aware of the danger and the action they should take
to ensure their safety and the safety of others.

Stage 3 – evaluate and reduce the risks

Having identified the hazards, the next stage is to reduce the chance of harm to persons in the workplace.

Evaluate the risks

Attempt to classify each area as ‘high’, ‘normal’ or ‘low risk’. If ‘high risk’ it may be necessary to reconsider the
principles of prevention, otherwise additional compensatory measures will be required.

Low risk – areas where there is minimal risk to people’s lives, where the risk of fire occurring is low, or the potential
for fire, heat and smoke spreading is negligible and people would have plenty of time to react to an alert of fire.

Normal risk – areas will account for nearly all parts of many sites; where an outbreak of fire is likely to remain
confined or spread slowly, with an effective fire warning allowing persons to escape to a place of safety.

High risk – areas where the available time needed to evacuate the area is reduced by the speed of development of a
fire, e.g. highly flammable or explosive materials stored or used (other than small quantities under controlled
conditions). Also where the reaction time to the fire alarm is slower because of the type of person present or the
activity on the site, e.g. complex scaffolding on high-rise buildings and persons sleep on the premises.

Stage 4 – the findings

The findings of the assessment and the actions (including maintenance) arising from it should be recorded. If five or
more people are employed, or an Alterations Notice required, a formal record of the significant findings and any
measures proposed to deal with them must be recorded.

The record should indicate: the date the assessment was made, the hazards identified, any staff and other people
especially at risk, what action needs to be taken, and by when (action plan) , the conclusions arising.

The above guidelines are to be used with caution. Each part of the worksite must be looked at and a decision made
on how quickly persons would react to an alert of fire in each area. Adequate safety measures will be required if
persons are identified as being at risk. Where maximum travel distances (see later) cannot be achieved, extra fire
safety precautions will be needed. Where persons are at risk or an unacceptable hazard still exists, additional fire
safety precautions will be required to compensate for this, or alternatively repeat previous stages to manage risk to
an acceptable level.

Stage 5 – monitor and review on a regular basis

The fire risk assessment is not a one-off procedure. Construction sites are continually changing as work progresses.
The site should be continually monitored to ensure that the existing fire safety arrangements and risk assessment
remains realistic. The assessment should be reviewed frequently as fire significant changes take place.

Dangerous substances
Highly flammable liquids should be kept in a safe place in a separate building or the open air. Storage at the worksite
should be restricted to no more than 50 liters, which should be kept in a special metal cupboard or container.

Locate external stores in the open air in a wellventilated area at least 3 m away from the building’s boundaries,
drains or excavations.

If substances have to be kept in internal storage areas they should be in a special fire-resisting store, which should
be:

 properly ventilated
 provided with spillage retaining arrangements such as sills or bunds
 free of sources of ignition, such as unprotected electrical equipment, sources of static electrical sparks,
naked flames or smoking materials
 arranged so that incompatible chemicals do not become mixed together either in normal use or in a fire
situation
 of fire resisting construction
 used for empty as well as full containers – all containers must be kept closed
 kept clear of combustible materials such as cardboard or foam plastic packaging materials

The Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations apply to the use and storage of highly flammable
substances. Proper precautions include:
  reducing the amount kept at the workplace to a minimum
 choosing a safe location with good ventilation either through natural or mechanical air movement for the
dispensing and use of materials
 using safety containers with self-closing lids or caps
 making sure that spillages are contained in a tray with supplies of absorbent material to hand
 controlling sources of ignition, such as naked flames and sparks from electrical equipment
 making sure that no-smoking rules are enforced
 storing contaminated rags and the like in a metal bin with a lid
 disposing of waste safely.

Flammable gas cylinders also need to be stored and used safely. The following guidance should be adopted:

 both full and empty cylinders should be stored outside. They should be kept in a separate secure
compound at ground level with sufficient ventilation. Open mesh is preferable.
 valves should be uppermost during storage to retain them in the vapor phase of the LPG
 cylinders must be protected from mechanical damage. Unstable cylinders should be together, for
example. Make sure cylinders are protected from the heat of the summer sun
 the correct fittings must be used. These include hose, couplers, clamps and regulators
 gas valves must be turned off after use at the end of the shift
 take precautions against welding flame ‘flash back’ into the hoses or cylinders. People need training in
the proper lighting up and safe systems of work procedures; non-return valves and flame arrestors also
need to be fitted
 change cylinders in a well-ventilated area remote from any sources of ignition
 test joints for gas leaks using soapy/detergent water – never use a flame
 flammable material must be removed or protected before welding or similar work
 cylinders should be positioned outside buildings with gas piped through in fixed metal piping
 make sure that both high and low ventilation is maintained where LPG appliances are being used
 flame failure devices are necessary to shut off the gas supply in the event of flame failure.

Structural features
The construction site may contain features that could promote the rapid spread of fire, heat or smoke and affect
escape routes. These features may include ducts or flues, openings in floors or walls, or combustible wall or ceiling
linings. Where people are put at risk from these features, appropriate steps should be taken to reduce the potential
for rapid fire spread by, for example, fitting non-combustible temporary partitions and/or providing an early warning
of fire so that people can leave the workplace before their escape routes become unusable. Combustible wall or
ceiling linings should not be used on escape routes and large areas should be removed wherever they are found.
Other holes in fire resisting floors, walls or ceilings should be filled in with fire resisting material to prevent the
passage of smoke, heat and flames. During the course of construction, escape routes are likely to change and
possibly become unavailable. It is important that replacement routes are provided and identified in good time.
Building designs often incorporate fire escape routes for the finished building. These should be finished as early as
possible in the project. In buildings being refurbished, existing escape routes should be kept available as far as
possible. In an emergency, escape using a scaffold is difficult and should not be relied on wherever possible. Provide
access from a scaffold to escape routes in the main building where possible.

Stairways, maintenance and refurbishment

Careful consideration should be given to means of escape from above or below ground level. Stairways and ladders
must be located or protected so that any fire will not prevent people using them. Protected stairways will be a
feature in many buildings so it makes sense to install these and make them available early in the construction
project, before fire risks increase when finishes are installed. Flame retardant surfaces should be used in stairways.
In buildings over four storeys high alternative protected stairways will be required. Doors giving access to protected
stairways should be 30 minute fire resistant and fitted with effective self-closing devices. They should open in the
direction of escape. Revolving or sliding doors are not suitable. If internal stairways are impracticable external
temporary stairways should be provided. These can be constructed from scaffolding using wooden treads and
platforms.

Sources of heat or combustible materials may be introduced into the workplace during periods of maintenance or
refurbishment. Where the work involves the introduction of heat, such as welding, this should be carefully
controlled by a safe system of work, for example, a Fire Permit. All materials brought into the workplace in
connection with the work being carried out should be stored away from sources of heat and not obstruct exit routes.

Fire plans
Fire plans should be produced and attached to the risk assessment. A copy should be posted in the site. A single line
plan of the area or floor should be produced or an existing plan should be used which needs to show:

 escape routes, numbers of exits, number of stairs, fire resisting doors, fire resisting walls and partitions,
places of safety, and the like
 fire safety signs and notices including pictorial fire exit signs and fire action notices
 the location of fire warning call points and sounders or rotary gongs
 the location of emergency lights
 the location and type of fire-fighting equipment
 Names of designated fire/emergency team.

Fire detection and warning

In the event of fire it is vital that everyone in the workplace is alerted as soon as possible. The earlier the fire is
discovered, the more likely it is that people will be able to escape before the fire takes hold and before it blocks
escape routes or makes escape difficult. Every site should have detection and warning arrangements. Usually the
people who work there will detect the fire and in many worksites nothing further will be needed. It is important to
consider how long a fire is likely to burn before it is discovered. Fires are likely to be discovered quickly if they occur
in places that are frequently visited by employees, or in occupied areas of a building. For example, employees are
likely to smell burning or see smoke if a fire breaks out in an office or site hut. The extent or sophistication of the fire
warning will vary from site to site. For example:

 on a small open-air site, or those involving small buildings and structures, ‘word of mouth’ may well be
adequate
 on larger open-air sites, or those involving buildings and structures with a limited number of rooms, such
hat a shout of ‘fire’ might not be heard or could be misunderstood, a klaxon, whistle, gong or small self-
contained proprietary fire alarm unit may well be needed.
 on sites for complex multi-storey buildings, it is likely that a wired-in system of call points and sounders will
be required to provide an effective fire warning system that meets the relevant British Standard.

The operation and effectiveness of the fire alarm should be:

 regularly checked and tested and

 periodically serviced.

Where there is concern that fire may break out in an unoccupied part of the premises, for example, in a basement,
some form of automatic fire detection should be fitted. Commercially available heat or smoke detection systems can
be used. In small premises a series of interlinked domestic smoke alarms that can be heard by everyone present will
be sufficient. In most cases, staff can be relied upon to detect a fire. If it is thought that there might be some delay in
fire being detected, automatic fire detection should be considered, linked into an electrical fire alarm system. Where
a workplace provides sleeping accommodation or where fires may develop undetected, automatic detection must be
provided. If a workplace provides sleeping accommodation for fewer than six people, interlinked domestic smoke
alarms (wired to the mains electricity supply) can be used provided that they are audible throughout the workplace
while people are present.

Duties of responsible persons

[Responsible person means:

(a) In relation to a workplace, the employer, if the workplace is to any extent under his control; and

(b) In relation to any premises not falling within paragraph (a):

-the person who has control of the premises (as occupier is otherwise) in connection with the carrying on by him of a
trade, business is other undertaking (whether for profit of not); or

- the owner, where the person in control of the premises does not have control in connection with the carrying on by
that person of a trade, business is other undertaking.]

A responsible person must:

 take such general fire precautions as will ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the safety of any of his
employees;
 in relation to relevant persons who are not his employees, take such general fire precautions as may
reasonably be required in the circumstances of the case to ensure that the premises are safe;
 make a suitable and sufficient assessment of the risks to which relevant persons are exposed for the
purpose of identifying the general fire precautions he needs to take to comply with the requirements and
prohibitions imposed upon him by or under this Order;
 consider implications of the presence of dangerous substances in the risk assessment process;
 review the risk assessment if no longer valid or there has been a significant change in the matters to which it
relates;
 record the significant findings of the risk assessment and details of any group being especially at risk;
 not commence a new work activity involving a dangerous substance unless a risk assessment has been
made and measures required by the Order have been implemented;
 make and give effect to arrangements for the effective planning, organization, control, monitoring and
review of preventive and protective measures;
 record the arrangements in specified cases;
 where a dangerous substance is present, eliminate or reduce risks so far as is reasonably practicable;
 replace a dangerous substance or the use of a dangerous substance with a substance or process which
eliminates or reduces risks so far as is reasonably practicable;
 where not reasonably practicable to reduce above risks, apply measures to control the risk and mitigate the
detrimental effects of fire;
 arrange safe handling, storage and transport of dangerous substances and wastes;
 ensure premises are equipped with appropriate fire-fighting equipment and with fire detectors and alarms
and that non-automatic fire-fighting equipment is easily accessible, simple to use and indicated by signs;
 take measures for fire-fighting in the premises, nominate competent persons to implement these measures
and arrange any necessary contact with external services;
 ensure routes to emergency exits and the exits themselves are kept clear at all times;
 comply with specific requirements dealing with emergency routes, exits and doors and the illumination of
emergency routes and exits in respect of premises;
 establish and, where necessary, give effect to appropriate procedures for serious and imminent danger and
for danger zones, including safety drills, nomination of competent persons to implement the procedures
and restriction of access to areas on the grounds of safety;
 ensure additional emergency measures are taken in respect of dangerous substances;
 ensure relevant information is made available to emergency services and displayed at the premises;
 in the event of an accident, incident or emergency related to the presence of a dangerous substance, take
immediate steps to mitigate the effects of fire, restore the situation to normal, and inform relevant persons;
 ensure only those persons essential for the carrying out of repairs and other necessary work are permitted
in an affected area;
  ensure that the premises and any facilities, equipment and devices are subject to a suitable system of
maintenance and are maintained in an efficient state, in efficient working order and in good repair;
 appoint one or more competent persons to assist him in undertaking the preventive and protective
measures, ensuring adequate cooperation between competent persons;
 ensure that competent persons have sufficient time to fulfil their functions and the means at their disposal
are adequate having regard to the size of the premises, the risks and the distribution of those risks;
 ensure competent persons not in his employment are informed of factors affecting the safety of any person
and are provided with the same information as employees;

Duties of employees

Employees must:

 take reasonable care for the safety of himself and others who may be affected by his acts or omissions while
at work;
 cooperate with his employer to enable him to comply with any duty or requirement imposed by this Order;
and.
 inform his employer or any other employee with the specific responsibility for the safety of his fellow
employees of any work situation which represents a serious and immediate danger to safety, and any other
matter which represents a shortcoming in the employer’s protection arrangements for safety.

Principles of fire protection in buildings

The design of all new buildings and the design of extensions or modifications to existing buildings must be approved
by the local planning authority. Design data for new and modified buildings must be retained throughout the life of
the structure. Building Legislation Standards are concerned mainly with safety to life and therefore consider the
early stage of fire and how it affects the means of escape, but also aim to prevent eventual spread to other buildings.
Asset protection requires extra precautions that will have effect at both early and later stages of the fire growth by
controlling fire spread through and between buildings and preventing structural collapse. However, this extra fire
protection will also improve life safety, not only for those escaping at the early stages of the fire but also for fire
fighters who will subsequently enter. If a building is carefully designed and suitable materials are used to build it and
maintain it, then the risk of injury or damage from fire can be substantially reduced. Three objectives must be met:

 it must be possible for everyone to leave the building quickly and safely
 the building must remain standing for as long as possible
 the spread of fire and smoke must be reduced.

These objectives can be met through the selection of materials and design of buildings.

Fire loading:

The fire load of a building is used to classify types of building use. It may be calculated simply by multiplying the
weight of all combustible materials by their calorific values and dividing by the floor area under consideration. The
higher the fire load the more effort needs to be made to offset this by building to higher standards of fire resistance.

Surface spread of fire:

Combustible materials, when present in a building as large continuous areas, such as for lining walls and ceilings,
readily ignite and contribute to spread of fire over their surfaces. This can represent a risk to life in buildings,
particularly where walls of fire escape routes and stairways are lined with materials of this nature. Materials are
tested by insurance bodies and fire research establishments. The purpose of the tests is to classify materials
according to the tendency for flame to spread over their surfaces. As with all standardized test methods, care must
be taken when applying test results to real applications. In the UK, a material is classified as having a surface in one
of the following categories:

 Class 1 Surface of very low flame spread

 Class 2 Surface of low flame spread
 Class 3 Surface of medium flame spread
  Class 4 Surface of rapid flame spread.

The test shows how a material would behave in the initial stages of a fire. As all materials tested are
combustible, in a serious fire they would burn or be consumed. Therefore, there is an additional Class 0 of
materials which are noncombustible throughout, or, under specified conditions, non-combustible on one face
and combustible on the other. The spread of flame rating of the combined Class 0 product must not be worse
than Class 1. Internal partitions of walls and ceilings should be Class 0 materials wherever possible and must not
exceed Class 1.

Fire resistance of structural elements:

If elements of construction such as walls, floors, beams, columns and doors are to provide effective barriers to fire
spread and to contribute to the stability of a building, they should be of a required standard of fire resistance. In the
UK, tests for fire resistance are made on elements of structure, full size if possible, or on a representative portion
having minimum dimensions of 3 m long for columns and beams and 1 m2 for walls and floors. All elements are
exposed to the same standard fire provided by furnaces in which the temperature increases with time at a set rate.
The conditions of exposure are appropriate to the element tested. Freestanding columns are subjected to heat all
round, and walls and floors are exposed to heat on one side only. Elements of structure are graded by the length of
time they continue to meet three criteria:

 the element must not collapse

 the element must not develop cracks through which flames or hot gases can pass
 the element must have enough resistance to the passage of heat so the temperature of the unexposed face
does not rise by more than a prescribed amount.

The term ‘fire resistance’ has a precise meaning. It should not be applied to such properties of materials as
resistance to ignition or resistance to flame propagation. For example, steel has a high resistance to ignition and
flame propagation but will distort quickly in a fire and allow the structure to collapse – it therefore has poor ‘Fire
Resistance’. It must be insulated to provide good fire protection. This is normally done by encasing steel frames
in concrete. In the past, asbestos has been made into a paste and plastered onto steel frames, giving excellent
fire protection, but it has caused major health problems and its use in new work is banned. Building materials
with high fire resistance are, for example, brick, stone, concrete, very heavy timbers (the outside chars and
insulates the inside of the timber), and some specially made composite materials used for fire doors.

Insulating materials

Building materials used for thermal or sound insulation could contribute to the spread
of fire. Only approved fire resisting materials should be used. Many
buildings have insulated core panels as exterior cladding or for internal
structures and partitions. The food industry, in particular, uses insulated
core panels because they are easy to cleanand facilitate consistent
temperature control within the premises. The simple construction of these
panels enables alterations and for additional internal partitions to be erected
with minimum disruption to business. They normally consist of a
central insulated core, sandwiched between an inner and outer metal
skin. There is no air gap. The external surface is then normally coated
with a PVC covering to improve weather resistance or the
aesthetic appeal of the panel. The central core can be made of
various insulating materials, ranging from virtually non-combustible throughto
highly combustible. Differing fire hazards are associated with common
types of insulation, when the panels are subjected to certain temperatures.
Typical examples are:
  Mineral rock/modified phenolic will produce surface char and
little smoke or gaseous combustion products, at
temperatures above 230°C.
 Polyisocyanurate (PIR)/polyurethane (PUR) will char and will
generate smoke and gaseous combustion products, at
temperatures above 430°C PIR and 300°C PUR.
 Expanded polystyrene (EPS) will melt and will generate
smoke and gaseous combustion products, at
temperatures above 430°C PIR. Insulation charring can
lead to panel delamination/collapse, and the gaseous
combustion products can fill areas with the
toxic gases carbon monoxide and styrene.

Fire compartmentation:

A compartment is a part of a building that is separated from all other parts by walls and floors, and is designed
to contain a fire for a specified time. The principal object is to limit the effect of both direct fire damage and
consequential business interruption caused by not only fire spread but also smoke and water damage in the
same floor and other storeys. Buildings are classified in purpose groups, according to their size. To control the
spread of fire, any building whose size exceeds that specified for its purpose group must be divided into
compartments that do not exceed the prescribed limits of volume and floor area. Otherwise, they must be
provided with special fire protection. In the UK, the normal limit for the size of a compartment is 7000 m3 .
Compartments must be separated by walls and floors of sufficient fire resistance. Any openings needed in these
walls or floors must be protected by fire-resisting doors to ensure proper fire-tight separation. Ventilation and
heating ducts must be fitted with fire dampers where they pass through compartment walls and floors.
Firebreak walls must extend completely across a building from outside wall to outside wall. They must be stable;
they must be able to stand even when the part of the building on one side or the other is destroyed. No portion
of the wall should be supported on unprotected steelwork nor should it have the ends of unprotected steel
members embedded in it. The wall must extend up to the underside of a non-combustible roof surface, and
sometimes above it. Any openings must be protected to the required minimum grade of fire resistance. If an
external wall joins a firebreak wall and has an opening near the join, the firebreak wall may need to extend
beyond the external wall. An important function of external walls is to contain a fire within a building, or to
prevent fire spreading from outside.
Evacuation of a workplace

It is essential to ensure that people can escape quickly from a workplace if there is a fire. Normally the entrances
Maintenance and testing of fire equipment